Journal of Business Ethics (2007) 71:149159 Springer

200
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#nfor(ation )echnolog*
+rofessionals,
+ercei-e. "rgani/ational
0alues an.
1anagerial Ethics: 2n
E(pirical Stu.*
3$ 4regor* Jin
5on !ro/.en6o
5ic6 Bassett
2BS)527)$ )his paper su((ari/es the
results of an anal*sis of e(pirical .ata on
ethical attitu.es of profes&sionals an.
(anagers in relation to organi/ational
core -alues in the #nfor(ation
)echnolog* (#)) in.ustr*$ )his stu.*
in-estigates the association 8et9een 6e*
organi/ational -alues as in.epen.ent
-aria8les an. the ethical attitu.es of #)
(anagers as .epen.ent -aria8les$ )he
stu.* also .el-es into .ifferences a(ong
#) non&(anagerial professionals: (i.&
le-el (anagers: an. upper&le-el
(anagers in their ethical attitu.es an.
perceptions$ 5esearch results in.icate.
that #) professionals fro( (echanistic
organi/ations 9ere (uch (ore li6el* to
report co(pare. to those fro( organic
organi/ations that (anagers in their
corporate en-iron(ent engage in
3$ 4regor* Jin: !$B$2: is +rofessor of the 1#S
!epart(ent: 2ncell School of Business: ;estern:
7onnecticut State <ni-ersit*$ =e has pu8lishe.
nu(erous conference papers: chapters: an.
articles in such areas as 1#S professional i.e&
olog* an. ethics: co((unication an. control:
8eha-ioral issues in infor(ation s*ste(s
.e-elop(ent: role of #) an. hu(an factors in
8usiness process reengineering: ser-ice learning
in .ata8ase .esign: s*ste(s theor*: 1#S
participant action re&
search strateg*: an.
political factors in #)
(anage(ent$ =e has
(ore than t9ent*
*ears of 1#S
a.(inistrati-e an.
pro&fessional
e>periences$ =e hol.s
a !$B$2$ in
#nfor(ation
)echnolog*
1anage(ent fro(
4eorge ;ashington
<ni-er&sit*$ =e is a
(e(8er of the
2ssociation of
#nfor(ation
)echnolog*
+rofessionals an. a
for(er (e(8er of
!S#$
5onal. 4$ !ro/.en6o:
+h$!$: is +rofessor
an. 7hair of the
1ar6eting
!epart(ent: 2ncell
School of Business:
;estern
7onnecticut State
<ni-ersit*$ =e is
also the foun.ing
!irector of the
7enter for Business
5esearch at the
2ncell School$ !r$
!ro/.en6o has co&
.i
re
ct
e
.
(
or
e
th
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n
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pr
ie
ta
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ar
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ct
s
si
n
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e
1
9
7
@
fo
r the (ar6eting
an. research
an.
.e-elop(ent
.epart(ents of
se-eral
corporations:
inclu.ing (a?or
(ultinationals$
)hese pro?ects
9ere in the
areas of
strategic
planning:
(ar6eting
research:
pro.uct
8eha-iors
consi.ere.
unethical an.
that successful
(anagers 9ere
(ore unethical
relati-e to
unsuccessful
(anagers$ )here
9ere significant
.ifferences
8et9een the
upper&le-el
(anagers an.
the (i.&le-el
(anagers an.
8et9een the
(i.&le-el
(anagers an.
the #) non&
(anagerial
professionals on
certain 6e*
ethical issues$
)his paper
.iscusses the
conceptual
fra(e9or6:
h*potheses:
research
(etho.olog*:
.ata anal*sis:
i(pli&cations of
the fin.ings: an.
suggeste. areas of further research$
3EA ;"5!S: "rgani/ational -alues:
(anagerial ethics: infor(ation
technolog* professionals: (echanistic
an. organic organi/ations
.e-elop(ent: .irect (ar6eting: an.
(ar6eting .ata8ase anal*sis$ !r$
!ro/.en6o co&authore. "pti(al !ata8ase
1ar6eting: Strateg*: !e-elop(ent an.
!ata 1ining an. also has pu8lishe.
professional an. aca.e(ic articles an.
8oo6 chapters$ =e hol.s a +h$!$ in
E>peri(ental +s*cholog* fro( the
<ni-ersit* of 1issouri an. is a (e(8er of
the 2(erican 1ar6eting 2ssociation: the
Societ* for 7onsu(er +s*cholog*: an. the
2ca.e(* of
1ar6eting
Sciences$
5ichar. 2$ Bassett: !$+$S:
is an 2ssociate
+rofessor of 1an&
age(ent #nfor(ation
S*ste(s at ;estern
7onnecticut State
<ni-ersit*$ =e 9as
foun.er an. 7E" of
Bassett 7o(puter
S*ste(s: #nc$ for 17
*ears 9here he 9as
in-ol-e. 9ith the
.esign an.
i(ple(entation of
infor(ation s*ste(s
for hun.re.s for s(all
an. (i.si/e.
8
us
in
es
se
s$
=
e
ha
s
au
th
or
e.
se
-e
ra
l
pa
pe
rs an. articles in
such areas as 9e8&
.esign as a 9e8&
(aster: 9e8&8ase.
course .esign: the
securit* threats
an. concerns
face. 8*
teleco((uters:
(ini(al steps
reBuire. to secure
a Cocal 2rea
Det9or6 an. the
technolog*
.ecision
challenges 9hich
gro9ing
co(panies face$
=e is acti-el*
in-ol-e. 9ith
technolog*
en.ea-ors of
nu(erous
nonprofit
organi/ations
inclu.ing: )he
7hil.ren,s 7enter:
Bri.ges of
1ilfor.: Dorth
=a-en 5otar*:
7o((unicare:
an. the 2(8er
2lert S*ste($ =e
hol.s a !$+$S$ in
7o(puting fro(
+ace <ni-ersit*$
150 3$ 4regor* Jin et al$
#ntro.uction an.
conceptual fra(e9or6
Base. on the re-ie9 of
rele-ant past research
stu.ies: the authors
assu(e that one of the
pri(ar* .eter(i&nants
of the #) professionals,
ethical attitu.es is their
perception of share. 6e*
organi/ational -alues
(Be*er an. )rice: 19@1E
=unt an. 0itell: 19@E
2l-esson: 19@7E 0itell
an. Fester-an.: 19@7E
Ferrell an. S6in&ner:
19@@E =o9ar.: 1990E
0itell an. !a-is: 1990E
+osner an. Sch(i.t:
1992E Jin: 1997E 3a6u:
1997E Finegan: 2000)$
"-er the *ears
(anage(ent literature
an. orga&ni/ational
e>periences ha-e sho9n
that t9o (ain sets of
such 6e* organi/ational
-alues ha-e 8een
(anifeste. in organic
an. (echanistic
organi/ations (Burns
an. Stal6er: 191E
Bennis: 1977E =u((el:
19@2E 2.ler an. Bor*s:
199)$ #n an organic
en-i&ron(ent: (anagers
are li6el* to percei-e the
organi/ation as openl*
colla8orati-e: creati-e:
encouraging: socia8le:
relationship&oriente.:
eBui&ta8le: e(po9ering:
an. trusting (1c4regor:
190)$ #t is assu(e. that
these are -alues
generall* accepte. as an
i.eal social nor(
pursue. in a .e(ocratic
societ*$ #n a (echanistic
en-iron(ent:
(anagers are
(ore li6el* to
percei-e the
organi/ation to
ha-e cautious:
tas6&oriente.:
rigi.l* structure.:
an. hier&archical
-alues that are
oriente. to9ar.
centrali/a&tion:
pressure: po9er:
an. proce.ures
(Bennis: 1977E
=u((el: 19@2E
S?o8erg et al$:
19@4E 2.ler an.
Bor*s: 199)$
5ecent stu.ies
ha-e suggeste.
that a (echanistic
organi/ation:
often
characteri/e. as
8eing
8ureaucratic: can
8e .i-i.e. into
t9o su8&t*pes
ena8ling an.
coerci-e in
ter(s of the e>&
tent of the
for(ali/ation of
rules an.
proce.ures
go-erning routine
9or6 flo9 (2.ler
an. Bor*s: 199)$
)he in-estigation
of these t9o
8ureaucratic su8&
t*pes as -aria8les
in relation to
organi/ational
ethics is reser-e.
for our future
stu.*$ "ur o9n
recent stu.* ( Jin
an. !ro/.en6o:
200') sho9e.
that
Organizational Values
IT Professionals
and
Perceived by IT Managers Attitudes
Professionals on Organizational
Ethics
C
o
n
c
e
p
t
u
a
l
F
r
a
m
e
w
o
r
k
Organizatio
nal Values
and IT
Managerial
Ethics
Figure 1$
7onceptual
Fra(e9or6:
"rgani/ational
0alues
an. #) 1anagerial
Ethics$
.irect (ar6eting
(anagers in organic
organi/ational -alue
settings 9ere li6el* to
8e (ore ethicall*
scrupulous than those
in (echanistic settings$
)he current stu.* is
thus an e>tension of
this pre-ious stu.*$
)he #) (anagers,
assess(ent or
perception of
organi/ational -alues
so(eti(es co(8ines
9ith per&sonal -alues to
for( in.i-i.ual an.
9or6&relate. ethical
attitu.es$ )his ethical
?u.g(ent is assu(e. to
8e influence. 8*
.eontological
e-aluations (.oing 9hat
one 8elie-es to 8e right
regar.less of its conse&
Buences): teleological
e-aluations (assessing
one,s action in light of
its conseBuences in the
tra.ition of
utilitarianis(): or a
8alance of these t9o
perspecti-es suggeste.
in the theoretical
fra(e9or6 posite. 8*
past researchers an.
practitioners (=unt an.
0itell: 19@)$ )he
present research focuses
on the stu.* of the
influence that the
percei-e. 6e*
organi/ational -alue
clusters (Finegan: 2000)
ha-e on the ethics of #)
(anagers: 9hile
reser-ing relationships
a(ong other relate.
(a?or -aria8les for
future research (see
Figure 1)$
=*potheses
5esearchers
ha-e .eter(ine.
that
organi/ations
can 8e classifie.
as either organic
or (echanistic or
a co(8ination of
the t9o: 8ase.
on organi/ational
characteristics or
clusters of -alues
(Finegan: 2000)$
For the purpose
of this stu.*: an.
in light of the
results of our
recent stu.* ( Jin
an. !ro/.en6o:
200') in the
!irect 1ar6eting
in.ustr*: it is
h*pothesi/e.
that the t9o
t*pes of
organi/ations
9ill also 8e
foun. in the #)
in.ustr*$
=1:
"rgani/ati
ons in the
#) in.ustr*
can 8e
clas&sifie.
as organic
or
(echanisti
c 8ase. on
rat&ings of
organi/atio
nal -alue
orientation
s$
)he pre-ious
.iscussion of
(echanistic an.
or&ganic
organi/ations
points to
potential
.ifferences in the
i(pact their
respecti-e -alues
ha-e on the
ethical attitu.es
of #)
professionals$
)he fin.ings that
(echanistic
organi/ations
ten. to 8e .*s&
functional an.
that centrali/e.
((echanistic)
organi/ations
ha-e a lo9er
le-el of (oral
reflec&tion (Bone
an. 7ole*: 199@)
lea. to the
follo9ing
h*pothesis$
"rgani/ational 0alues an. 1anagerial Ethics 151
=2: #) professionals
9or6ing in a
(echanistic
organi/ational -alue
setting 9ill report
higher le-els of
unethical 8eha-ior in
their organi/a&tions
co(pare. to #)
professionals
9or6ing in an
organic
organi/ational -alue
setting$
)he stu.* of 0itell an.
!a-is (1990) in.icate. that
1#S professionals 8elie-e.
that in their 9or6
en-iron(ent (an*
opportunities for unethical
8eha-iors e>iste.$
=o9e-er: their research
fin.ings also sho9e. that
1#S (anagers 9ere
unli6el* to engage in
unethical 8eha-ior: an.
that successful (anagers
9ere percei-e. as (ore
ethical than unsuccessful
ones 8* a (a?orit* of 1#S
professionals$ +osner an.
Sch(i.t (19@4: 1992)
e>a(ine. ho9
super-isor*: (i.&le-el an.
e>ecuti-e (anagers per&
cei-e. ethical 8eha-ior in
their organi/ations$ #n their
1992 stu.*: the* foun. that
e>ecuti-e (an&agers 9ere
(ore li6el* to 8elie-e that
their organi&/ation 9as
ethical relati-e to the
8eliefs of (i.&le-el an.
super-isor* (anagers$ For
e>a(ple: 9hile 7@G of
e>ecuti-e (anagers agree.
that their organi/ations
see(e. to 8e gui.e. 8*
highl* ethical stan.ar.s:
less than 5G of
the super-isor*
an. (i.&le-el
(anagers
agree.$ Si(ilar
.iscrepancies
9ere foun. on
sur-e* ite(s
relate. to
freBuenc* of
unethical
8eha-ior an.
satisfaction
a8out the
general ethics of
the co(pan*$
)he e>ecuti-e
(anagers
percei-e. the
organi/ation as
(ore ethical
relati-e to the
t9o other le-els
of (anage(ent$
Si(ilarl*:
our pre-ious
8usiness ethics
stu.* ( Jin an.
!ro/.en6o:
200') of !irect
1ar6eting
(an&agers
suggeste. that
upper&le-el
(anagers per&
cei-e.
organi/ational
ethical issues
.ifferentl* fro(
(i.&le-el
(anagers$ #t
see(s that (i.&
le-el (an&agers
in (echanistic
organi/ations
ha-e a greater
ten.enc* to
report that their
organi/ation
has unethical
characteristics$
2s an e>tension
of these
pre-ious
stu.ies: 9e
9ante. to
in-estigate
further
potential
.ifferences
8et9een the
ethical attitu.es
an. perceptions
of #) upper&
le-el (anagers
an. (i.&le-el
(anagers an.
those of #)
(anagers an.
non&(anagerial
professionals$
=': )here are
.ifference
s a(ong
#) non&
(ana&
gerial
professio
nals: #)
(i.&le-el
(anagers:
an. #)
upper&
le-el
(anagers
in their
percep&
tion of
organi/ati
onal
ethics$
5esearch (etho.s
!ata collection (etho.
an. (easures
)his sur-e* 9as con.ucte.
online$ ;e sent an e(ail to
the ':700 professional (i$e$:
non&stu.ent) (e(&8ers of
the 2ssociation of
#nfor(ation )echnolog*
+rofessionals (2#)+)
reBuesting their
participation an. lin6ing
the( to the sur-e*
9e8site$ ;e recei-e. '2@
co(plete. responses$
2llo9ing for 12G
.eli-er* errors: the
response rate 9as a8out
9G$ )he sur-e*
Buestionnaire containe.
.e(ographic ite(s an.
ite(s relate. to
organi/ational -alue
character&istics:
organi/ational ethics: an.
in.i-i.ual ethics$
5espon.ents 9ere as6e.
to e-aluate the e>tent to
9hich ite(s pertaining to
organi/ational character&
istics an. -alues .escri8e.
their organi/ation$ )hese
9ere (anagerial
i.eological ite(s
pre-iousl* use. 8* Be*er
an. )rice (19@1) an.
=arrison (19@@)$ )his
section of the sur-e* 9as
use. to classif* organi/a&
tions as 8eing organic or
(echanistic$ 5espon.ents
9ere also as6e. to in.icate
the e>tent of their
agree(ent 9ith the sa(e
ite(s relate. to
-alues of their
organi/ation$
2nother
section of the
sur-e* as6e.
respon.ents to
in.icate the
e>tent of their
agree(ent 9ith
ite(s relate. to
personal ethics
an. an
organi/ation,s
ethics in
general$ )he
ite(s reflecte. a
co(8ination of
(a) ones use.
pre-iousl* 8*
Forcht (19@7)
an. 0itell an.
!a-is (1990):
an. (8) si(ilar
ite(s .e-elope.
8* the
researchers for
the o8?ecti-es of
this stu.*$ )he
re&sponses 9ere
use. to assess
respon.ents,
ethics: attitu.es:
an. 8eha-ior$
5espon.ents
9ere also as6e.
to pro-i.e infor&
(ation a8out
the(sel-es an.
their
organi/ations$
)he
organi/ational
infor(ation
inclu.e.
in.ustr*
categor*:
nu(8er of
e(plo*ees:
organi/ational
role: ?o8 title:
an. e>istence of
a co.e of ethics$
)he infor(ation
a8out the
respon.ent
inclu.e. se>:
age: highest
le-el of
e.ucation: an.
househol.
inco(e$
)he stu.*
instru(ent
containe. 51
Buestions on
personal or
organi/ational
ethics: 24
Buestions on
organi/ational
-alues an.
characteristics:
an. 14
Buestions
relate. to
respon.ent
.e(ographics$
2 total of 440
respon.ents
replie. to at
least so(e part
of the sur-e*$
)he
respon.ents
represente. a
9i.e range of
organi/ations:
G 9ere fro(
8usinesses: 1G
fro( not&for&
profits: an. 1@G
fro(
go-ern(ent
agencies$
152 3$ 4regor* Jin et al$
)2BCE # !ata anal*sis
)9o percei-e.
organi/ational -alue
clusters
0alues "rganic
5is6 ta6ing
7olla8orati-e
=ierarchical ) 0$055
+roce.ural
5elationships&oriente.
5esults&oriente.
7reati-e
Encouraging
Socia8le
Structure.
+ressuri/e.
"r.ere.
Sti(ulating
5egulate.
+ersonal free.o(
EBuita8le
Safe
7hallenging
Enterprising
Esta8lishe.: soli.
7autious
)rusting
!ri-ing
+o9er&oriente. ) 0$0@1
28out '2G of the
respon.ents classifie.
the(sel-es as hol.ing upper&
le-el (anage(ent positions
in their organi/ation: 52G
in.icate. (i.&le-el positions:
an. 1G ran6e. the(sel-es
at the professional or lo9er
(anage(ent le-el$ 2roun.
@'G of the respon.ents hel.
at least a 8achelor .egreeE
70G 9ere (aleE an. the
(a?orit* of respon.ents 9ere
40 *ears of age or ol.er$ #n
ter(s of college (a?ors: '7G
ha. 8een 8usiness (a?ors
(inclu.ing 17G 8usiness&
8ase. 1#S% #))E
40G ha. 8een
technical (a?ors
(e$g$: 1#S:
7o(puter Science:
an. Engineering)E
an. 20G ha. 8een
li8eral arts:
hu(anities: an.
e.ucation (a?ors$
)his nation9i.e
2#)+ sa(ple
represente. a 9i.e
range of t*pes of
organi/ations for
9hich the
respon.ing
(e(8ers 9or6e.$
"f 4'0 total
respon&.ents: 1'G
9ere e(plo*e. in
infor(ation
(anage&(ent:
19G in e.ucation:
14G in consulting
an. research: 9G
in (anufacturing:
an. 45G in the
ser&-ice in.ustr*
(inclu.ing
(ar6eting:
finance%
accounting:
healthcare: an.
legal ser-ices)$
2s 9e
h*pothesi/e.: 9e
9ere a8le to
classif* 6e*
organi/ational
-alues percei-e.
8* the respon.ents
into t9o pri(ar*
t*pes of -alue
clusters: as con&
ceptuali/e. a8o-e$
)he factor
loa.ings resulting
fro( +rincipal
7o(ponents
Factor 2nal*sis
9ith 0ari(a>
rotation are
presente. in )a8le
1$
E>tractions
9ere (anuall*
li(ite. to t9o
factors in or.er to
8e consistent 9ith
the .ichoto(ous
h*potheses
regar.ing
organi/ational
t*pe$ Factor
loa.ings greater
than 0$50 are
represente. 8*
8ol. t*pe$ )hese
t9o factors 9ere
na(e. HH"rganic,,
an.
HH1echanistic,, as
the* 9ere
consistent 9ith the
e>isting theor*$
)he organic
factors accounte.
for 2$2G of the
-ariance an. the
(echanistic
factors accounte.
for 15$7G$
<sing the
-aria8les associate.
9ith the high loa.&
ings for each factor: a (ean
score for organic an.
(echanistic classification 9as
.e-elope.$ "rgani/a&tions
9ere classifie. accor.ing to
9hich (ean score 9as larger$
2ppro>i(atel*: 51G of the
organi/ations 9ere classifie.
as organic 9hile 49G 9ere
classifie. as (echanistic$ )his
sche(e of characteri/ing
organi/a&tions 8ase. on the
(ean scores 9as use. as an
in.e&pen.ent -aria8le in the
follo9ing anal*sis$ (<sing the
factor scores for classif*ing the
organi/ations *iel.e. si(ilar
results in the follo9ing
anal*ses$ )he t9o (etho.s of
classification: (ean an. factor
scores: ha. a +earson
7orrelation coefficient of 0$@2'
p I 0$001)$
"ur fin.ings also support
our secon. h*pothesis$ 2
1ulti-ariate 2nal*sis of
0ariance 9as perfor(e. 9ith
the '1 sur-e* ite(s as
.epen.ent -aria8les an. the
organic or (echanistic
organi/ational t*pe as the
in.epen.ent -aria8le$ )he
(ulti-ariate F&-alue 9as 2$7@
p I $001 (.f J '1: 2@9)$
#n.i-i.ual sur-e* ite(s:
uni-ariate le-els of statistical
significance an. organi/ation
t*pe (eans are presente. in
)a8le 2$
#f a conser-ati-e
a.?ust(ent ($05 p&le-el%'1
pos&si8le ite(s J 0$001) is
(a.e to the p&le-el to
co(pensate for alpha
inflation: F&-alues significant
at the 0$001 p&le-el or lo9er
in )a8le 2 9oul. still reach
statistical significance gi-en
the 0$05 criterion$
#n regar. to the thir.
h*pothesis: the (ulti-ariate
test of the three occupational
groups (upper&le-el
(anagers: (i..le&
le-el (anagers:
an. non&
(anagerial
professionals) for
11 ite(s relate. to
organi/ation
al
ethics 9as foun.
to
8e
statisti&
call*
significant F (22: 2) J 1$1:
p I $04$
)he
"rgani/ational 0alues an. 1anagerial
Ethics 15'
)2BCE ##
"rgani/ational -alue clusters an. organi/ational
ethics
"rgani/ational ethics ite(s
Scale: 1 Strongl* agreeE 5 Strongl*
.isagree
#te( p Ce-el "rganic 1echanistic
)op (anage(ent in (* co(pan* has let it 8e 6no9n in 0$001 1$74 2$17
no uncertain ter(s that unethical 8eha-iors 9ill not 8e
tolerate.$
1anagers in (* in.ustr* often engage in 8eha-iors that # 0$001 '$727 '$'01
consi.er to 8e unethical$
)here are (an* opportunities for (anagers in (* in.ustr* to 0$79@ 2$7 2$'5
engage in unethical 8eha-iors$
1anagers in (* co(pan* often engage in 8eha-iors that # 0$000 4$0@5 '$5'@
consi.er to 8e unethical$
)here are (an* opportunities for (anagers in (* co(pan* to 0$'5 '$079 2$92
engage in unethical 8eha-iors$
#n or.er to succee. in (* co(pan*: it is often necessar* to 0$000 4$'@2 '$7@2
co(pro(ise one,s ethics$
Successful (anagers in (* co(pan* are generall* (ore 0$000 4$15@ '$577
unethical than unsuccessful (anagers$
Successful (anagers in (* co(pan* ta6e cre.it for the i.eas 0$000 '$7'' 2$974
an. acco(plish(ents of others$
Successful (anagers in (* co(pan* 9ithhol. infor(ation 0$000 '$715 '$0'@
that is .etri(ental to their self&interests$
#f a (anager in (* co(pan* is .isco-ere. to ha-e engage. 0$000 1$97 2$42'
in unethical 8eha-ior that results pri(aril* in personal gain
(rather than co(pan* gain) he%she 9ill 8e pro(ptl* repri&
(an.e.$
Successful (anagers in (* co(pan* atte(pt to (a6e ri-al 0$000 '$9'9 '$'21
(anagers loo6 8a. in the e*es of i(portant people in (*
co(pan*$
Successful (anagers in (* co(pan* loo6 for a HHscapegoat,, 0$000 '$74 2$92
9hen the* feel the* (a* 8e associate. 9ith failure$
Successful (anagers in (* co(pan* 9ithhol. infor(ation 0$000 '$@97 '$'40
that is .etri(ental to the co(pan*,s interests$
1* organi/ation a.eBuatel* co((unicates the co.e of ethics 0$0'5 2$'5@ 2$15
an. ethical gui.elines to e(plo*ees$
significance le-els an. (ean
.ifferences of the in.i&-i.ual ite(s
are liste. in )a8le '$ 2steris6e.
(eans are significantl* .ifferent at
the 0$05 le-el or less$
For the three
ethics
state(ents in
)a8le ' (ite(s
1: 1' an. '1)
there 9ere
significant
.ifferences 8e&
t9een (i.&
le-el (anagers
an. non&
(anagerial
professionals$
)he latter (ore
strongl* agree:
relati-e to (i.&
le-el (anagers: 9ith the state(ent
that top (anage(ent is not tolerant
of unethical 8eha-iors an. that ethics
co.es are a.eBuatel* co((unicate.$
)he non&
(anagerial
professionals
also agree less
9ith the
state(ent that
there are (an*
opportunities
in the
co(pan* for
unethical
8eha-ior$
)a6en to&
gether: these
three ite(s
in.icate that
(i.&le-el
(anagers
see( to
8elie-e that the
organi/ation,s
en-iron(ent
9as (ore
con.uci-e to
unethical
8eha-ior
relati-e to the
8eliefs of non&
(anagerial
professionals$
;ith respect
to the three
state(ents
relate. to the
ethics of
successful
(anagers
(ite(s 17: 20:
an. 22 in
15
4 3$ 4regor* Jin et al$
)2BCE
###
+ercei-e. organi/ational ethics of occupational groups
K "rgani/ational ethics ite(s Scale: 1 Strongl* agreeE 5 Strongl* .isagree
#te(
p&
le-el
<pper (n J
71)
1i..le (n J
7)
+rofes (n J
17@)
1
)op (anage(ent in (* co(pan* has let it
8e 0$0'9 1$901 2$2'7L 1$@5L
6no9n in no uncertain ter(s that
unethical
8eha-iors 9ill not 8e tolerate.$
11 1anagers in (* co(pan* often engage in 0$754 '$@@7 '$750 '$@15
8eha-iors that # consi.er to 8e unethical$
1'
)here are (an* opportunities for (anagers
in 0$04' '$0@5 2$724L '$112L
(* co(pan* to engage in unethical
8eha-&
iors$
17
Successful (anagers in (* co(pan*
are 0$015 4$19L '$@4L '$@'7
generall* (ore unethical than
unsuccessful
(anagers$
20
Successful (anagers in (* co(pan*
ta6e 0$052 '$20L '$15@L '$'0
cre.it for the i.eas an. acco(plish(ents
of
others$
22
Successful (anagers in (* co(pan*
9ith& 0$052 '$20L '$171L '$'@@
hol. infor(ation that is .etri(ental to
their
self&interests$
24
#f a (anager in (* co(pan* is .isco-ere.
to 0$'7 2$127 2$'29 2$157
ha-e engage. in unethical 8eha-ior that
re&
sults pri(aril* in personal gain (rather
than
co(pan* gain) he%she 9ill 8e
pro(ptl*
repri(an.e.$
2
Successful (anagers in (* co(pan*
atte(pts 0$440 '$71@ '$51' '$74
to (a6e ri-al (anagers loo6 8a. in the
e*es
of i(portant people in (* co(pan*$
29
Successful (anagers in (* co(pan* loo6
for 0$15 '$577 '$197 '$'0
a HHscapegoat,, 9hen the* feel the* (a*
8e
associate. 9ith failure$
'0
Successful (anagers in (* co(pan*
9ith& 0$'4' '$7@9 '$5 '$5@4
hol. infor(ation that is .etri(ental to the
co(pan*,s interests$
'1
1* organi/ation a.eBuatel*
co((unicates 0$0'' 2$0 2$724L 2$'0L
the co.e of ethics an. ethical gui.elines
to
e(plo*ees$
)a8le '): 9e foun. that there 9ere significant .if&
ferences 8et9een upper an. (i.&le-el (anagers$
7o(pare. to the upper&le-el (anagers: the (i.&le-el
(anagers in.icate. a higher le-el of agree(ent 9ith the
perceptions that successful (anagers 9ere (ore
unethical relati-e to unsuccessful (anagers: that
successful (anagers too6 cre.it for the i.eas an. actions
of others: an. that the* 9ithhel. infor(ation .etri(ental
to their self&interests$
!iscussion
)he anal*ses of the .ata
in this stu.* pro-i.e
support to the follo9ing
three h*potheses$
=1: #) professionals
9ill report
organi/ational
-alue
characteristics
that can 8e
classifie. in
clusters as
representing
either organic or
(echanistic
organi/ation
t*pes$
"rgani/ational 0alues an. 1anagerial Ethics 155
Si(ilar to our pre-ious
fin.ings (Jin an. !ro/.en6o:
200'): t9o t*pes of
organi/ations 9ere i.entifie.
in this stu.*$ <sing a factor
anal*sis (see )a8le 1): one
t*pe of organi/ation loa.e.
highl* on -aria8les such as
colla8orati-e: relationships&
oriente.: results&ori&ente.:
creati-e: encouraging:
socia8le: sti(ulating: personal
free.o(: eBuita8le:
challenging: enterpris&ing:
trusting: an. .ri-ing 9hile the
other organi/ation t*pe 9as
associate. 9ith -alues such as
hierarchical: proce.ural:
structure.: or.ere.: regulate.
an. po9&er&oriente.$
=2: #) professionals
9or6ing in a
(echanistic
organi/ation 9ill report
higher le-els of
unethical 8eha-ior in
their organi/ations
co(pare. to #)
professionals 9or6ing in
an organic organi/ation$
)here 9as strong support for
=2$ "f the '1 ite(s in this
section 21 9ere foun. to ha-e
significantl* .ifferent (ean
responses for the t9o t*pes of
orga&ni/ations$ #n particular: 14
ite(s .irectl* relate. to
unethical 8eha-ior (see )a8le 2)
(e$g$: HH(anagers in (*
organi/ation often engage in
8eha-iors # consi.er to 8e
unethical,,) re-eale. a higher
le-el of percei-e. unethical
8eha-ior in (echanistic
organi/ations$ )here also
see(e. to 8e a stronger ethical
.irection set 8* organic
organi/ations as
in.icate. 8* a
higher le-el of
agree(ent 9ith
those ite(s
in.icating that top
(anage(ent 9ill
not tolerate
unethical 8eha-ior:
an. co.es of ethics
are a.eBuatel*
co((unicate.$ "n
the other han.:
respon.ents in
(echanistic
organi/ations
percei-e. a higher
le-el of control 8*
super-isors$ So:
9hile there 9ere
higher le-els of
percei-e.
super-isor* control
in (echanistic orga&
ni/ations relati-e to
organic
organi/ations: this
con&trol .i. not
result in a
suppression of
unethical 8eha-ior$
)hese fin.ings are
si(ilar to those of
our pre-ious
research ( Jin an.
!ro/.en6o: 200')$
)he higher le-el
of ethical -alues
e>hi8ite. 8* #)
professionals in
organic
organi/ations as
oppose. to those in
(echanistic
organi/ations can
8e e>plaine.: at
least in part: 8* the
gap 8et9een the
8ureau&cratic nor(s
an. generall*&
accepte. social
nor(s (=u((el:
19@2)$ =u((el
o8ser-es that the
culture in
8ureaucratic
en-iron(ents
represents a set of
6e* -alues: i$e$: the
(echanistic
organi/ational
-alues .iscusse.
a8o-e that is -er*
.ifferent fro( those
of organic
organi/ations$
)hose 9ho 9or6 in
8ureau&
cracies are reBuire. to follo9
the restrictions: rules an.
regulations: an. nor(s i(pose.
8* the 8ureaucrac* that are
often not congruent 9ith the
social nor(s 8* 9hich 9e
freel* interact 9ith other
(e(8ers of societ*$ )hese
8ureaucratic restrictions an.
nor(s are also not con.uci-e to
the pro(otion of fun.a(ental
ethical core -alues accepte. in
gen&eral 8* a societ*$ =u((el
suggests that professionals 9ho
9or6 in 8ureaucracies
HHunconsciousl* pursue their
self&interest in colla8orating
9ith 8ureaucracies 9hile
(aintaining an i(age of
.isintereste. non&partnership,,
(p$ 10: fn)$ "ne (ight assu(e
that those 9ho are in
8ureaucracies (ight 8e (ore
intereste. in fulfilling their
9or6 o8ligations 8* a.hering to
the 8ureaucracies, nor(s:
proce.ures: an. rules an.
regulations than in 8eing
concerne. 9ith e>tra&
8ureaucratic nor(s that (a*
not 8e consistent 9ith their
8ureaucratic ones$
)his (a* 8e true if
8ureaucratic&nor(&8oun. #)
professionals 8elie-e in their
self&interest 8eing .e&fine. 8*
their colla8oration 9ith a
8ureaucrac*$ #n this conte>t:
their 8ureaucratic actions
reBuire. 9ithin the 8ureaucratic
rule&8oun. 9orl.
(a* o-erri.e the
ethical nor(s an.
social responsi8ilit*
-alues e-en if such
a 8eha-ior is
construe. as
HHunethical,, or HHnot
sociall*
responsi8le,,
accor.ing to the
sociall* accepte.
ethical -alues an.
nor(s$ For
e>a(ple: this 9a*
of thin6ing is
reflecte. in the
sur-e* Buestion
state(ent
HHSuccessful
(anagers in (*
co(pan* 9ithhol.
infor(ation that is
.etri&(ental to the
co(pan*,s
interests$,,
2ccor.ing to the
generall* uphel.
social nor(s: an
agree(ent 9ith this
state(ent 9oul. 8e
construe. as 8eing
unethical 8* those
9ho hol. the
.eontological -ie9
of ethics$ =o9e-er:
accor.ing to the
8ureaucratic
restricti-e control
nor(s: in a
teleological sense:
such responses
9ithhol.ing
infor(ation in this
case (a* 8e
consi.ere. as
ethical or not
unethical if the
respon.ents: as
9or6ers in
8ureaucracies: feel
that 9ithhol.ing
infor(ation (a*
ser-e the
co(pan*,s interest
an. that the* are
ethicall* 8oun. to
protect the
8ureaucratic
organi/ational
interests$ )his (a*
hol. true
especiall* if their
action is consistent
9ith their self&
interest to sur-i-e$
)his 9a* of
thin6ing (a*
e>plain the results
of our sur-e*
respon.ents
9or6ing in
(echanistic or
8ureaucratic
organi/a&tions: i$e$:
their perception of
higher .egree of
unethical 8eha-iors
relati-e to those in
organic
organi/ations$
15 3$ 4regor* Jin et al$
=': )here are
.ifferences
a(ong #) non&
(ana&gerial
professionals: #)
(i.&le-el
(anagers: an. #)
upper&le-el
(anagers in their
percep&tion of
organi/ational
ethics$
)he research results
suggest that (i.&le-el
(anagers in the #)
profession percei-e the
ethical en-iron(ent of
the organi/ation
.ifferentl* co(pare. to
8oth upper&le-el
(anagers an. non&
(anagerial profes&
sionals$ Specificall*:
(i.&le-el (anagers are
(ore li6el* to percei-e
the organi/ation as not
supporting an ethical
en-iron(ent an. see
successful (anagers as
8eing less ethical than
the other t9o
occupational groups are$
)his see(s to 8e
consonant 9ith the
fin.ing of +osner an.
Sch(i.t (19@4: 1992)
that e>ecuti-e (anagers
9ere (ore li6el* to
8elie-e that their
organi/ation 9as ethical
relati-e to the 8eliefs of
(i.&le-el an.
super-isor* (anagers$
#n general: the upper&
le-el (anagers an. non&
(anagerial
professionals ten.e. to
share ethical per&
ceptions consistent 9ith
each other: 8ut .ifferent
fro( those of
(i.&le-el
(anagers$ 2n
interpretation of
this fin.ing (a*
8e that (i.&le-el
(anagers:
especiall* those
in a (echanistic
or 8ureaucratic
-alue setting:
ten. to 8e (ore
c*nical as the*
are (ore fa(iliar
9ith real
organi/ational
shortco(ings an.
often conceale.
ethical pro8le(s
through infor(al
interactions 9ith
top (anage(ent
an. #) profes&
sionals (S?o8erg
et al$: 19@4E Jin:
2000)$ )he upper&
le-el (anagers:
lac6ing .irect
contact 9ith the
non&(anagerial
professionals an.
therefore 9ith
real pro8le(
situations: (a*
-ie9 the ethical
en-iron&(ent
(ore positi-el*
than the (i.&le-el
(anagers an.
non&(anagerial
professionals$
Ci6e9ise: the lat&
ter: not 8eing in
.irect contact
9ith upper&le-el
(anagers an.
therefore 9ith
internal unethical
en-iron(ental
co(ple>ities:
(a* ha-e a (ore
posi&ti-e -ie9 of
the ethical
cli(ate: ethics
polic* gui.e&
lines: an. for(al
co((unication
of ethics co.e
co(pare. to (i.&
le-el (anagers$
Ci(itations of
this research
)o -erif* the
a8o-e perceptual
fin.ings 8ase. on
our sur-e*
research: against
the real&9orl.
actual ethical
8eha-iors that
often occur in the
infor(al or
hi..en political
organi/ational
settings (S?o8erg
et al$: 19@4): 9e
suggest using the
participant action
research strateg*
(Ce9in: 194E
4reen9oo. et al$:
199'E
=in.le et al$: 1995E
Bas6er-ille an. ;oo.&
=arper: 199E Jin: 2000)$
#n the action research
approach: the researchers
are insi.er&participants or
participant o8ser-ers in
the .e&facto real&life
organi/ational -alue an.
ethical .ecision&(a6ing
processes$ )he* can 9or6
9ith practitioners to
collect .ata on the i(pact
of (anipulating
in.epen.ent -aria8les on
.epen.ent -aria8les
.uring for(al an.
infor(al political inter&
actions a(ong the
organi/ational (e(8ers$
For our stu.*: this 9oul.
also (ean -erif*ing (ore
.efini&ti-el* if
transitioning fro(
(echanistic to organic
-alue orientations 9oul.
actuall* change
perceptions a8out ethical
8eha-iors$ +ast stu.ies
a.opte. the ac&tion
research (etho. to
confir(: -erif*: an.
interpret the results fro(
a sur-e* stu.* (3aiser
an. Bostro(: 19@2)$ )he
rele-ance of the fin.ings
of this research nee.s to
8e un.erstoo. an.
interprete. in ter(s of the
specific historical
e>periences of an
organi/ation (1ason et
al$: 1997)$
5eco((en.atio
n for further
research
;e suggest that
further research
anal*/e the rela&
tionship 8et9een
the ethical
attitu.es of #)
profes&sionals
an. the e>istence
an. enforce(ent
le-el of an ethics
co.e 9ithin the
organi/ation$ For
e>a(ple: it 9oul.
8e interesting to
e>a(ine the
interaction of
organic or
(echanistic
organi/ation
t*pes 9ith the
e>istence of an
ethics co.e$ )his
poses a future re&
search Buestion:
.oes the presence
of a strictl* en&
force. ethics co.e
i(pact ethical
8eha-ior
.ifferentl* in
organic -ersus
(echanistic
organi/ationsM
)he results of this
future research on
#) professionals
shoul. 8e
co(pare. to prior
stu.ies of
(ar6eting an.
sales
professionals
in-ol-ing the
relationship
8et9een
organi/ational
-alues an. the
enforce(ent of
ethics co.es an.
gui.elines
(So(ers:
2001E0al&entine
an. Barnett:
2002: 200')$
2nother
si(ilar *et
(eaningful stu.*
9oul. 8e to .el-e
into .isco-ering
if there are an*
.ifferences
8et9een
(anagers in three
.ifferent sectors
8usi&ness:
go-ern(ent: an.
ci-il societ*$ #t
9oul. also 8e
interesting to
in-estigate
.ifferences
8et9een the t9o
t*pes of
8ureaucrac* (i$e$:
ena8ling an.
coer&ci-e) an.
8et9een the
ena8ling
8ureaucracies an.
the organic
organi/ations in
ter(s of their #)
(an&agers,
percei-e.
organi/ational
-alues an. ethical
attitu.es$
"rgani/ational 0alues an. 1anagerial Ethics 157
#t is suggeste. that: as 9e ha-e
alrea.* 8egun: further research
e>plore the relationship a(ong
6e* organi/ational -alue clusters:
social responsi8ilit*: ethics: an.
organi/ational perfor(ance
outco(es$ 2 pre-ious stu.*
(0itell an. +aolillo: 2004)
in-estigate. the role of the
percei-e. i(portance of ethics
an. social responsi8ilit* in the
organi/ational .ecision&(a6ing
process$ 0itell et al$ (200')
e>a(ine. the effect of antece.ent
-aria8les (e$g$: po9er .istance:
uncertaint* a-oi.ance:
in.i-i.ualis(: (asculinit*: an.
7onfucian .*na(is(: corporate
ethical -alues: an. enforce(ent
of an ethical co.e) on an
in.i-i.ual (ar6eter,s perceptions
of the i(portance of ethics an.
social responsi8ilit* to the long&
ter( success of the organi/ation$
#t 9oul. 8e significant an. inter&
esting to e>a(ine the association
8et9een the ethical attitu.es of
#) (anagers an. professionals
an. their social responsi8ilit*
orientations as antece.ents for
the organi/ational perfor(ance
outco(es$
7onclusions
)he a8o-e fin.ings see( to
support the pre-ious stu.* 8*
Bone an. 7ole* (199@): 9hich
foun. that (oral reflection 8*
e(plo*ees ten.s to .ecrease
as centrali/ation (as a (ain
tenet of 8ureaucratic or
(echanistic organi/ations)
increases$ "ur stu.* sho9s
that #) (anagers in organic
organi/ations are percei-e. as
8eing (ore ethicall*
scrupulous an. co((itte.
relati-e to the perceptions of
#) (an&agers in
(echanistic
organi/ations$
So(e (a?or
fin.ings of this
stu.*:
su8stantiate. 8*
the .ata in )a8le 2:
are su((ari/e. in
the state(ents
8elo9$ )he t*pe of
organi/ation 9ith
the significantl*
stronger .egree of
agree(ent is in.i&
cate. in #talics$
1N )op
(anage(ent
in (*
co(pan* has
let it 8e
6no9n in no
uncertain
ter(s that
unethi&cal
8eha-iors
9ill not 8e
tolerate.$
"rganic
2N 1anagers in
(* in.ustr*
often engage
in 8eha-iors
that #
consi.er to
8e unethical$
1echanistic
'N 1anagers in
(* co(pan*
often engage
in 8eha-iors
that #
consi.er to
8e unethical$
1echanistic
4N #n or.er to
succee. in
(*
co(pan*: it
is of&ten
necessar* to
co(pro(ise
one,s ethics$
1echanistic
1N Successful (anagers in
(* co(pan* are gen&
erall* (ore unethical
than unsuccessful (an&
agers$ 1echanistic
2N Successful (anagers in
(* co(pan* ta6e cre.it
for the i.eas an.
acco(plish(ents of
others$ 1echanistic
'N Successful (anagers in
(* co(pan* atte(pt to
(a6e ri-al (anagers
loo6 8a. in the e*es of
i(portant people in (*
co(pan*$ 1echa&nistic
4N Successful (anagers in
(* co(pan* loo6 for a
HHscapegoat,, 9hen the*
feel the* (a* 8e
associate. 9ith failure$
1echanistic
)hese fin.ings are also
consistent 9ith our pre-ious
stu.*: 9hich in-ol-e. .irect
(ar6eting (anagers ( Jin an.
!ro/.en6o: 200')$ )he
fin.ings are also consonant
9ith the 6e* results of a series
of pre&-ious longitu.inal
stu.ies 8* +osner an. Sch(i.t
(19@4: 1992)$ )hese cross&
in.ustr* research results i(pl*
that persisting to
transfor( a
(echanistic
organi/ational
-alue orientation to
an organic one:
9hich represents
higher social:
hu(anistic: an.
.e(ocratic -alues:
coul. re.uce the
potential ris6s of
unethical
8eha-iors$ )he
organi/ations in
the #) in.ustr* that
ha-e (echanistic
or 8ureaucratic
-alue orientations
nee. not onl* to
confront the pro8&
le(s of co(peting
in a .*na(ic
(ar6etplace: 8ut
also to (eet the
challenge of
coping 9ith a lac6
of corporate ethical
scrupulousness$
)herefore: (ana&
gerial lea.ers in
the #) in.ustr*
(ust seriousl*
consi.er the
critical role of a
(ore fle>i8le:
.ecentrali/e.: an.
organic
en-iron(ent in
culti&-ating #)
(anagerial ethics$
2c6no9le.ge(ent
)he authors
ac6no9le.ge 1rs$
Birte Sel-ara? s
e>cellent
contri8ution to the
e.iting an.
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(anuscript$
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