1 - 132501-Introduction To Microprocessor and Computer

Microprocessors
66322
Dr. Aladdin Masri
Course Outline
Introduction to Microprocessor and Computer
The Microprocessor and its Architecture
Addressing modes
Data Movement Instructions
Arithmetic and Logic Instructions
Program Control Instructions
Using Assembly Language With C/C++
Microprocessors (66322) Dr. Aladdin Masri 2
Text Book and Grades
The Intel Microprocessors, Barry B. Brey
Assembly Language for Intel-Based
Computers, Kip R. Irvine
First Exam 20%
Second Exam 20%
Quizzes and HW 10%
Final Exam 50%
Introduction to Microprocessor
and Computer
11 What is a computer?
A programmable electronic device that can
store, retrieve, and process data.
A machine that manipulates data according to
a list of instructions.
Classification of Computers
Personal computers
Mainframes
Supercomputers
Dedicated controllers Embedded controllers
What is a computer?
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Memory
Input / Output (I/O) circuitry
Buses:
Address bus
Data bus
Control bus
What is a microprocessor?
Also known as central processing unit CPU
An integrated circuit built on a tiny piece of silicon
Contains thousands, or even millions, of transistors,
which are interconnected via superfine traces of
aluminum
The transistors work together to store and manipulate
data so that the microprocessor can perform a wide
variety of useful functions
The particular functions a microprocessor performs are
dictated by software
fetch, decode, and then executes binary instructions in a
sequence stored in memory
What is a microprocessor?
One most common task microprocessors perform is to serve as
brains inside personal computers (PC), but they deliver
"intelligence" to other devices as well.
Contains:
ALU: performs computing tasks manipulates the data/ performs
numerical and logical computations
Registers: are used for temporary storage
Control unit: is used for timing and other controlling functions
contains a program counter (next instructions address and status
register)
Characteristics:
General purpose CPU
Binary
Register-based
Clock-driven
Programmable
Arithmetic
Logic
Unit
Register
Arrays
Control Unit
Computer Pre-history
Electric Motors were used in mechanical
calculators in 1800s by Bomar, Monroe, etc. (for
up to 4 functions)
1889: Herman Holerith designed a real
computing calculator
He founded Tabulated Machine Company, now known
as IBM.
1941: Konrad Zuse created Z3 (German)
1943: Alan Turing created Colossus (for code
breaking)
Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator ENIAC
A huge machine, in1946
over 17,000 vacuum tubes; 500 miles of wires
weighed over 30 tons
about 100,000 operations per second
Programmed by rewiring its circuits
process took many workers several days
workers changed electrical connections on plug-boards
like early telephone switchboards
Required frequent maintenance
vacuum tube service life is a problem
Programming Advancements
The first, machine language, was constructed of ones
and zeros using binary codes.
Stored in the computer memory system as groups of
instructions called a program
Difficult to decipher and write
Prone to cause many errors in writing
Once systems such as UNIVAC became available in
early 1950s, assembly language was used to simplify
entering binary code.
Assembly language an aid to programming.
Assembler allows programmer to use mnemonic codes
(such as ADD for addition) in place of a binary number
(such as 0100 0111)
Programming Advancements
High-Level Languages (such as C and C++)
Written in statements of spoken languages (such as
English)
machine independent
easy to write and troubleshoot
requires large memory and less efficient in
execution
The Intel 4004 Microprocessor
Worlds first microprocessor
A 4-bit microprocessor-
programmable controller on a chip.
2,250 transistors
12 mm
2
Clock: 108 kHz
Addressed 4096, 4-bit-wide
memory locations.
4-bit-wide memory location often
called a nibble
The 4004 instruction set contained
45 instructions.
The 4040 Microprocessor
Evolution of 4-bit microprocessor ended when
Intel released the 4040, an updated 4004.
operated at a higher speed
Texas Instruments and others also produced 4-bit
microprocessors.
still survives in low-end applications such as
microwave ovens and small control systems
Calculators still based on 4-bit BCD (binary-coded
decimal) codes
Main problems with early microprocessor were
speed, word width, and memory size.
The 8008 Microprocessor 1971
The 8008 microprocessor is an extended 8-bit version of
4004 microprocessor
Addressed expanded memory of 16K bytes.
Contained additional instructions, 48 total.
Provided opportunity for application in more advanced systems
The 8080 microprocessor was the first of the modern 8-bit
microprocessors
8080 addressed four times more memory.
64K bytes vs. l6K bytes for 8008
Executed additional instructions; 10x faster.
TTL (transistor-transistor logic) compatible.
the 8008 was not directly compatible
Interfacing made easier and less expensive.
Early 8-bit Microprocessors
An updated version of the 8080
Last 8-bit, general-purpose microprocessor
developed by Intel.
Slightly more advanced than 8080
246 instructions
executed software at an even higher speed.
769,230 instructions per second vs. 500,000 per
second on the 8080.
The 8086/8088 Microprocessors 1978
Both devices are 16-bit
microprocessors.
Executed instructions in 400 ns
(2.5millions of instructions per
second)
Addressed 1M byte of memory.
Led to many sophisticated applications
Improvements to the instruction set
included multiply and divide
instructions.
missing on earlier microprocessors
Number of instructions increased.
over 20,000 variations
Even the 1M-byte memory system proved
limiting for databases and other applications.
an updated 8086
Almost identical to the 8086/8088.
addressed 16M-byte memory system instead of a 1M-
byte system
Instruction set almost identical except for a few
additional instructions.
managed the extra 15M bytes of memory
Executed some instructions in as little as 250 ns
(4.0 MIPs)
Intels first practical microprocessor to contain a 32-bit data
bus and 32-bit memory address.
addressed up to 4G bytes of memory.
80386SX addressed 16M bytes of
memory through a 16-bit data and 24-bit
address bus.
80386SL/80386SLC addressed 32M bytes
memory via 16-bit data, 25-bit address
bus.
80386SLC contained an internal cache to
process data at even higher rates.
80386EX: embedded PC, 24 lines for
input/output data, 26-bit address bus,
DRAM refresh controller.
Highly integrated package.
80386-like microprocessor.
80387-like numeric coprocessor.
8K-byte cache memory system.
Internal structure of 80486 modified so
about half of its instructions executed
in one clock instead of two clocks.
in a 50 MHz version, about half of
instructions executed in 25ns (50 MIPs)
50% over 80386 operated at same clock
speed
The Pentium Microprocessor 1993
Similar to 80386 and 80486
microprocessors
Originally labeled the P5 or 80586
Intel decided not to use a number
because it appeared to be impossible to
copyright a number
Introductory versions operated with a
clocking frequency of 60 MHz and 66
MHz, and a speed of 110 MIPs
Cache size was increased to 16K bytes
from the 8K cache found in 80486
Memory system up to 4G bytes
Data bus width increased to a full 64
bits
Pentium Pro Processor
Formerly named the P6.
21 million transistors, integer units, floating-point unit,
clock frequency 150 and 166 MHz
Internal 16K level-one (L1) cache.
8K data, 8K for instructions
Pentium Pro contains 256K level-two (L2) cache
Pentium Pro uses three execution engines, to execute
up to three instructions at a time.
can conflict and still execute in parallel
Pentium Pro can address 4G-byte or a 64G-byte
memory system.
36-bit address bus if configured for a 64G memory system
Pentium II Microprocessor 1997
Pentium Xeon Microprocessor 1998
Pentium II represents new direction for Intel.
Intel has placed Pentium II on a small circuit board, instead
of being an integrated circuit.
Microprocessor on the Pentium II module actually Pentium
Pro with MMX extensions.
Intel designed Xeon specifically for high-end
workstation and server applications
Xeon available with 32K L1 cache and L2 cache size of:
512K, 1M, or 2M bytes.
Xeon functions with the 440GX chip set.
Also designed to function with four Xeons in the same
system, similar to Pentium Pro.
Pentium III Microprocessor
Faster core than Pentium II
still a P6 or Pentium Pro
processor.
Available in slot 1 version
mounted on a plastic cartridge.
Also in socket 370 version
called a flip-chip which looks
like older Pentium package.
Pentium III available with clock
frequencies up to 1 GHz.
Slot 1 version contains a 512K
cache; flip-chip version
contains 256K cache.
Pentium 4 and Core2 Microprocessors
Pentium 4 first made available in late 2000.
most recent version of Pentium called Core2
uses Intel P6 architecture
Pentium 4 available to 3.2 GHz and faster.
supporting chip sets use RAMBUS or DDR
memory in place of SDRAM technology
Core2 is available at speeds of up to 3 GHz.
improvement in internal integration, at present
the 0.045 micron or 45 nm technology
A likely change is a shift from aluminum to
copper interconnections inside the
microprocessor.
Another event to look for is a change in the speed of the front side
bus.
increase beyond current maximum 1033 MHz
Pentium 4 and Core2, 64-bit and
Multiple Core Microprocessors
Recent modifications to Pentium 4 and Core2
include a 64-bit core and multiple cores.
64-bit modification allows address of over 4G
bytes of memory through a 64-bit address.
40 address pins in these newer versions allow up to 1T
(terabytes) of memory to be accessed
Also allows 64-bit integer arithmetic.
Less important than ability to address more memory
Intel manufactures dual and quad core versions
Number of cores will likely increase to eight or even
sixteen.
Itanium Microprocessor 2002
A new architecture of 64 bits in width
with a 128-bit data bus.
Joint venture called EPIC (Explicitly
Parallel Instruction Computing) of Intel
and Hewlett-Packard.
The Itanium architecture allows greater
parallelism than traditional architectures
128 general-purpose integer
128 floating-point registers
64 predicate registers.
Many execution units to ensure enough
hardware resources for software.
No. of Transistors
Model Year of Introduction No. of Transistors
4004 1971 2,250
8008 1972 2,500
8080 1974 5,000
8086 1978 29,000
80286 1982 120,000
80386 processor 1985 275,000
80486 DX processor 1989 1,180,000
Pentium processor 1993 3,100,000
Pentium II processor 1997 7,500,000
Pentium III processor 1999 24,000,000
Pentium 4 processor 2000 42,000,000
Pentium D 900 2006 376,000,000
Microprocessor bus and memory sizes
Conceptual views
Conceptual views
1-2 Microprocessor-based computer
system
The Memory System
Internal storage areas in the computer
A group of registers each storing one byte (8 bits) in
general
A read operation to a particular location always returns
the last value stored in that location
Serves two major purposes:
1. Storing the binary codes for the sequence of
instructions specified by programs
2. Storing binary data that the computer needs to
execute instructions (data)
Memory Types
RAM: Random Access memory
Volatile: losses information as power is removed
Read/Write Memory (R/W)
Write means the processor can store information
Read means the processor can receive information from the
memory
Acts like a Blackboard!
ROM: Read-Only memory;
It is typically non-volatile (permanent) can be
erasable
It is similar to a Page from your textbook
Memory Classification
The memory map of a personal
computer
Main memory system divided into three parts:
TPA (transient program area)
System Area
XMS (extended memory system)
Type of microprocessor present determines whether an
extended memory system exists.
Computers based on 8086 and 8088 have no extended
memory
First 1M byte of memory often called the real or
conventional memory system.
Intel microprocessors designed to function in this area
using real mode operation
computer
computer
80286 through the Core2 contain the TPA (640K
bytes) and system area (384K bytes).
also contain extended memory
often called AT class machines
Extended memory up to:
15M bytes in the 80286 and 80386SX
4095M bytes in 80386DX, 80486 and Pentium
microprocessors.
Up to 1M less than 4G or 1 M less than 64G in
Pentium Pro through Core2 computer systems
Servers tend to use the larger memory map.
The Memory System
Other versions memory
The PS/1 and PS/2 by IBM are other versions of
the same basic memory design.
Also referred to as ISA (industry standard architecture)
or EISA (extended ISA).
The PS/2 referred to as a micro-channel architecture or
ISA system
depending on the model number
Pentium and ATX class machines feature addition
of the PCI (peripheral component interconnect)
bus.
used in all Pentium through Core2 systems
either a 32 or 64-bit bus
The Memory System
The ISA machine
Contains an 8-bit peripheral bus used to interface 8-bit
devices, in the 8088/8088-based PC or XT computers
Uses a 16-bit peripheral bus for interface, in the AT class
machine and 80286+
The EISA bus is a 32-bit peripheral interface bus
The VESA local bus or VL bus
In many 80486 systems
Interfaces disk and video to the microprocessor
Allows 32-bit interfaces to function at the same clocking
speed
recent modification supporting 64-bit data bus has
generated little interest
The Memory System
USB: universal serial bus
Connecting peripheral devices to the microprocessor
through a serial data path and a twisted pair of wires
Data transfer rates are 10 Mbps for USB1.
Increase to 480 Mbps in USB2.
AGP: advanced graphics port (for video cards)
Serial ATA interface (SATA) for hard disk drives
The SATA bus transfers data from PC to hard disk at
rates of 150M bytes per second; 300M bytes for
SATA-2.
PCI Express bus for the video card.
The TPA Area
Length of the TPA is 640K bytes, holding:
DOS (disk operating system) operating system
Other programs that control the computer system
It also stores any currently active or inactive DOS
application programs
The TPA is a DOS concept and not really
applicable in Windows
The memory map of the TPA
DOS memory map shows how areas of
TPA are used for system programs, data
and drivers.
also shows a large area of memory
available for application programs
Hexadecimal number to left of each
area represents the memory addresses
that begin and end each data area
Hexadecimal memory addresses number
each byte of the memory system.
Often a hexadecimal number ends with
an H to indicate it is a hexadecimal value.
1234H is 1234 hexadecimal
also represent hexadecimal data as
0x1234 for a 1234 hexadecimal
The memory map of the TPA
Though not used by Windows, still used to
execute DOS applications, even with Win XP.
Windows uses a file called SYSTEM.INI to
load drivers used by Windows.
Newer versions of Windows have a registry
added to contain information about the system
and the drivers used.
You can view the registry with the REGEDIT
program.
The System Area
The system area contains
programs on read-only (ROM)
or flash memory, and areas of
read/write (RAM) memory for
data storage.
Smaller than the TPA
Just as important
Includes various areas
Windows Systems
Modern computers use a
different memory map with
Windows than DOS memory
maps.
The difference between it and
the DOS memory map are sizes
and locations of these areas.
TPA is first 2G bytes
Every Windows program can
use up to 2G bytes of memory.
System area is last 2G bytes.
I/O Space
I/O devices allow the
microprocessor to communicate
with the outside world.
I/O (input/output) space in a
computer system extends from I/O
port 0000H to port FFFFH.
I/O port address is similar to a
memory address
instead of memory, it addresses an
I/O device
Access to most I/O devices should
always be made through Windows,
DOS, or BIOS function calls.
The map shown is provided as a
guide to illustrate the I/O space in
the system.
The Microprocessor Functions
Microprocessor performs three main tasks:
1. Data transfer between itself and the memory or I/O
systems
2. Simple arithmetic and logic operations
3. Program flow via simple decisions
Memory and I/O controlled via instructions stored in
memory, executed by the microprocessor.
Controls memory and I/O through connections called
buses.
Buses select an I/O or memory device, transfer data
between I/O devices or memory and the microprocessor,
control I/O and memory systems
Buses
A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from
one part of a computer to another
Three buses exist: address, data, and control
Transfer address, data, and control information between
microprocessor, memory and I/O.
The microprocessor reads a memory location by sending the
memory an address through the address bus.
Next, it sends a memory read control signal to cause the
memory to read data.
Data read from memory are passed to the microprocessor
through the data bus.
Whenever a memory write, I/O write, or I/O read occurs,
the same sequence ensues.
The address, data, and control bus
structure
The Address Bus
Unidirectional, consists of 16, 20, 24, or 32
parallel signal lines
64-bit extensions to Pentium provide 40 address pins,
allowing up to 1T byte of memory to be accessed.
The CPU requests a memory location from the
memory or an I/O location from the I/O devices.
If I/O is addressed, the address bus contains a 16-bit
I/O address from 0000H through FFFFH.
If memory is addressed, the bus contains a memory
address, varying in width by type of microprocessor.
The Data Bus
The data bus transfers information between the
microprocessor and its memory and I/O address space.
bi-directional
only one device at a time can have its outputs enabled
Data transfers vary in size, from 8 bits wide to 64 bits wide
in various Intel microprocessors.
8088 has an 8-bit data bus that transfers 8 bits of data at a time
8086, 80286, 80386SL, 80386SX, and 80386EX transfer 16 bits
of data
80386DX, 80486SX, and 80486DX, 32 bits
Pentium through Core2 microprocessors transfer 64 bits of data
Advantage of a wider data bus is speed in applications
using wide data.
The physical memory systems
The physical memory systems
The Control Bus
Control bus lines select and cause memory or I/O
to perform a read or write operation.
consists of 4 to 10 (or more) parallel signal lines
In most computer systems, there are four control
bus connections:
: memory read control
: memory write control
: I/O read control
: I/O write control
Over-bar indicates the control signal is active-low
active when logic zero appears on control line
Microprocessor: Fetch Decode
Execute
Read first word of the present instruction
from the data bus (using a read bus
cycle).
Inspect the operation code in the first
word of the instruction, decide which
kind of instruction is being performed.
Update the PC, place PC contents on the
address bus, and read additional data
words (if necessary) using read bus
cycles.
Update all CPU registers (including the
PC) according to the present register
contents and the present instruction type.
If necessary, update words in memory
and I/O devices using write bus cycles.
1-3 Number Systems
In any numbering system, the number of symbols
used is called the base or radix of the number
system.
A decimal (base 10) number is constructed with 10
digits: 0 through 9.
An octal (base 8) number; 8 digits: 0 through 7.
A binary (base 2) number; 2 digits: 0 and 1.
If the base exceeds 10, additional digits use letters
of the alphabet, beginning with an A.
A hexadecimal (base 16) is constructed with 10 digits:
0 through 9, followed by A, B, C, D, E and F.
1-3 Number Systems
Positional Notation
Position to the left of the radix (number base)
point is always the units position in system.
called a decimal point only in the decimal system
position to left of the binary point always 2
0
, or 1
position left of the octal point is 8
0
, or 1
Any number raised to its zero power is always
one (1), or the units position.
In any system, positions right of the decimal point
have negative powers.
First digit to the right of the decimal point has a value
of 10
1
, or 0.1.
Binary Number System
Binary numbers use base 2 or radix 2, have
just two digits 0 and 1
Bit numbering:
Rightmost bit: Least Significant Bit (LSB)
Leftmost bit: Most Significant Bit (MSB)
Example:
1101
2
= 2
3
*1 +2
2
*1 + 2
1
*0 + 2
0
*1
0 15
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
MSB LSB
Evaluate the decimal equivalent of binary
number 1011.01
2
Solution:
1011.01
2
= 2
3
*1+2
2
*0+2
1
*1+2
0
*1+2
-1
*0+2
-2
*1
= 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 + 0 + 0.25
= 11.25
10
Convert the decimal number 30.8125
10
to binary
Solution:
So, 30.8125
10
= 11110.1101
2
30 2
15 0
7 1
3 1
1 1
0 1
2*0.8125 = 1.625 1
2*0.625 = 1.25 1
2*0.25 = 0.5 0
2*0.5 = 1.0 1
LSB
MSB
MSB
Hexadecimal Number System
Hex is very useful when it comes to memory mapping.
Todays memories are so large, it is much easier to describe data
locations in hex.
A shorthand notation for binary, because each hex number
represents 4 bits.
A binary number is converted to a hex number by taking 4
bits at a time.
Example: 101011010111
Binary: 1010 1101 0111
Hex: A D 7
So, (101011010111)
2
=(AD7)
16
The letters correspond to 2 digit numbers:
A = 10, B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15
14 Data Format: Byte-Sized Data
Stored as unsigned and signed integers.
1 byte = 8 bits
Difference in these forms is the weight of the
leftmost bit position.
unsigned integer: from 0 255
singed integer: from -128 127
In signed integer format, the leftmost bit
represents the sign bit of the number.
also a weight of -128
A special directive to define data byte(s): DB
Define both ASCII code and BCD (binary-coded data)
Byte-Sized Data Examples
ASCII data
Unpacked BCD data
Packed BCD data
0000 4D 69 63 72 6F 70 72
6F 63 65 73 73 6F 72
20 43 6F 75 72 73 65
Class DB Microprocessor Course
0015 41 6C 61 64 64 69 6E
20 4D 61 73 72 69
Name DB Aladdin Masri
0000 02 03 06 Unp1 DB 2,3,6 ;defines the number 632
0003 09 07 Unp2 DB 9,7 ;defines the number 79
0000 39 55 Pack1 DB 39H, 55H ;defines the number 5539
0002 08 20 Pack2 DB 8,20H ;defines the number 2008
Complement Representation
Positive numbers
Signed value = Unsigned value
Negative numbers
1's complement
2's complement
Negative weight for MSB
Another way to obtain the
signed value is to assign a
negative weight to most-
significant bit
= -128 + 32 + 16 + 4 = -76
8-bit Binary
value
Unsigned
value
Signed
value
00000000 0 0
00000001 1 +1
00000010 2 +2
. . . . . . . . .
01111110 126 +126
01111111 127 +127
10000000 128 -128
10000001 129 -127
. . . . . . . . .
11111110 254 -2
11111111 255 -1
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Byte-Sized Data Examples
Unsigned data
Signed data
2s complement
Word-Sized Data
A data word is formed with two bytes (16 bits)
A special directive to define data byte(s): DW
The storage format for a 16-bit word
The figure shows how data,
1234H, is stored in the
memory.
The least significant byte
always stored in the lowest-
numbered memory location
(3000H).
Most significant byte is stored
in the highest (3001H).
This method of storing a number is called the little
endian format.
Doubleword-Sized Data
Requires four bytes of memory because it is a
32-bit number.
appears as a product after a multiplication
also as a dividend before a division
Defined using the assembler directive define
doubleword, DWORD or DD.
The storage format for a 32-bit word
The figure shows how double
word data 12345678H is
stored in the memory
locations from
00100H 00103H
Examples of double word data
Real Numbers
Since many high-level languages use Intel microprocessors,
real numbers are often encountered.
A real, or a floating-point number contains two parts:
an exponent
a mantissa, significand, or fraction
A 4-byte number is called single-precision.
The 8-byte form is called double-precision.
Real Numbers
The assembler can be used to define real numbers
in single- and double-precision forms:
the DD directive for single-precision 32-bit numbers
define quadword, or DQ to define 64-bit double-
precision real numbers
Optional directives are REAL4, REAL8, and
REAL10.
for defining single-, double-, and extended precision
real numbers
How real numbers are stored
Get the binary format of the real number
Normalize the number by adjusting it
its value is at least 1 but less than 2
The fraction of the normalized number is the mantissa part
The exponent is stored as a biased exponent:
For single-precision, add a bias of 127, or 7FH, to the power of
exponent
For double-precision, add a bias of 1023, or 3FFH, to the power
of exponent
The sign depends on the sign of the real number
Two exceptions:
0 is stored as all zeros
is stored as all ones
Real Numbers
Defining single-, double-, and extended precision real numbers
example:
? Directive
Memory is reserved for use in the future by using
a question mark ? as an operand for a DB, DW, or
DD directive.
when ? is used in place of a numeric or ASCII value,
the assembler sets aside a location and does not
initialize it to any specific value
It is important that word-sized data are placed at
word boundaries and doubleword-sized data are
placed at doubleword boundaries.
if not, the microprocessor spends additional time
accessing these data types
ALIGN
Aligns a variable in memory
Syntax: ALIGN bound
Where bound can be 1, 2, 4, or 16
Address of a variable should be a multiple of bound
Assembler inserts empty bytes to enforce alignment
.DATA
b1 DB ? ; Address of b1 = 00404000h
ALIGN 2 ; Skip one byte
w1 WORD ? ; Address of w1 = 00404002h
w2 WORD ? ; Address of w2 = 00404004h
ALIGN 4 ; Skip two bytes
d1 DWORD ? ; Address of d1 = 00404008h
d2 DWORD ? ; Address of d2 = 0040400Ch
w1 b1 404000
w2 404004
d1 404008
d2 40400C
Using the DUP Operator
Use DUP to allocate space for an array or string
Advantage: more compact than using a list of initializers
Syntax
counter DUP ( argument )
Counter and argument must be constants expressions
The DUP operator may also be nested:
Defining Strings
A string is implemented as an array of characters
it is usually enclosed in quotation marks, and terminated with a NULL
char (byte value = 0) or end-of-line character sequence:
carriage return 0DH
line feed 0AH
str1 DB "Enter your name", 0
str2 DB 'A','E','I','O',U'
greeting DB "Welcome to the Encryption
DB "Demo Program", 0
To continue a single string across multiple lines, end each line with
a comma
menu DB "Checking Account",0dh,0ah,0dh,0ah,
"1. Credit the account",0dh,0ah,
"2. Debit the account",0dh,0ah,
"3. Exit",0ah,0ah,
"Choice> ",0

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