Oracle Versus Google Appeal Ruling

!"#$%& ($)$%* +,-.
$ ,/ 011%)2*
/,. $3% 4%&%.)2 +#.5-#$
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

#$%&'( %)($*&%+ *,&-+
!"#$%&$''()**+""#%&,

.-

/##/'( *,&-+
-+'+%.#%&(/0122()**+""#%&3
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

20l3-l02l, -l022
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

AonIs from fho !nIfod Sfnfos IsfrIcf Courf for fho
orfhorn IsfrIcf of CnIIfornIn In o. l0-CV-356l, Judgo
WIIIInm H. AIsu.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

ocIdod: Mny 9, 20l4
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

I. JOSH!A !OSIK!AZ, OrrIck, HorrIngfon & Suf-
cIIffo !!I, of ow York, ow York, nrguod for InInfIff-
noIInnf. WIfh hIm on fho brIof woro MA!K S. AVIIS,
A!IW . SI!VI!MA, KI!!Y M. A!IY; nnd AITTI !.
H!!ST, CAI!II! M. !AMSIY, nnd I!IZAIITH C. MCI!II,
of Snn IrnncIsco, CnIIfornIn. Of counsoI on fho brIof woro
O!IA I. A!IY, IIO!AH K. MI!!I!, MATTHIW
SA!IO!A!IA, nnd A!IW C. TIMKI, OrncIo AmorIcn,
Inc., of !odwood Shoros, CnIIfornIn; nnd A!I M.
CIA!I, IAA M. TO!!IS, SIA I. II!AIS, nnd
JOSH!A !. SIMMOS, KIrkInnd & IIIIs !!I, of ow York,
ow York. Of counsoI woro S!SA M. AVIIS, KIrkInnd &
O!AC!I AMI!ICA, IC. v. COOC!I IC. 2
IIIIs !!I, of ow York, ow York; MICHAI! A. JACOIS,
MorrIson & Ioorsfor !!I, of Snn IrnncIsco, CnIIfornIn;
nnd KIITH A. K!WAYTI, of InIo AIfo, CnIIfornIn.

!OII!T A. VA IST, Kokor & Vnn osf !!I, of Snn
IrnncIsco, CnIIfornIn, nrguod for dofondnnf-cross-
noIInnf. WIfh hIm on fho brIof woro CH!ISTA M.
AI!SO, STIVI A. HI!SCH, MICHAI! S. KW!, nnd
AII! I. JACKSO. Of counsoI on fho brIof woro IA C.
IA!!O nnd HIATHI! MIIKI!, Croonborg TrnurIg, !!I,
of Insf InIo AIfo, CnIIfornIn; !IY HWAC, CoogIo Inc.,
of MounfnIn VIow, CnIIfornIn; nnd A!Y! !. JOSIIII! nnd
I!!CI W. IAII!, KIng & SnIdIng !!I, of WnshIngfon,
C.

MA!CIA I. IA!!, nvIs WrIghf TromnIno !!I, of ow
York, ow York, for nmIcus curIno !nIh Omnn. WIfh
hor on fho brIof woro !ACY H. KOOCI, III nnd IIO!AH
A. A!I!.

WI!!IAM A. !!Y, !nfhro & Cngo !!I, of Knnsns
CIfy, MIssourI, for nmIcI curIno IIcfuro ArchIvo CouncII of
AmorIcn, Inc., of nI. WIfh hIm on fho brIof woro CA!O!I
I. HA!I! nnd I!IAA I. AH!II!C, of !os AngoIos,
CnIIfornIn.

C!ICO!Y C. CA!!I, !nfhnm & WnfkIns, !!I, of
WnshIngfon, C, for nmIcI curIno MIcrosoff CorornfIon,
of nI. WIfh hIm on fho brIof wns !O!I A!VIO MCCI!!. Of
counsoI on fho brIof woro IA!! T. ACII!, K!ISHI!
C!ITA, IMC CorornfIon, of HokInfon, Mnssnchusoffs;
nnd O!C!AS !!ITMA, ITAII, Inc., of SunnyvnIo,
CnIIfornIn.

JA!I IOI!OW, WoII, CofshnI & Mnngos !!I, of
!odwood Shoros, CnIIfornIn, for nmIcI curIno Iugono H.
Snfford, Ih.., of nI. WIfh hIm on fho brIof wns AA!O
Y. H!AC.

MATTHIW S. HI!!MA, Jonnor & IIock !!I, of Wnsh-
Ingfon, C, for nmIcus curIno ISA/Tho Soffwnro AIIInnco.
WIfh hIm on fho brIof wns IA!! M. SMITH.

STIVI T. COTT!IA!, CIIfford Chnnco !S !!I, of
WnshIngfon, C, for nmIcI curIno, Scoff MconIy, of nI.

MI!IITH JACOI, Irogrnm on InformnfIon JusfIco
nnd InfoIIocfunI Iroorfy, AmorIcnn !nIvorsIfy, WnshIng-
fon CoIIogo of !nw, of WnshIngfon, C, for nmIcI curIno
InfoIIocfunI Iroorfy !nw Irofossors.

J!!II I. SAM!I!S, IIocfronIc IronfIor IoundnfIon, of
Snn IrnncIsco, CnIIfornIn, for nmIcI curIno Comufor
ScIonfIsfs. WIfh hor on fho brIof wns MICHAI! IA!C!AY.
Of counsoI on fho brIof wns JASO M. SCH!!TZ, Y!
TochnoIogy !nw nnd IoIIcy CIInIc, Y! SchooI of !nw, of
ow York, ow York.

JOATHA IA, Jonnfhnn Innd I!!C, of WnshIng-
fon, C, fIIod n brIof for nmIcus curIno Comufor & Com-
munIcnfIons Indusfry AssocInfIon. WIfh hIm on fho brIof
wns MATTHIW SCH!!I!S, Comufor & CommunIcnfIons
Indusfry AssocInfIon, of WnshIngfon, C.

CHA !!IACK, Tho !ubnck !nw IIrm, of nIIns, Tox-
ns, fIIod n brIof for nmIcI curIno !ncksnco !S, Inc., of nI.

JIIII! M. !!IA, SnmuoIson !nw, TochnoIogy nnd
IubIIc IoIIcy CIInIc, !.C. IorkoIoy SchooI of !nw, of
IorkoIoy, CnIIfornIn for nmIcI curIno Soffwnro Innovnfors,
of nI.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Ioforo O`MA!!IY, I!ACI!, nnd TA!ATO, /$045$& 75.8+23
O`MA!!IY, /$045$& 75.8+.
ThIs coyrIghf dIsufo InvoIvos 3? nckngos of com-
ufor sourco codo. Tho nrfIos hnvo offon roforrod fo
fhoso grous of comufor rogrnms, IndIvIdunIIy or coIIoc-
fIvoIy, ns nIIcnfIon rogrnmmIng Inforfncos, or AII
nckngos, buf If Is fhoIr confonf, nof fhoIr nnmo, fhnf
mnffors. Tho rodocossor of OrncIo AmorIcn, Inc. (Orn-
cIo) wrofo fhoso nnd ofhor AII nckngos In fho Jnvn
rogrnmmIng Inngungo, nnd OrncIo IIconsos fhom on
vnrIous forms for ofhors fo uso. Mnny soffwnro dovoIo-
ors uso fho Jnvn Inngungo, ns woII ns OrncIo`s AII nck-
ngos, fo wrIfo nIIcnfIons (commonIy roforrod fo ns
ns) for doskfo nnd Info comufors, fnbIofs,
smnrfhonos, nnd ofhor dovIcos.
OrncIo fIIod suIf ngnInsf CoogIo Inc. (CoogIo) In fho
!nIfod Sfnfos IsfrIcf Courf for fho orfhorn IsfrIcf of
CnIIfornIn, nIIogIng fhnf CoogIo`s AndroId mobIIo oornf-
Ing sysfom InfrIngod OrncIo`s nfonfs nnd coyrIghfs. Tho
jury found no nfonf InfrIngomonf, nnd fho nfonf cInIms
nro nof nf Issuo In fhIs nonI. As fo fho coyrIghf cInIms,
fho nrfIos ngrood fhnf fho jury wouId docIdo InfrIngo-
monf, fnIr uso, nnd whofhor nny coyIng wns do mInImIs,
whIIo fho dIsfrIcf judgo wouId docIdo coyrIghfnbIIIfy nnd
CoogIo`s oquIfnbIo dofonsos. Tho jury found fhnf CoogIo
InfrIngod OrncIo`s coyrIghfs In fho 3? Jnvn nckngos nnd
n socIfIc comufor roufIno cnIIod rnngoChock, buf
rofurnod n nonInfrIngomonf vordIcf ns fo oIghf docomIIod
socurIfy fIIos. Tho jury dondIockod on CoogIo`s fnIr uso
dofonso.
Affor fho jury vordIcf, fho dIsfrIcf courf donIod Orn-
cIo`s mofIon for judgmonf ns n mnffor of Inw (JMO!)
rognrdIng fnIr uso ns woII ns CoogIo`s mofIon for JMO!
wIfh rosocf fo fho rnngoChock fIIos. Ordor on MofIons
for Judgmonf ns n Mnffor of !nw, 90#4"+ ):3, ;%43 <3
=118"+ ;%4., o. 3:l0-cv-356l (.. CnI. Mny l0, 20l2),
ICI o. lll9. OrncIo nIso movod for JMO! of InfrIngo-
monf wIfh rosocf fo fho oIghf docomIIod socurIfy fIIos.
In grnnfIng fhnf mofIon, fho courf found fhnf: (l) CoogIo
ndmIffod fo coyIng fho oIghf fIIos; nnd (2) no ronsonnbIo
jury couId fInd fhnf fho coyIng wns do mInImIs. 90#4"+
):3, ;%43 <3 =118"+ ;%4., o. C l0-356l, 20l2 !.S. Isf.
!IXIS 664l? (.. CnI. Mny ll, 20l2) (90.+0 =0#%&$%8
7>9? 1% -+41:*$"+. @$"+2).
ShorfIy fhoronffor, fho dIsfrIcf courf Issuod Ifs docI-
sIon on coyrIghfnbIIIfy, fIndIng fhnf fho roIIcnfod oIo-
monfs of fho 3? AII nckngosIncIudIng fho docInrIng
codo nnd fho sfrucfuro, soquonco, nnd orgnnIznfIonworo
nof subjocf fo coyrIghf rofocfIon. 90#4"+ ):3, ;%43 <3
=118"+ ;%43, 8?2 I. Su. 2d 9?4 (.. CnI. 20l2) (/1*A(
0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%). AccordIngIy, fho dIsfrIcf courf
onforod fInnI judgmonf In fnvor of CoogIo on OrncIo`s
coyrIghf InfrIngomonf cInIms, oxcof wIfh rosocf fo fho
rnngoChock codo nnd fho oIghf docomIIod fIIos. IInnI
Judgmonf, 90#4"+ ):3, ;%43 <3 =118"+ ;%43, o. 3:l0-cv-
356l (.. CnI. Juno 20, 20l2), ICI o. l2ll. OrncIo
nonIs from fho orfIon of fho fInnI judgmonf onforod
ngnInsf If, nnd CoogIo cross-nonIs from fho orfIon of
fhnf snmo judgmonf onforod In fnvor of OrncIo ns fo fho
rnngoChock codo nnd oIghf docomIIod fIIos.
Iocnuso wo concIudo fhnf fho docInrIng codo nnd fho
sfrucfuro, soquonco, nnd orgnnIznfIon of fho AII nckngos
nro onfIfIod fo coyrIghf rofocfIon, wo rovorso fho dIsfrIcf
courf`s coyrIghfnbIIIfy doformInnfIon wIfh InsfrucfIons fo
roInsfnfo fho jury`s InfrIngomonf fIndIng ns fo fho 3? Jnvn
nckngos. Iocnuso fho jury dondIockod on fnIr uso, wo
romnnd for furfhor consIdornfIon of CoogIo`s fnIr uso
dofonso In IIghf of fhIs docIsIon. WIfh rosocf fo CoogIo`s
cross-nonI, wo nffIrm fho dIsfrIcf courf`s docIsIons:
(l) grnnfIng OrncIo`s mofIon for JMO! ns fo fho oIghf
docomIIod Jnvn fIIos fhnf CoogIo coIod Info AndroId;
nnd (2) donyIng CoogIo`s mofIon for JMO! wIfh rosocf fo
fho rnngoChock funcfIon. AccordIngIy, wo nffIrm-In-nrf,
rovorso-In-nrf, nnd romnnd for furfhor rocoodIngs.
IACKC!O!
A. Tho TochnoIogy
Sun MIcrosysfoms, Inc. (Sun) dovoIood fho Jnvn
Infform for comufor rogrnmmIng nnd roIonsod If In
l996.
l
Tho nIm wns fo roIIovo rogrnmmors from fho
burdon of wrIfIng dIfforonf vorsIons of fhoIr comufor
rogrnms for dIfforonf oornfIng sysfoms or dovIcos. Tho
Jnvn Infform, fhrough fho uso of n vIrfunI mnchIno,
onnbIo|d] soffwnro dovoIoors fo wrIfo rogrnms fhnf
|wo]ro nbIo fo run on dIfforonf fyos of comufor hnrd-
wnro wIfhouf hnvIng fo rowrIfo fhom for onch dIfforonf
fyo. /1*A0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%, 8?2 I. Su. 2d nf 9??.
WIfh Jnvn, n soffwnro rogrnmmor couId wrIfo onco, run
nnywhoro.
Tho Jnvn vIrfunI mnchIno (JVM) Inys n confrnI roIo
In fho ovornII Jnvn Infform. Tho Jnvn rogrnmmIng
Inngungo IfsoIfwhIch IncIudos words, symboIs, nnd
ofhor unIfs, fogofhor wIfh synfnx ruIos for usIng fhom fo
cronfo InsfrucfIonsIs fho Inngungo In whIch n Jnvn
rogrnmmor wrIfos sourco codo, fho vorsIon of n rogrnm
fhnf Is In n humnn-rondnbIo Inngungo. ;.. Ior fho
InsfrucfIons fo bo oxocufod, fhoy musf bo convorfod (or
comIIod) Info bInnry mnchIno codo (objocf codo) consIsf-
Ing of 0s nnd ls undorsfnndnbIo by fho nrfIcuInr comu-
fIng dovIco. In fho Jnvn sysfom, sourco codo Is fIrsf
convorfod Info 'byfocodo,` nn InformodInfo form, boforo If
Is fhon convorfod Info bInnry mnchIno codo by fho Jnvn
vIrfunI mnchIno fhnf hns boon dosIgnod for fhnf dovIco.
;.. Tho Jnvn Infform IncIudos fho Jnvn dovoIomonf kIf
(JK), jnvnc comIIor, fooIs nnd ufIIIfIos, runfImo ro-
grnms, cInss IIbrnrIos (AII nckngos), nnd fho Jnvn vIrfu-
nI mnchIno. ;.. nf 9?? n.2.
l
OrncIo ncquIrod Sun In 20l0.

O!AC!I AMI!ICA, IC. v. COOC!I IC. ?
Sun wrofo n numbor of rondy-fo-uso Jnvn rogrnms fo
orform common comufor funcfIons nnd orgnnIzod fhoso
rogrnms Info grous If cnIIod nckngos. Thoso nckng-
os, whIch nro fho nIIcnfIon rogrnmmIng Inforfncos nf
Issuo In fhIs nonI, nIIow rogrnmmors fo uso fho ro-
wrIffon codo fo buIId corfnIn funcfIons Info fhoIr own
rogrnms, rnfhor fhnn wrIfo fhoIr own codo fo orform
fhoso funcfIons from scrnfch. Thoy nro shorfcufs. Sun
cnIIod fho codo for n socIfIc oornfIon (funcfIon) n mofh-
od. If dofInod cInssos so fhnf onch cInss consIsfs of
socIfIod mofhods Ius vnrInbIos nnd ofhor oIomonfs on
whIch fho mofhods oornfo. To orgnnIzo fho cInssos for
usors, fhon, If grouod cInssos (nIong wIfh corfnIn roInfod
Inforfncos) Info nckngos. D++ $.3 nf 982 (doscrIbIng
orgnnIznfIon: |o]nch nckngo |I]s brokon Info cInssos nnd
fhoso In furn |nro] brokon Info mofhods). Tho nrfIos
hnvo nof dIsufod fho dIsfrIcf courf`s nnnIogy: OrncIo`s
coIIocfIon of AII nckngos Is IIko n IIbrnry, onch nckngo
Is IIko n bookshoIf In fho IIbrnry, onch cInss Is IIko n book
on fho shoIf, nnd onch mofhod Is IIko n how-fo chnfor In n
book. ;.. nf 9??.
Tho orIgInnI Jnvn Sfnndnrd IdIfIon IInfform (Jnvn
SI) IncIudod oIghf nckngos of ro-wrIffon rogrnms.
;.. nf 982. Tho dIsfrIcf courf found, nnd OrncIo concodos
fo somo oxfonf, fhnf fhroo of fhoso nckngosjnvn.Inng,
jnvn.Io, nnd jnvn.ufIIworo coro nckngos, monnIng fhnf
rogrnmmors usIng fho Jnvn Inngungo hnd fo uso fhom
In ordor fo mnko nny worfhwhIIo uso of fho Inngungo.
;.. Iy 2008, fho Jnvn Infform hnd moro fhnn 6,000
mofhods mnkIng u moro fhnn 600 cInssos grouod Info
l66 AII nckngos. Thoro nro 3? Jnvn AII nckngos nf
Issuo In fhIs nonI, fhroo of whIch nro fho coro nckngos
IdonfIfIod by fho dIsfrIcf courf.
2
Thoso nckngos confnIn
2
Tho 3? AII nckngos InvoIvod In fhIs nonI nro:
jnvn.nwf.fonf, jnvn.bonns, jnvn.Io, jnvn.Inng, jn-

fhousnnds of IndIvIdunI oIomonfs, IncIudIng cInssos,
subcInssos, mofhods, nnd Inforfncos.
Ivory nckngo consIsfs of fwo fyos of sourco codo
whnf fho nrfIos cnII (l) docInrIng codo; nnd
(2) ImIomonfIng codo. ocInrIng codo Is fho oxrossIon
fhnf IdonfIfIos fho rowrIffon funcfIon nnd Is somofImos
roforrod fo ns fho docInrnfIon or hondor. As fho dIs-
frIcf courf oxInInod, fho mnIn oInf Is fhnf fhIs hondor
IIno of codo Infroducos fho mofhod body nnd socIfIos vory
rocIsoIy fho Inufs, nnmo nnd ofhor funcfIonnIIfy. ;.. nf
9?9-80. Tho oxrossIons usod by fho rogrnmmor from
fho docInrIng codo commnnd fho comufor fo oxocufo fho
nssocInfod ImIomonfIng codo, whIch gIvos fho comufor
fho sfo-by-sfo InsfrucfIons for cnrryIng ouf fho docInrod
funcfIon.
To uso fho dIsfrIcf courf`s oxnmIo, ono of fho Jnvn
AII nckngos nf Issuo Is jnvn.Inng. WIfhIn fhnf nckngo
Is n cInss cnIIod mnfh, nnd wIfhIn mnfh fhoro nro
sovornI mofhods, IncIudIng ono fhnf Is dosIgnod fo fInd fho
Inrgor of fwo numbors: mnx. Tho docInrnfIon for fho
mnx mofhod, ns dofInod for Infogors, Is: ubIIc sfnfIc Inf
mnx(Inf x, Inf y), whoro fho word ubIIc monns fhnf fho
mofhod Is gonornIIy nccossIbIo, sfnfIc monns fhnf no
vn.Inng.nnnofnfIon, jnvn.Inng.rof, jnvn.Inng.rofIocf, jn-
vn.nof, jnvn.nIo, jnvn.nIo.chnnnoIs, jnvn.nIo.chnnnoIs.sI,
jnvn.nIo.chnrsof, jnvn.nIo.chnrsof.sI, jnvn.socurIfy, jn-
vn.socurIfy.ncI, jnvn.socurIfy.corf, jnvn.socurIfy.Inforfncos,
jnvn.socurIfy.soc, jnvn.sqI, jnvn.foxf, jnvn.ufII, jn-
vn.ufII.jnr, jnvn.ufII.IoggIng, jnvn.ufII.rofs, jn-
vn.ufII.rogox, jnvn.ufII.zI, jnvnx.cryfo,
jnvnx.cryfo.Inforfncos, jnvnx.cryfo.soc, jnvnx.nof,
jnvnx.nof.ssI, jnvnx.socurIfy.nufh, jn-
vnx.socurIfy.nufh.cnIIbnck, jnvnx.socurIfy.nufh.IogIn,
jnvnx.socurIfy.nufh.x500, jnvnx.socurIfy.corf, nnd jn-
vnx.sqI.

socIfIc Insfnnco of fho cInss Is noodod fo cnII fho mofhod,
fho fIrsf Inf IndIcnfos fhnf fho mofhod rofurns nn Info-
gor, nnd Inf x nnd Inf y nro fho fwo numbors (Inufs)
boIng comnrod. /1*A0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%, 8?2 I. Su.
2d nf 980-82. A rogrnmmor cnIIs fho mnx mofhod by
fyIng fho nnmo of fho mofhod sfnfod In fho docInrIng
codo nnd rovIdIng unIquo Inufs for fho vnrInbIos x nnd
y. Tho oxrossIons usod commnnd fho comufor fo
oxocufo fho ImIomonfIng codo fhnf cnrrIos ouf fho oorn-
fIon of rofurnIng fho Inrgor numbor.
AIfhough OrncIo owns fho coyrIghf on Jnvn SI nnd
fho AII nckngos, If offors fhroo dIfforonf IIconsos fo fhoso
who wnnf fo mnko uso of fhom. Tho fIrsf Is fho ConornI
IubIIc !Iconso, whIch Is froo of chnrgo nnd rovIdos fhnf
fho IIconsoo cnn uso fho nckngosbofh fho docInrIng nnd
ImIomonfIng codobuf musf confrIbufo bnck Ifs Inno-
vnfIons fo fho ubIIc. ThIs nrrnngomonf Is roforrod fo ns
nn oon sourco IIconso. Tho socond ofIon Is fho SocIfI-
cnfIon !Iconso, whIch rovIdos fhnf fho IIconsoo cnn uso
fho docInrIng codo nnd orgnnIznfIon of OrncIo`s AII nck-
ngos buf musf wrIfo Ifs own ImIomonfIng codo. Tho
fhIrd ofIon Is fho CommorcInI !Iconso, whIch Is for
busInossos fhnf wnnf fo uso nnd cusfomIzo fho fuII Jnvn
codo In fhoIr commorcInI roducfs nnd koo fhoIr codo
socrof. AoIInnf Ir. l4. OrncIo offors fho CommorcInI
!Iconso In oxchnngo for roynIfIos. To mnInfnIn Jnvn`s
wrIfo onco, run nnywhoro moffo, fho SocIfIcnfIon nnd
CommorcInI !Iconsos roquIro fhnf fho IIconsoos` rogrnms
nss corfnIn fosfs fo onsuro comnfIbIIIfy wIfh fho Jnvn
Infform.
Tho fosfImony nf frInI nIso rovonIod fhnf Sun wns II-
consIng n dorIvnfIvo vorsIon of fho Jnvn Infform for uso
on mobIIo dovIcos: fho Jnvn MIcro IdIfIon (Jnvn MI).
OrncIo IIconsod Jnvn MI for uso on fonfuro honos nnd
smnrfhonos. Sun/OrncIo hns novor succossfuIIy dovoI-
ood Ifs own smnrfhono Infform usIng Jnvn.
O!AC!I AMI!ICA, IC. v. COOC!I IC. l0
I. CoogIo`s Accusod Iroducf: AndroId
Tho nccusod roducf Is AndroId, n soffwnro Infform
fhnf wns dosIgnod for mobIIo dovIcos nnd comofos wIfh
Jnvn In fhnf mnrkof. CoogIo ncquIrod AndroId, Inc. In
2005 ns nrf of n Inn fo dovoIo n smnrfhono Infform.
!nfor fhnf snmo yonr, CoogIo nnd Sun bognn dIscussIng
fho ossIbIIIfy of CoogIo fnkIng n IIconso fo uso nnd fo
ndnf fho onfIro Jnvn Infform for mobIIo dovIcos. /1*A(
0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%, 8?2 I. Su. 2d nf 9?8. Thoy nIso
dIscussod n ossIbIo co-dovoIomonf nrfnorshI donI
wIfh Sun undor whIch Jnvn fochnoIogy wouId bocomo nn
oon-sourco nrf of fho AndroId Infform, ndnfod for
mobIIo dovIcos. ;.. Tho nrfIos nogofInfod for monfhs
buf woro unnbIo fo ronch nn ngroomonf. Tho oInf of
confonfIon bofwoon fho nrfIos wns CoogIo`s rofusnI fo
mnko fho ImIomonfnfIon of Ifs rogrnms comnfIbIo wIfh
fho Jnvn vIrfunI mnchIno or InforoornbIo wIfh ofhor Jnvn
rogrnms. Iocnuso Sun/OrncIo found fhnf osIfIon fo bo
nnnfhomn fo fho wrIfo onco, run nnywhoro hIIosohy,
If dId nof grnnf CoogIo n IIconso fo uso fho Jnvn AII
nckngos.
Whon fho nrfIos` nogofInfIons ronchod nn Imnsso,
CoogIo docIdod fo uso fho Jnvn rogrnmmIng Inngungo fo
dosIgn Ifs own vIrfunI mnchInofho nIvIk vIrfunI mn-
chIno (nIvIk VM)nnd fo wrIfo Ifs own ImIomonfn-
fIons for fho funcfIons In fho Jnvn AII fhnf woro koy fo
mobIIo dovIcos. ;.. CoogIo dovoIood fho AndroId Inf-
form, whIch grow fo IncIudo l68 AII nckngos3? of
whIch corrosond fo fho Jnvn AII nckngos nf Issuo In
fhIs nonI.
WIfh rosocf fo fho 3? nckngos nf Issuo, CoogIo bo-
IIovod Jnvn nIIcnfIon rogrnmmors wouId wnnf fo fInd
fho snmo 3? sofs of funcfIonnIIfIos In fho now AndroId
sysfom cnIInbIo by fho snmo nnmos ns usod In Jnvn. ;..
To nchIovo fhIs rosuIf, CoogIo coIod fho docInrIng sourco
codo from fho 3? Jnvn AII nckngos vorbnfIm, InsorfIng
O!AC!I AMI!ICA, IC. v. COOC!I IC. ll
fhnf codo Info nrfs of Ifs AndroId soffwnro. In doIng so,
CoogIo coIod fho oInbornfoIy orgnnIzod fnxonomy of nII
fho nnmos of mofhods, cInssos, Inforfncos, nnd nckngos
fho ovornII sysfom of orgnnIzod nnmoscovorIng 3?
nckngos, wIfh ovor sIx hundrod cInssos, wIfh ovor sIx
fhousnnd mofhods. /1*A0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%, 8?2 I.
Su. 2d nf 999. Tho nrfIos nnd dIsfrIcf courf roforrod
fo fhIs fnxonomy of oxrossIons ns fho sfrucfuro, so-
quonco, nnd orgnnIznfIon or SSO of fho 3? nckngos. If
Is undIsufod, howovor, fhnf CoogIo wrofo Ifs own ImIo-
monfIng codo, oxcof wIfh rosocf fo: (l) fho rnngoChock
funcfIon, whIch consIsfod of nIno IInos of codo; nnd
(2) oIghf docomIIod socurIfy fIIos.
As fo rnngoChock, fho courf found fhnf fho Sun ongI-
noor who wrofo If Infor workod for CoogIo nnd confrIbufod
fwo fIIos ho cronfod confnInIng fho rnngoChock funcfIon
TImsorf.jnvn nnd ComnrnbIoTImsorffo fho AndroId
Infform. In doIng so, fho nIno-IIno rnngoChock funcfIon
wns coIod dIrocfIy Info AndroId. As fo fho oIghf docom-
IIod fIIos, fho dIsfrIcf courf found fhnf fhoy woro coIod
nnd usod ns fosf fIIos buf novor found fhoIr wny Info
AndroId or nny hnndsof. ;.3 nf 983.
CoogIo roIonsod fho AndroId Infform In 200?, nnd fho
fIrsf AndroId honos wonf on snIo fho foIIowIng yonr.
AIfhough If Is undIsufod fhnf corfnIn AndroId soffwnro
confnIns coIos of fho 3? AII nckngos` docInrIng codo nf
Issuo, noIfhor fho dIsfrIcf courf nor fho nrfIos socIfy In
whIch rogrnms fhoso coIos nonr. OrncIo IndIcnfod nf
ornI nrgumonf, howovor, fhnf nII AndroId honos confnIn
coIos of fho nccusod orfIons of fho AndroId soffwnro.
OrnI Argumonf nf l:35, #<#$"#C"+ #& hff://www.
cnfc.uscourfs.gov/ornI-nrgumonf-rocordIngs/20l3-l02l/nII.
AndroId smnrfhonos rnIdIy grow In ouInrIfy nnd
now comrIso n Inrgo shnro of fho !nIfod Sfnfos mnrkof.
/1*A0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%, 8?2 I. Su. 2d nf 9?8. CoogIo
rovIdos fho AndroId Infform froo of chnrgo fo
smnrfhono mnnufncfurors nnd rocoIvos rovonuo whon
cusfomors uso nrfIcuInr funcfIons on fho AndroId hono.
AIfhough AndroId usos fho Jnvn rogrnmmIng Inngungo,
If Is undIsufod fhnf AndroId Is nof gonornIIy Jnvn com-
nfIbIo. As OrncIo oxInIns, CoogIo uIfImnfoIy dosIgnod
AndroId fo bo $%41:*#&$C"+ wIfh fho Jnvn Infform, so
fhnf ns wrIffon for ono wIII nof work on fho ofhor.
AoIInnf Ir. 29.
C. TrInI nnd Iosf-TrInI !uIIngs
IogInnIng on ArII l6, 20l2, fho dIsfrIcf courf nnd fho
juryon nrnIIoI frncksvIowod documonfs nnd honrd
fosfImony from fwonfy-four wIfnossos on coyrIghfnbIIIfy,
InfrIngomonf, fnIr uso, nnd CoogIo`s ofhor dofonsos.
Iocnuso fho nrfIos ngrood fho dIsfrIcf courf wouId docIdo
coyrIghfnbIIIfy, fho courf Insfrucfod fho jury fo nssumo
fhnf fho sfrucfuro, soquonco, nnd orgnnIznfIon of fho 3?
AII nckngos wns coyrIghfnbIo. And, fho courf Informod
fho jury fhnf CoogIo concodod fhnf If coIod fho docInrIng
codo usod In fho 3? nckngos vorbnfIm. Tho courf nIso
Insfrucfod fho jury fhnf CoogIo concodod coyIng fho
rnngoChock funcfIon nnd fho oIghf docomIIod socurIfy
fIIos, buf fhnf CoogIo mnInfnInod fhnf Ifs uso of fhoso
IInos of codo wns do mInImIs. D++ IInnI Chnrgo fo fho
Jury (Ihnso Ono), 90#4"+ ):3, ;%43 <3 =118"+ ;%43, 3:l0-cv-
356l (.. CnI. Ar. 30, 20l2), ICI o. l0l8 nf l4 (WIfh
rosocf fo fho InfrIngomonf Issuos concornIng fho
rnngoChock nnd ofhor sImIInr fIIos, CoogIo ngroos fhnf
fho nccusod IInos of codo nnd commonfs cnmo from fho
coyrIghfod mnforInI buf confonds fhnf fho nmounfs
InvoIvod woro so nogIIgIbIo ns fo bo do mInImIs nnd fhus
shouId bo oxcusod.).
On Mny ?, 20l2, fho jury rofurnod n vordIcf fIndIng
fhnf CoogIo InfrIngod OrncIo`s coyrIghf In fho 3? Jnvn
AII nckngos nnd In fho nIno IInos of rnngoChock codo,
buf rofurnod n nonInfrIngomonf vordIcf ns fo oIghf do-
comIIod socurIfy fIIos. Tho jury hung on CoogIo`s fnIr uso
dofonso.
Tho nrfIos fIIod n numbor of osf-frInI mofIons, mosf
of whIch woro uIfImnfoIy donIod. In roIovnnf nrf, fho
dIsfrIcf courf donIod OrncIo`s mofIon for JMO! rognrdIng
fnIr uso nnd CoogIo`s mofIon for JMO! ns fo fho
rnngoChock fIIos. Ordor on MofIons for Judgmonf ns n
Mnffor of !nw, 90#4"+ ):3, ;%43 <3 =118"+ ;%4., o. 3:l0-
cv-356l (.. CnI. Mny l0, 20l2), ICI o. lll9. Tho
dIsfrIcf courf grnnfod OrncIo`s mofIon for JMO! of In-
frIngomonf ns fo fho oIghf docomIIod fIIos, howovor. In
Ifs ordor, fho courf oxInInod fhnf: (l) CoogIo coIod fho
fIIos In fhoIr onfIrofy; (2) fho frInI fosfImony rovonIod fhnf
fho uso of fhoso fIIos wns sIgnIfIcnnf; nnd (3) no ronson-
nbIo jury couId fInd fho coyIng do mInImIs. 90.+0 =0#%&(
$%8 7>9? 1% -+41:*$"+. @$"+2, 20l2 !.S. Isf. !IXIS
664l?, nf *6.
On Mny 3l, 20l2, fho dIsfrIcf courf Issuod fho rImn-
ry docIsIon nf Issuo In fhIs nonI, fIndIng fhnf fho roII-
cnfod oIomonfs of fho Jnvn AII nckngosIncIudIng fho
docInrnfIons nnd fhoIr sfrucfuro, soquonco, nnd orgnnIzn-
fIonworo nof coyrIghfnbIo. As fo fho docInrIng codo,
fho courf concIudod fhnf fhoro Is onIy ono wny fo wrIfo
If, nnd fhus fho morgor docfrIno bnrs nnyono from cInIm-
Ing oxcIusIvo coyrIghf ownorshI of fhnf oxrossIon.
/1*A0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%, 8?2 I. Su. 2d nf 998. Tho
courf furfhor found fhnf fho docInrIng codo wns nof ro-
focfnbIo bocnuso nnmos nnd shorf hrnsos cnnnof bo
coyrIghfod. ;.. As such, fho courf doformInod fhnf
fhoro cnn bo no coyrIghf vIoInfIon In usIng fho IdonfIcnI
docInrnfIons. ;..
As fo fho ovornII sfrucfuro, soquonco, nnd orgnnIzn-
fIon of fho Jnvn AII nckngos, fho courf rocognIzod fhnf
nofhIng In fho ruIos of fho Jnvn Inngungo . . . roquIrod
fhnf CoogIo roIIcnfo fho snmo grouIngs ovon If CoogIo
wns froo fo roIIcnfo fho snmo funcfIonnIIfy. ;.. nf 999.
Thoroforo, fho courf doformInod fhnf OrncIo`s bosf nrgu-
monf . . . Is fhnf whIIo no sIngIo nnmo Is coyrIghfnbIo,
Jnvn`s ovornII sysfom of orgnnIzod nnmoscovorIng 3?
nckngos, wIfh ovor sIx hundrod cInssos, wIfh ovor sIx
fhousnnd mofhodsIs n 'fnxonomy` nnd, fhoroforo, coy-
rIghfnbIo. ;..
AIfhough If ncknowIodgod fhnf fho ovornII sfrucfuro of
OrncIo`s AII nckngos Is cronfIvo, orIgInnI, nnd rosom-
bIos n fnxonomy, fho dIsfrIcf courf found fhnf If Is
novorfhoIoss n commnnd sfrucfuro, n sysfom or mofhod of
oornfIonn Iong hIornrchy of ovor sIx fhousnnd com-
mnnds fo cnrry ouf ro-nssIgnod funcfIonsfhnf Is nof
onfIfIod fo coyrIghf rofocfIon undor SocfIon l02(b) of
fho CoyrIghf Acf. ;.. nf 999-l000. In ronchIng fhIs
concIusIon, fho courf omhnsIzod fhnf, |o]f fho l66 Jnvn
nckngos, l29 woro nof vIoInfod In nny wny. ;.. nf l00l.
And, of fho 3? Jnvn AII nckngos nf Issuo, 9? orconf of
fho AndroId IInos woro now from CoogIo nnd fho romnIn-
Ing fhroo orconf woro frooIy roIIcnbIo undor fho morgor
nnd nnmos docfrInos. ;.. On fhoso grounds, fho courf
dIsmIssod OrncIo`s coyrIghf cInIms, concIudIng fhnf fho
nrfIcuInr oIomonfs roIIcnfod by CoogIo woro froo for nII
fo uso undor fho CoyrIghf Acf. ;..
On Juno 20, 20l2, fho dIsfrIcf courf onforod fInnI
judgmonf In fnvor of CoogIo nnd ngnInsf OrncIo on Ifs
cInIm for coyrIghf InfrIngomonf, oxcof wIfh rosocf fo
fho rnngoChock funcfIon nnd fho oIghf docomIIod fIIos.
As fo rnngoChock nnd fho docomIIod fIIos, fho courf
onforod judgmonf for OrncIo nnd ngnInsf CoogIo In fho
nmounf of zoro doIInrs, or fho nrfIos` sfIuInfIon. IInnI
Judgmonf, 90#4"+ ):3, ;%43 <3 =118"+ ;%43, o. 3:l0-cv-
356l (.. CnI. Juno 20, 20l2), ICI o. l2ll. OrncIo
fImoIy nonIod from fho orfIon of fho dIsfrIcf courf`s
fInnI judgmonf onforod ngnInsf If nnd CoogIo fImoIy cross-
nonIod wIfh rosocf fo rnngoChock nnd fho oIghf do-
comIIod fIIos. Iocnuso fhIs ncfIon IncIudod nfonf
cInIms, wo hnvo jurIsdIcfIon ursunnf fo 28 !.S.C.
l295(n)(l).
ISC!SSIO
I. O!AC!I`S AIIIA!
If Is undIsufod fhnf fho Jnvn rogrnmmIng Inngungo
Is oon nnd froo for nnyono fo uso. Ixcof fo fho IImIfod
oxfonf nofod boIow rognrdIng fhroo of fho AII nckngos, If
Is nIso undIsufod fhnf CoogIo couId hnvo wrIffon Ifs own
AII nckngos usIng fho Jnvn Inngungo. CoogIo choso nof
fo do fhnf. Insfond, If Is undIsufod fhnf CoogIo coIod
?,000 IInos of docInrIng codo nnd gonornIIy roIIcnfod fho
ovornII sfrucfuro, soquonco, nnd orgnnIznfIon of OrncIo`s
3? Jnvn AII nckngos. Tho confrnI quosfIon boforo us Is
whofhor fhoso oIomonfs of fho Jnvn Infform nro onfIfIod
fo coyrIghf rofocfIon. Tho dIsfrIcf courf concIudod fhnf
fhoy nro nof, nnd OrncIo chnIIongos fhnf doformInnfIon on
nonI. OrncIo nIso nrguos fhnf fho dIsfrIcf courf shouId
hnvo dIsmIssod CoogIo`s fnIr uso dofonso ns n mnffor of
Inw.
AccordIng fo CoogIo, howovor, fho dIsfrIcf courf cor-
rocfIy doformInod fhnf: (l) fhoro wns onIy ono wny fo
wrIfo fho Jnvn mofhod docInrnfIons nnd romnIn Inforo-
ornbIo wIfh Jnvn; nnd (2) fho orgnnIznfIon nnd sfrucfuro
of fho 3? Jnvn AII nckngos Is n commnnd sfrucfuro
oxcIudod from coyrIghf rofocfIon undor SocfIon l02(b).
CoogIo nIso nrguos fhnf, If wo rovorso fho dIsfrIcf courf`s
coyrIghfnbIIIfy doformInnfIon, wo shouId dIrocf fho
dIsfrIcf courf fo rofry Ifs fnIr uso dofonso.
Whon fho quosfIons on nonI InvoIvo Inw nnd roco-
donf on subjocfs nof oxcIusIvoIy nssIgnod fo fho IodornI
CIrcuIf, fho courf nIIos fho Inw whIch wouId bo nIIod
by fho rogIonnI cIrcuIf. )&#0$ =#:+2 /10*3 <3 E$%&+%.1 1'
):3, ;%4., 89? I.2d l5?2, l5?5 (Iod. CIr. l990). CoyrIghf
Issuos nro nof oxcIusIvoIy nssIgnod fo fho IodornI CIrcuIf.
D++ 28 !.S.C. l295. Tho nrfIos ngroo fhnf Infh CIr-
cuIf Inw nIIos nnd fhnf, In fho Infh CIrcuIf, whofhor
nrfIcuInr oxrossIon Is rofocfod by coyrIghf Inw Is
subjocf fo do novo rovIow. F&2(G1H$% <3 DHAA D*$0$&2,
;%43, 225 I.3d l068, l0?3 (9fh CIr. 2000).
3

3
Tho Suromo Courf hns nof nddrossod whofhor
coyrIghfnbIIIfy Is n uro quosfIon of Inw or n mIxod
quosfIon of Inw nnd fncf, or whofhor, If If Is n mIxod
quosfIon of Inw nnd fncf, fho fncfunI comononfs of fhnf
InquIry nro for fho courf, rnfhor fhnn fho jury. !oInfodIy,
If hns nof docIdod fho sfnndnrd of rovIow fhnf nIIos on
nonI. Ton yonrs ngo, boforo fIndIng If unnocossnry fo
docIdo whofhor coyrIghfnbIIIfy Is n uro quosfIon of Inw
or n mIxod quosfIon of Inw nnd fncf, fho Sovonfh CIrcuIf
nofod fhnf If hnd found onIy n hnndfuI of noIInfo cnsos
nddrossIng fho Issuo, nnd fhoy nro sIIf. =#$:#% <3
>4@#0"#%+, 360 I.3d 644, 648 (?fh CIr. 2004). And,
nnoIs of fho Infh CIrcuIf hnvo dofInod fho rosocfIvo
roIos of fho jury nnd fho courf dIfforonfIy whoro quosfIons
of orIgInnIIfy woro nf Issuo. /1:*#0+ E10&B /1#2& ;%.523
<3 7#21% >#IJ+"", ;%4., 9?2 I.2d l03l, l035 (9fh CIr.
l992), J$&B F&2(G1H$%, 225 I.3d nf l0?3. Moro roconfIy,
sovornI dIsfrIcf courfs wIfhIn fho Infh CIrcuIf hnvo
fronfod coyrIghfnbIIIfy ns n quosfIon for onIy fho courf,
rognrdIoss of whofhor If Is n uro quosfIon of Inw. D++
D&+0% <3 -1+2, o. 09-l986, 20ll !.S. Isf. !IXIS 3??35,
*? (C.. CnI. Iob. l0, 20ll); 71%#&B#% K01J%$%8, ;%43 <3
L+%+&$#% /#2$%1 M+210& ??/, o. C 0?-3983, 2009 !.S.
Isf. !IXIS 5?525, nf *2 (.. CnI. Juno l9, 2009); 2++
#"21 !$<1& !1$%& ;%&N", ;%43 <3 /B#0"+%+ !01.23, ;%43, 932 I.
Su. 220, 225 (.. III. l996) (Insforbrook, J.) (cIfIng fo
>#0H:#% <3 O+2&<$+J ;%2&05:+%&2, ;%4., 5l? !.S. 3?0
(l996), nnd concIudIng fhnf whofhor works nro coyrIghf-
nbIo Is n quosfIon whIch fho jury hns nofhIng fo do
wIfh). Wo nood nof nddross nny of fhoso quosfIons,
bocnuso fho nrfIos horo ngrood fhnf fho dIsfrIcf courf
wouId docIdo coyrIghfnbIIIfy, nnd bofh InrgoIy ngroo fhnf

O!AC!I AMI!ICA, IC. v. COOC!I IC. l?
Wo nro mIndfuI fhnf fho nIIcnfIon of coyrIghf Inw
In fho comufor confoxf Is offon n dIffIcuIf fnsk. D++ ?1&52
-+<3 /10*3 <3 K10"#%. ;%&N", ;%4., 49 I.3d 80?, 820 (lsf CIr.
l995) (IoudIn, J., concurrIng) (AIyIng coyrIghf Inw fo
comufor rogrnms Is IIko nssombIIng n jIgsnw uzzIo
whoso Iocos do nof quIfo fIf.). On fhIs rocord, howovor,
wo fInd fhnf fho dIsfrIcf courf fnIIod fo dIsfInguIsh bo-
fwoon fho fhroshoId quosfIon of whnf Is coyrIghfnbIo
whIch rosonfs n Iow bnrnnd fho scoo of conducf fhnf
consfIfufos InfrIngIng ncfIvIfy. Tho courf nIso orrod by
ImorfIng fnIr uso rIncIIos, IncIudIng InforoornbIIIfy
concorns, Info Ifs coyrIghfnbIIIfy nnnIysIs.
Ior fho ronsons fhnf foIIow, wo concIudo fhnf fho do-
cInrIng codo nnd fho sfrucfuro, soquonco, nnd orgnnIzn-
fIon of fho 3? Jnvn AII nckngos nro onfIfIod fo coyrIghf
rofocfIon. Iocnuso fhoro Is nn InsuffIcIonf rocord ns fo
fho roIovnnf fnIr uso fncfors, wo romnnd for furfhor ro-
coodIngs on CoogIo`s fnIr uso dofonso.
A. CoyrIghfnbIIIfy
Tho CoyrIghf Acf rovIdos rofocfIon fo orIgInnI
works of nufhorshI fIxod In nny fnngIbIo modIum of
oxrossIon, IncIudIng IIfornry works. l? !.S.C.
l02(n). If Is undIsufod fhnf comufor rogrnms
dofInod In fho CoyrIghf Acf ns n sof of sfnfomonfs or
InsfrucfIons fo bo usod dIrocfIy or IndIrocfIy In n comufor
In ordor fo brIng nbouf n corfnIn rosuIf, l? !.S.C.
l0lcnn bo subjocf fo coyrIghf rofocfIon ns IIfornry
works. D++ )&#0$ =#:+2 /10*3 <3 E$%&+%.1 1' ):3, ;%4.,
9?5 I.2d 832, 838 (Iod. CIr. l992) (As IIfornry works,
coyrIghf rofocfIon oxfonds fo comufor rogrnms.).
Indood, fho IogIsInfIvo hIsfory oxInIns fhnf IIfornry
works IncIudos comufor rogrnms fo fho oxfonf fhnf
wo mny undorfnko n rovIow of fhnf doformInnfIon do
novo.

fhoy Incorornfo nufhorshI In fho rogrnmmor`s oxros-
sIon of orIgInnI Idons, ns dIsfInguIshod from fho Idons
fhomsoIvos. H.!. !o. o. l4?6, 94fh Cong., 2d Soss. 54,
0+*0$%&+. $% l9?6 !.S.C.C.A.. 5659, 566?.
Iy sfnfufo, n work musf bo orIgInnI fo qunIIfy for
coyrIghf rofocfIon. l? !.S.C. l02(n). ThIs orIgInnIIfy
roquIromonf Is nof nrfIcuInrIy sfrIngonf, howovor. @+$2&
!5C"N%2, ;%43 <3 M50#" P+"3 D+0<3 /1., 499 !.S. 340, 358
(l99l). OrIgInnI, ns fho form Is usod In coyrIghf, monns
onIy fhnf fho work wns IndoondonfIy cronfod by fho
nufhor (ns oosod fo coIod from ofhor works), nnd fhnf
If ossossos nf Ionsf somo mInImnI dogroo of cronfIvIfy.
;.. nf 345.
CoyrIghf rofocfIon oxfonds onIy fo fho oxrossIon of
nn Idonnof fo fho undorIyIng Idon IfsoIf. >#Q+0 <3 D&+$%,
34? !.S. 20l, 2l? (l954) (!nIIko n nfonf, n coyrIghf
gIvos no oxcIusIvo rIghf fo fho nrf dIscIosod; rofocfIon Is
gIvon onIy fo fho oxrossIon of fho Idonnof fho Idon
IfsoIf.). ThIs dIsfIncfIoncommonIy roforrod fo ns fho
Idon/oxrossIon dIchofomyIs codIfIod In SocfIon l02(b)
of fho CoyrIghf Acf, whIch rovIdos:
In no cnso doos coyrIghf rofocfIon for nn orIgI-
nnI work of nufhorshI oxfond fo nny Idon, roco-
duro, rocoss, sysfom, mofhod of oornfIon,
concof, rIncIIo, or dIscovory, rognrdIoss of fho
form In whIch If Is doscrIbod, oxInInod, IIIusfrnf-
od, or ombodIod In such work.
l? !.S.C. l02(b); 2++ =1"#% <3 G1".+0, l32 S. Cf. 8?3,
890 (20l2) (Tho Idon/oxrossIon dIchofomy Is codIfIod nf
l? !.S.C. l02(b).).
Tho Idon/oxrossIon dIchofomy frncos bnck fo fho Su-
romo Courf`s docIsIon In K#H+0 <3 D+".+%, l0l !.S. 99,
l0l (l8?9). In K#H+0, fho InInfIff SoIdon wrofo nnd
obfnInod coyrIghfs on n sorIos of books soffIng ouf n now
sysfom of bookkooIng. ;.. nf l00. Tho books IncIudod nn
Infroducfory ossny oxInInIng fho sysfom nnd bInnk forms
wIfh ruIod IInos nnd hondIngs dosIgnod for uso wIfh fhnf
sysfom. ;.. Inkor ubIIshod nccounf books omIoyIng n
sysfom wIfh sImIInr forms, nnd SoIdon fIIod suIf nIIogIng
coyrIghf InfrIngomonf. AccordIng fo SoIdon, fho ruIod
IInos nnd hondIngs, gIvon fo IIIusfrnfo fho sysfom, nro n
nrf of fho book nnd no ono cnn mnko or uso sImIInr
ruIod IInos nnd hondIngs, or ruIod IInos nnd hondIngs
mndo nnd nrrnngod on subsfnnfInIIy fho snmo sysfom,
wIfhouf vIoInfIng fho coyrIghf. ;.. nf l0l.
Tho Suromo Courf frnmod fho Issuo on nonI In
K#H+0 ns whofhor fho oxcIusIvo roorfy In n sysfom of
book-kooIng cnn bo cInImod, undor fho Inw of coyrIghf,
by monns of n book In whIch fhnf sysfom Is oxInInod.
;.. In rovorsIng fho cIrcuIf courf`s docIsIon, fho Courf
concIudod fhnf fho coyrIghf of n book on book-kooIng
cnnnof socuro fho oxcIusIvo rIghf fo mnko, soII, nnd uso
nccounf-books ronrod uon fho Inn sof forfh In such
book. ;.. nf l04. !IkowIso, fho coyrIghf of n work on
mnfhomnfIcnI scIonco cnnnof gIvo fo fho nufhor nn oxcIu-
sIvo rIghf fo fho mofhods of oornfIon whIch ho ro-
ounds. ;.. nf l03. Tho Courf found fhnf, nIfhough fho
coyrIghf rofocfs fho wny SoIdon oxInInod nnd do-
scrIbod n ocuIInr sysfom of book-kooIng, If doos nof
rovonf ofhors from usIng fho sysfom doscrIbod fhoroIn.
;.. nf l04. Tho Courf furfhor IndIcnfod fhnf, If If Is nocos-
snry fo uso fho forms SoIdon IncIudod In hIs books fo
mnko uso of fho nccounfIng sysfom, fhnf uso wouId nof
nmounf fo coyrIghf InfrIngomonf. D++ $.. (nofIng fhnf
fho ubIIc hns fho rIghf fo uso fho nccounf-books nnd fhnf,
In usIng fho nrf, fho ruIod IInos nnd hondIngs of nccounfs
musf nocossnrIIy bo usod ns IncIdonf fo If).
Courfs roufInoIy cIfo K#H+0 ns fho sourco of sovornI
rIncIIos Incorornfod Info SocfIon l02(b) fhnf roInfo fo
fhIs nonI, IncIudIng fhnf: (l) coyrIghf rofocfIon ox-
fonds onIy fo oxrossIon, nof fo Idons, sysfoms, or rocoss-
os; nnd (2) fhoso oIomonfs of n comufor rogrnm fhnf
nro nocossnrIIy IncIdonfnI fo Ifs funcfIon nro . . . unro-
focfnbIo. D++ /1:*5&+0 )221423 ;%&N" <3 )"&#$, 982 I.2d
693, ?04-05 (2d CIr. l992) ()"&#$) (dIscussIng K#H+0, l0l
!.S. nf l03-04).
If Is woII osfnbIIshod fhnf coyrIghf rofocfIon cnn ox-
fond fo bofh IIfornI nnd non-IIfornI oIomonfs of n comufor
rogrnm. D++ )"&#$, 982 I.2d nf ?02. Tho IIfornI oIomonfs
of n comufor rogrnm nro fho sourco codo nnd objocf
codo. D++ 71B%21% /1%&01"2, ;%43 <3 !B1+%$I /1%&01" DA23,
;%4., 886 I.2d ll?3, ll?5 (9fh CIr. l989). Courfs hnvo
dofInod sourco codo ns fho soIIod-ouf rogrnm com-
mnnds fhnf humnns cnn rond. ?+I:#0H ;%&N", ;%43 <3
D&#&$4 /1%&01" /1:*1%+%&2, ;%4., 38? I.3d 522, 533 (6fh
CIr. 2004). Objocf codo rofors fo fho bInnry Inngungo
comrIsod of zoros nnd onos fhrough whIch fho comufor
dIrocfIy rocoIvos Ifs InsfrucfIons. )"&#$, 982 I.2d nf 698.
Iofh sourco nnd objocf codo nro consIsfonfIy hoId ro-
focfod by n coyrIghf on fho rogrnm. 71B%21% /1%&01"2,
886 I.2d nf ll?5; 2++ #"21 )"&#$, 982 I.2d nf ?02 (If Is
now woII soffIod fhnf fho IIfornI oIomonfs of comufor
rogrnms, I.o., fhoIr sourco nnd objocf codos, nro fho
subjocf of coyrIghf rofocfIon.). CoogIo nowhoro dIs-
ufos fhnf romIso. D++, +383, OrnI Argumonf nf 5?:38.
Tho non-IIfornI comononfs of n comufor rogrnm In-
cIudo, nmong ofhor fhIngs, fho rogrnm`s soquonco, sfruc-
furo, nnd orgnnIznfIon, ns woII ns fho rogrnm`s usor
Inforfnco. 71B%21% /1%&01"2, 886 I.2d nf ll?5. As dIs-
cussod boIow, whofhor fho non-IIfornI oIomonfs of n ro-
grnm nro rofocfod doonds on whofhor, on fho
nrfIcuInr fncfs of onch cnso, fho comononf In quosfIon
qunIIfIos ns nn oxrossIon of nn Idon, or nn Idon IfsoIf. ;.3
In fhIs cnso, OrncIo cInIms coyrIghf rofocfIon wIfh
rosocf fo bofh: (l) IIfornI oIomonfs of Ifs AII nckngos
fho ?,000 IInos of docInrIng sourco codo; nnd (2) non-IIfornI
oIomonfsfho sfrucfuro, soquonco, nnd orgnnIznfIon of
onch of fho 3? Jnvn AII nckngos.
O!AC!I AMI!ICA, IC. v. COOC!I IC. 2l
Tho dIsfIncfIon bofwoon IIfornI nnd non-IIfornI nsocfs
of n comufor rogrnm Is sonrnfo from fho dIsfIncfIon
bofwoon IIfornI nnd non-IIfornI coyIng. D++ )"&#$, 982
I.2d nf ?0l-02. !IfornI coyIng Is vorbnfIm coyIng of
orIgInnI oxrossIon. on-IIfornI coyIng Is nrnhrnsod
or IoosoIy nrnhrnsod rnfhor fhnn word for word. ?1&52
-+<3 /10*3 <3 K10"#%. ;%&N", 49 I.3d 80?, 8l4 (lsf CIr.
l995). Horo, CoogIo concodos fhnf If coIod fho docInrIng
codo vorbnfIm. OrncIo oxInIns fhnf fho IInos of docInrIng
codo ombody fho sfrucfuro of onch |AII] nckngo, jusf ns
fho chnfor fIfIos nnd foIc sonfoncos rorosonf fho sfruc-
furo of n novoI. AoIInnf Ir. 45. As OrncIo oxInIns,
whon CoogIo coIod fho docInrIng codo In fhoso nckngos
If nIso coIod fho 'soquonco nnd orgnnIznfIon` of fho
nckngos (I.o., fho fhroo-dImonsIonnI sfrucfuro wIfh nII
fho chufos nnd Inddors) omIoyod by Sun/OrncIo In fho
nckngos. AoIInnf Ir. 2?. OrncIo nIso nrguos fhnf fho
nonIIfornI oIomonfs of fho AII nckngosfho sfrucfuro,
soquonco, nnd orgnnIznfIon fhnf Iod nnfurnIIy fo fho
ImIomonfIng codo CoogIo cronfodnro onfIfIod fo rofoc-
fIon. OrncIo doos nof nssorf IIfornI coyIng of fho onfIro
SSO, buf, rnfhor, fhnf CoogIo IIfornIIy coIod fho docInr-
Ing codo nnd fhon nrnhrnsod fho romnIndor of fho SSO
by wrIfIng Ifs own ImIomonfIng codo. If fhoroforo ns-
sorfs non-IIfornI coyIng wIfh rosocf fo fho onfIrofy of fho
SSO.
Af fhIs sfngo, If Is undIsufod fhnf fho docInrIng codo
nnd fho sfrucfuro nnd orgnnIznfIon of fho Jnvn AII nck-
ngos nro orIgInnI. Tho fosfImony nf frInI rovonIod fhnf
dosIgnIng fho Jnvn AII nckngos wns n cronfIvo rocoss
nnd fhnf fho Sun/OrncIo dovoIoors hnd n vnsf rnngo of
ofIons for fho sfrucfuro nnd orgnnIznfIon. In Ifs coy-
rIghfnbIIIfy docIsIon, fho dIsfrIcf courf socIfIcnIIy found
fhnf fho AII nckngos nro bofh cronfIvo nnd orIgInnI, nnd
CoogIo concodos on nonI fhnf fho orIgInnIIfy roquIro-
monfs nro mof. D++ /1*A0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%, 8?2 I.
Su. 2d nf 9?6 (Tho ovornII nnmo froo, of courso, hns
cronfIvo oIomonfs . . . .); ;.. nf 999 (Yos, If Is cronfIvo.
Yos, If Is orIgInnI.); AoIIoo Ir. 5 (CoogIo doos nof
dIsufo fho dIsfrIcf courf`s fIndIng fhnf fho Jnvn AII
cIonrs fho Iow orIgInnIIfy fhroshoId.). Tho courf found,
howovor, fhnf noIfhor fho docInrIng codo nor fho SSO wns
onfIfIod fo coyrIghf rofocfIon undor fho CoyrIghf Acf.
AIfhough fho nrfIos ngroo fhnf OrncIo`s AII nckngos
moof fho orIgInnIIfy roquIromonf undor SocfIon l02(n),
fhoy dIsngroo ns fo fho roor InforrofnfIon nnd nIIcn-
fIon of SocfIon l02(b). Ior Ifs nrf, CoogIo suggosfs fhnf
fhoro Is n fwo-sfo coyrIghfnbIIIfy nnnIysIs, whoroIn
SocfIon l02(n) grnnfs coyrIghf rofocfIon fo orIgInnI
works, whIIo SocfIon l02(b) fnkos If nwny If fho work hns
n funcfIonnI comononf. To fho confrnry, howovor, Con-
gross omhnsIzod fhnf SocfIon l02(b) In no wny onInrgos
or confrncfs fho scoo of coyrIghf rofocfIon nnd fhnf Ifs
uroso Is fo rosfnfo . . . fhnf fho bnsIc dIchofomy bo-
fwoon oxrossIon nnd Idon romnIns unchnngod. @+$2&,
499 !.S. nf 356 (quofIng H.!. !o. o. l4?6, 94fh Cong.,
2d Soss. 54, 0+*0$%&+. $% l9?6 !.S.C.C.A.. 5659, 56?0).
SocfIon l02(b) doos nof oxfInguIsh fho rofocfIon nccord-
od n nrfIcuInr oxrossIon of nn Idon moroIy bocnuso fhnf
oxrossIon Is ombodIod In n mofhod of oornfIon. >$&+",
;%43 <3 ;R&+", ;%43, l24 I.3d l366, l3?2 (l0fh CIr. l99?).
SocfIon l02(n) nnd l02(b) nro fo bo consIdorod coIIocfIvoIy
so fhnf corfnIn oxrossIons nro subjocf fo gronfor scrufIny.
;.. In nssossIng coyrIghfnbIIIfy, fho dIsfrIcf courf Is
roquIrod fo forrof ouf nnronf oxrossIvo nsocfs of n
work nnd fhon sonrnfo rofocfnbIo oxrossIon from
unrofocfnbIo Idons, fncfs, rocossos, nnd mofhods of
oornfIon. D++ )&#0$, 9?5 I.2d nf 839.
Of courso, ns wIfh mnny fhIngs, In dofInIng fhIs fnsk,
fho dovII Is In fho dofnIIs. CIrcuIf courfs hnvo sfruggIod
wIfh, nnd dIsngroo ovor, fho fosfs fo bo omIoyod whon
nffomfIng fo drnw fho IIno bofwoon whnf Is rofocfnbIo
oxrossIon nnd whnf Is nof. /1:*#0+ OB+"#% )221423, ;%43
<3 7#2"1J -+%&#" ?#C3, ;%4., ?9? I.2d l222, l236 (3d CIr.
l986) (ovoryfhIng nof nocossnry fo fho uroso or funcfIon
of n work Is oxrossIon), J$&B ?1&52, 49 I.3d nf 8l5
(mofhods of oornfIon nro monns by whIch n usor oornfos
somofhIng nnd nny words usod fo offocfunfo fhnf oorn-
fIon nro unrofocfod oxrossIon). Whon nssossIng whofh-
or fho non-IIfornI oIomonfs of n comufor rogrnm
consfIfufo rofocfnbIo oxrossIon, fho Infh CIrcuIf hns
ondorsod nn nbsfrncfIon-fIIfrnfIon-comnrIson fosf
formuInfod by fho Socond CIrcuIf nnd oxrossIy ndofod
by sovornI ofhor cIrcuIfs. D+8# F%&+023 ?&.3 <3 )441"#.+,
;%4., 9?? I.2d l5l0, l525 (9fh CIr. l992) (In our vIow, In
IIghf of fho ossonfInIIy ufIIIfnrInn nnfuro of comufor
rogrnms, fho Socond CIrcuIf`s nronch Is nn nrorInfo
ono.). ThIs fosf rojocfs fho nofIon fhnf nnyfhIng fhnf
orforms n funcfIon Is nocossnrIIy uncoyrIghfnbIo. D++
>$&+", l24 I.3d nf l3?2 (rojocfIng fho ?1&52 courf`s formu-
InfIon, nnd concIudIng fhnf, nIfhough nn oIomonf of n
work mny bo chnrncforIzod ns n mofhod of oornfIon, fhnf
oIomonf mny novorfhoIoss confnIn oxrossIon fhnf Is
oIIgIbIo for coyrIghf rofocfIon.). And If nIso rojocfs ns
fInwod fho OB+"#% nssumfIon fhnf, onco nny sonrnbIo
Idon cnn bo IdonfIfIod In n comufor rogrnm ovoryfhIng
oIso musf bo rofocfnbIo oxrossIon, on grounds fhnf moro
fhnn ono Idon mny bo ombodIod In nny nrfIcuInr ro-
grnm. )"&#$, 982 I.2d nf ?05-06.
Thus, fhIs fosf oschows brIghf IIno nronchos nnd ro-
quIros n moro nunncod nssossmonf of fho nrfIcuInr
rogrnm nf Issuo In ordor fo doformIno whnf oxrossIon Is
rofocfnbIo nnd InfrIngod. As fho Socond CIrcuIf oxInIns,
fhIs fosf hns fhroo sfos. In fho nbsfrncfIon sfo, fho
courf fIrsf bronk|s] down fho nIIogodIy InfrIngod rogrnm
Info Ifs consfIfuonf sfrucfurnI nrfs. ;.3 nf ?06. In fho
fIIfrnfIon sfo, fho courf sIff|s] ouf nII non-rofocfnbIo
mnforInI, IncIudIng Idons nnd oxrossIon fhnf Is nocos-
snrIIy IncIdonfnI fo fhoso Idons. ;.. In fho fInnI sfo, fho
courf comnros fho romnInIng cronfIvo oxrossIon wIfh
fho nIIogodIy InfrIngIng rogrnm.
4

In fho socond sfo, fho courf Is fIrsf fo nssoss whofhor
fho oxrossIon Is orIgInnI fo fho rogrnmmor or nufhor.
)&#0$, 9?5 I.2d nf 839. Tho courf musf fhon doformIno
whofhor fho nrfIcuInr IncIusIon of nny IovoI of nbsfrnc-
fIon Is dIcfnfod by consIdornfIons of offIcIoncy, roquIrod by
fncfors nIrondy oxfornnI fo fho rogrnm IfsoIf, or fnkon
from fho ubIIc domnInnII of whIch wouId rondor fho
oxrossIon unrofocfnbIo. ;.. Thoso concIusIons nro fo bo
Informod by frndIfIonnI coyrIghf rIncIIos of orIgInnIIfy,
morgor, nnd sconos n fnIro. D++ >$&+", l24 I.3d nf l3?2
(AIfhough fhIs coro of oxrossIon Is oIIgIbIo for coyrIghf
rofocfIon, If Is subjocf fo fho rIgors of fIIfrnfIon nnnIysIs
whIch oxcIudos from rofocfIon oxrossIon fhnf Is In fho
ubIIc domnIn, ofhorwIso unorIgInnI, or subjocf fo fho
docfrInos of morgor nnd sconos n fnIro.).
In nII cIrcuIfs, If Is cIonr fhnf fho fIrsf sfo Is nrf of
fho coyrIghfnbIIIfy nnnIysIs nnd fhnf fho fhIrd Is nn
InfrIngomonf quosfIon. If Is nf fho socond sfo of fhIs
nnnIysIs whoro fho cIrcuIfs nro In Ioss nccord. Somo fronf
nII nsocfs of fhIs socond sfo ns nrf of fho coyrIghfnbII-
Ify nnnIysIs, whIIo ofhors dIvIdo quosfIons of orIgInnIIfy
from fho ofhor InquIrIos, fronfIng fho formor ns n quosfIon
of coyrIghfnbIIIfy nnd fho Inffor ns nrf of fho InfrIngo-
monf InquIry. /1:*#0+ ?+I:#0H, 38? I.3d nf 53?-38
4
ImorfnnfIy, fhIs fuII nnnIysIs onIy nIIos whoro
n coyrIghf ownor nIIogos InfrIngomonf of fho non-IIfornI
nsocfs of Ifs work. Whoro ndmIffod IIfornI coyIng of n
dIscrofo, onsIIy-concofunIIzod orfIon of n work Is nf
Issuons wIfh OrncIo`s docInrIng codon courf nood nof
orform n comIofo nbsfrncfIon-fIIfrnfIon-comnrIson
nnnIysIs nnd mny focus fho rofocfnbIIIfy nnnIysIs on fho
fIIfrnfIon sfngo, wIfh nffondnnf roforonco fo sfnndnrd
coyrIghf rIncIIos. >$&+", l24 I.3d nf l3?2-?3.

(fIndIng fhnf fho dIsfrIcf courf orrod In nssossIng rIncI-
Ios of morgor nnd sconos n fnIro In fho InfrIngomonf
nnnIysIs, rnfhor fhnn ns n comononf of coyrIghfnbIIIfy),
J$&B S0+812, 93? I.2d nf ?05 (nofIng fhnf fho Socond
CIrcuIf hns consIdorod fho morgor docfrIno In doformIn-
Ing whofhor ncfIonnbIo InfrIngomonf hns occurrod, rnfhor
fhnn whofhor n coyrIghf Is vnIId); 2++ #"21 ?+I:#0H, 38?
I.3d nf 55? (IoIkons, J., dIssonfIng-In-nrf) (nofIng fho
cIrcuIf sIIf nnd concIudIng fhnf, whoro n courf Is ns-
sossIng morgor of nn oxrossIon wIfh n mofhod of oorn-
fIon, I wouId fInd fho morgor docfrIno cnn oornfo onIy ns
n dofonso fo InfrIngomonf In fhnf confoxf, nnd ns such hns
no bonrIng on fho quosfIon of coyrIghfnbIIIfy.). Wo nood
nof nssoss fho wIsdom of fhoso rosocfIvo vIows bocnuso
fhoro Is no doubf on whIch sIdo of fhIs cIrcuIf sIIf fho
Infh CIrcuIf fnIIs.
In fho Infh CIrcuIf, whIIo quosfIons rognrdIng orIgI-
nnIIfy nro consIdorod quosfIons of coyrIghfnbIIIfy, con-
cofs of morgor nnd sconos n fnIro nro nffIrmnfIvo
dofonsos fo cInIms of InfrIngomonf. F&2(G1H$%, 225 I.3d
nf l082; D#&#<# <3 ?1J0A, 323 I.3d 805, 8l0 n.3 (9fh CIr.
2003) (Tho Infh CIrcuIf fronfs sconos n fnIro ns n do-
fonso fo InfrIngomonf rnfhor fhnn ns n bnrrIor fo coy-
rIghfnbIIIfy.). Tho Infh CIrcuIf hns ncknowIodgod fhnf
fhoro Is somo dIsngroomonf nmong courfs ns fo whofhor
fhoso fwo docfrInos fIguro Info fho Issuo of coyrIghfnbII-
Ify or nro moro roorIy dofonsos fo InfrIngomonf. F&2(
G1H$%, 225 I.3d nf l082 (cIfnfIons omIffod). If, nonofho-
Ioss, hns mndo cIonr fhnf, In fhnf cIrcuIf, fhoso concofs
nro fo bo fronfod ns dofonsos fo InfrIngomonf. ;.. (cIfIng
S0+812, 93? I.2d nf ?05 (hoIdIng fhnf fho morgor docfrIno
roInfos fo InfrIngomonf, nof coyrIghfnbIIIfy); M++.(T%$1%
/10*3 <3 P50&"+ O#I, ;%4., ?? I.3d 909, 9l4 (?fh CIr. l996)
(oxInInIng why fho docfrIno of sconos n fnIro Is sonrnfo
from fho vnIIdIfy of n coyrIghf)).
WIfh fhoso rIncIIos In mInd, wo furn fo fho frInI
courf`s nnnIysIs nnd judgmonf nnd fo OrncIo`s objocfIons
fhorofo. WhIIo fho frInI courf monfIonod fho nbsfrncfIon-
fIIfrnfIon-comnrIson fosf whon doscrIbIng fho dovoIo-
monf of roIovnnf Inw, If dId nof urorf fo ncfunIIy nIy
fhnf fosf. Insfond, If movod dIrocfIy fo nIIcnfIon of
fnmIIInr rIncIIos of coyrIghf Inw whon nssossIng fho
coyrIghfnbIIIfy of fho docInrIng codo nnd Inforrofod
SocfIon l02(b) fo rocIudo coyrIghfnbIIIfy for nny func-
fIonnI oIomonf ossonfInI for InforoornbIIIfy rognrdIoss
of Ifs form. /1*A0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%, 8?2 I. Su. 2d nf
99?.
OrncIo nssorfs fhnf nII of fho frInI courf`s concIusIons
rognrdIng coyrIghfnbIIIfy nro orronoous. OrncIo nrguos
fhnf Ifs Jnvn AII nckngos nro onfIfIod fo rofocfIon
undor fho CoyrIghf Acf bocnuso fhoy nro oxrossIvo nnd
couId hnvo boon wrIffon nnd orgnnIzod In nny numbor of
wnys fo nchIovo fho snmo funcfIons. SocIfIcnIIy, OrncIo
nrguos fhnf fho dIsfrIcf courf orrod whon If: (l) concIudod
fhnf onch IIno of docInrIng codo Is uncoyrIghfnbIo bo-
cnuso fho Idon nnd oxrossIon hnvo morgod; (2) found fho
docInrIng codo uncoyrIghfnbIo bocnuso If omIoys shorf
hrnsos; (3) found nII nsocfs of fho SSO dovoId of rofoc-
fIon ns n mofhod of oornfIon undor l? !.S.C. l02(b);
nnd (4) Invokod CoogIo`s InforoornbIIIfy concorns In fho
coyrIghfnbIIIfy nnnIysIs. Ior fho ronsons oxInInod
boIow, wo ngroo wIfh OrncIo on onch oInf.
l. ocInrIng Sourco Codo
IIrsf, OrncIo nrguos fhnf fho dIsfrIcf courf orrod In
concIudIng fhnf onch IIno of docInrIng sourco codo Is
comIofoIy unrofocfod undor fho morgor nnd shorf
hrnsos docfrInos. CoogIo rosonds fhnf OrncIo wnIvod
Ifs rIghf fo nssorf coyrIghfnbIIIfy bnsod on fho ?,000 IInos
of docInrIng codo by fnIIIng fo objocf fo InsfrucfIons nnd n
vordIcf form fhnf offocfIvoIy oIImInnfod fhnf fhoory from
fho cnso. AoIIoo Ir. 6?. Ivon If nof wnIvod, moroovor,
CoogIo nrguos fhnf, bocnuso fhoro Is onIy ono wny fo wrIfo
O!AC!I AMI!ICA, IC. v. COOC!I IC. 2?
fho nnmos nnd docInrnfIons, fho morgor docfrIno bnrs
coyrIghf rofocfIon.
Wo fInd fhnf OrncIo dId nof wnIvo nrgumonfs bnsod
on CoogIo`s IIfornI coyIng of fho docInrIng codo. IrIor fo
frInI, bofh nrfIos Informod fho courf fhnf OrncIo`s coy-
rIghf InfrIngomonf cInIms IncIudod fho docInrnfIons of fho
AII oIomonfs In fho AndroId cInss IIbrnry sourco codo.
D++ OrncIo`s Sfnfomonf of Issuos !ognrdIng CoyrIghf,
90#4"+ ):3, ;%43 <3 =118"+ ;%4., o. 3:l0-cv-356l (..
CnI. Ar. l2, 20l2), ICI o. 899-l, nf 3 (OrncIo nccusos
fho docInrnfIons of fho AII oIomonfs In fho AndroId cInss
IIbrnry sourco codo nnd objocf codo fhnf ImIomonfs fho
3? AII nckngos of coyrIghf InfrIngomonf.); 2++ #"21
CoogIo`s Iroosod Sfnfomonf of Issuos !ognrdIng Coy-
rIghf, 90#4"+ ):3, ;%43 <3 =118"+ ;%4., o. 3:l0-cv-356l
(.. CnI. Ar. l2, 20l2), ICI o. 90l, nf 2 (OrncIo
nccusos fho docInrnfIons of fho AII oIomonfs In AndroId
cInss IIbrnry sourco codo nnd objocf codo fhnf ImIomonfs
fho 3? AII nckngos.).
WhIIo CoogIo Is corrocf fhnf fho jury InsfrucfIons nnd
vordIcf form focusod on fho sfrucfuro nnd orgnnIznfIon of
fho nckngos, wo ngroo wIfh OrncIo fhnf fhoro wns no
nood for fho jury fo nddross coyIng of fho docInrIng codo
bocnuso CoogIo concodod fhnf If coIod If vorbnfIm.
Indood, fho dIsfrIcf courf socIfIcnIIy Insfrucfod fho jury
fhnf CoogIo ngroos fhnf If usos fho snmo nnmos nnd
docInrnfIons In AndroId. @$%#" /B#08+ &1 &B+ 750A nf l0.
Thnf fho dIsfrIcf courf nddrossod fho docInrIng codo In
Ifs osf-jury vordIcf coyrIghfnbIIIfy docIsIon furfhor
confIrms fhnf fho vorbnfIm coyIng of docInrIng codo
romnInod In fho cnso. Tho courf oxInInod fhnf fho Idon-
fIcnI IInos fhnf CoogIo coIod Info AndroId nro fhoso
IInos fhnf socIfy fho nnmos, nrnmofors nnd funcfIonnII-
fy of fho mofhods nnd cInssos, IInos cnIIod 'docInrnfIons` or
'hondors.` /1*A0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%, 8?2 I. Su. 2d nf
9?9. Tho courf socIfIcnIIy found fhnf fho docInrIng codo
wns nof onfIfIod fo coyrIghf rofocfIon undor fho morgor
nnd shorf hrnsos docfrInos. Wo nddross onch In furn.
n. Morgor
Tho morgor docfrIno funcfIons ns nn oxcofIon fo fho
Idon/oxrossIon dIchofomy. If rovIdos fhnf, whon fhoro
nro n IImIfod numbor of wnys fo oxross nn Idon, fho Idon
Is snId fo morgo wIfh Ifs oxrossIon, nnd fho oxrossIon
bocomos unrofocfod. )"&#$, 982 I.2d nf ?0?-08. As
nofod, fho Infh CIrcuIf fronfs fhIs concof ns nn nffIrmn-
fIvo dofonso fo InfrIngomonf. F&2(G1H$%, 225 I.3d nf
l082. AccordIngIy, If nonrs fhnf fho dIsfrIcf courf`s
morgor nnnIysIs Is IrroIovnnf fo fho quosfIon of whofhor
OrncIo`s AII nckngos nro coyrIghfnbIo In fho fIrsf
Insfnnco. !ognrdIoss of whon fho nnnIysIs occurs, wo
concIudo fhnf morgor doos nof nIy on fho rocord boforo
us.
!ndor fho morgor docfrIno, n courf wIII nof rofocf n
coyrIghfod work from InfrIngomonf If fho Idon confnInod
fhoroIn cnn bo oxrossod In onIy ono wny. D#&#<# <3
?1J0A, 323 I.3d 805, 8l2 n.5 (9fh CIr. 2003). Ior com-
ufor rogrnms, fhIs monns fhnf whon socIfIc |nrfs of
fho codo], ovon fhough rovIousIy coyrIghfod, nro fho
onIy nnd ossonfInI monns of nccomIIshIng n gIvon fnsk,
fhoIr Infor uso by nnofhor wIII nof nmounf fo InfrIngo-
monf. )"&#$, 982 I.2d nf ?08 (cIfnfIon omIffod). Wo hnvo
rocognIzod, howovor, nIyIng Infh CIrcuIf Inw, fhnf fho
unIquo nrrnngomonf of comufor rogrnm oxrossIon . . .
doos nof morgo wIfh fho rocoss so Iong ns nIfornnfo
oxrossIons nro nvnIInbIo. )&#0$, 9?5 I.2d nf 840.
In )&#0$, for oxnmIo, Infondo dosIgnod n rogrnm
fho l0ISfo rovonf Ifs vIdoo gnmo sysfom from nc-
cofIng unnufhorIzod gnmo cnrfrIdgos. 9?5 I.2d nf 836.
Infondo choso nrbIfrnry rogrnmmIng InsfrucfIons nnd
nrrnngod fhom In n unIquo soquonco fo cronfo n uroIy
nrbIfrnry dnfn sfronm whIch sorvos ns fho koy fo unIock
fho IS. ;.. nf 840. Iocnuso Infondo roducod oxorf
fosfImony showIng n muIfIfudo of dIfforonf wnys fo
gonornfo n dnfn sfronm whIch unIocks fho IS consoIo,
wo concIudod fhnf Infondo`s socIfIc choIco of codo dId
nof morgo wIfh fho rocoss. ;..
Horo, fho dIsfrIcf courf found fhnf, no mnffor how
cronfIvo or ImngInnfIvo n Jnvn mofhod socIfIcnfIon mny
bo, fho onfIro worId Is onfIfIod fo uso fho snmo mofhod
socIfIcnfIon (Inufs, oufufs, nrnmofors) so Iong ns fho
IIno-by-IIno ImIomonfnfIons nro dIfforonf. /1*A0$8B&#(
C$"$&A -+4$2$1%, 8?2 I. Su. 2d nf 998. In Ifs nnnIysIs, fho
courf IdonfIfIod fho mofhod docInrnfIon ns fho Idon nnd
found fhnf fho ImIomonfnfIon Is fho oxrossIon. ;..
(Tho mofhod socIfIcnfIon Is fho $.+#. Tho mofhod Im-
IomonfnfIon Is fho +I*0+22$1%. o ono mny monooIIzo
fho $.+#.) (omhnsos In orIgInnI). Tho courf oxInInod
fhnf, undor fho ruIos of Jnvn, n rogrnmmor musf uso fho
IdonfIcnI docInrnfIon or mofhod hondor IInos fo docInro
n mofhod socIfyIng fho 2#:+ funcfIonnIIfy. ;.. nf 9?6.
Iocnuso fho dIsfrIcf courf found fhnf fhoro wns onIy ono
wny fo wrIfo fho docInrIng codo for onch of fho Jnvn nck-
ngos, If concIudod fhnf fho morgor docfrIno bnrs nnyono
from cInImIng oxcIusIvo coyrIghf ownorshI of If. ;.3 nf
998. AccordIngIy, fho courf hoId fhoro couId bo no coy-
rIghf vIoInfIon In usIng fho IdonfIcnI docInrnfIons. ;..
CoogIo ngroos wIfh fho dIsfrIcf courf fhnf fho ImIo-
monfIng codo Is fho oxrossIon onfIfIod fo rofocfIonnof
fho docInrIng codo. Indood, nf ornI nrgumonf, counsoI for
CoogIo oxInInod fhnf, If Is nof our osIfIon fhnf nono of
Jnvn Is coyrIghfnbIo. ObvIousIy, CoogIo sonf fwo nnd n
hnIf yonrs . . . fo wrIfo from scrnfch nII of fho ImIomonf-
Ing codo. OrnI Argumonf nf 33:l6.
5
Iocnuso If Is undIs-
5
If Is undIsufod fhnf MIcrosoff nnd AIo dovoI-
ood mobIIo oornfIng sysfoms from scrnfch, usIng fhoIr
own nrrny of soffwnro nckngos. Whon nskod whofhor
CoogIo couId nIso coy nII of MIcrosoff or AIo`s docInrIng

ufod fhnf CoogIo wrofo Ifs own ImIomonfIng codo, fho
coyrIghfnbIIIfy of fho rocIso Inngungo of fhnf codo Is nof
nf Issuo on nonI. Insfond, our focus Is on fho docInrIng
codo nnd sfrucfuro of fho AII nckngos.
On nonI, OrncIo nrguos fhnf fho dIsfrIcf courf:
(l) mIsnIIod fho morgor docfrIno; nnd (2) fnIIod fo focus
Ifs nnnIysIs on fho ofIons nvnIInbIo fo fho orIgInnI nu-
fhor. Wo ngroo wIfh OrncIo on bofh oInfs. IIrsf, wo
ngroo fhnf morgor cnnnof bnr coyrIghf rofocfIon for nny
IInos of docInrIng sourco codo unIoss Sun/OrncIo hnd onIy
ono wny, or n IImIfod numbor of wnys, fo wrIfo fhom. D++
D#&#<#, 323 I.3d nf 8l2 n.5 (!ndor fho morgor docfrIno,
courfs wIII nof rofocf n coyrIghfod work from InfrIngo-
monf If fho Idon undorIyIng fho coyrIghfod work cnn bo
oxrossod In onIy ono wny, Iosf fhoro bo n monooIy on
fho undorIyIng Idon.). Tho ovIdonco showod fhnf OrncIo
hnd unIImIfod ofIons ns fo fho soIocfIon nnd nrrnngo-
monf of fho ?000 IInos CoogIo coIod. AoIInnf Ir. 50.
!sIng fho dIsfrIcf courf`s jnvn.Inng.Mnfh.mnx oxnmIo,
OrncIo oxInIns fhnf fho dovoIoors couId hnvo cnIIod If
nny numbor of fhIngs, IncIudIng Mnfh.mnxImum or
ArIfh.Inrgor. ThIs wns nof n sIfunfIon whoro OrncIo wns
soIocfIng nmong roordnInod nnmos nnd hrnsos fo cronfo
Ifs nckngos.
6
As fho dIsfrIcf courf rocognIzod, moroovor,
codocodos fhnf obvIousIy dIffor from fhoso nf Issuo
horocounsoI for CoogIo rosondod: Yos, buf onIy fho
sfrucfuro, soquonco, nnd orgnnIznfIon. OnIy fho com-
mnnd sfrucfurowhnf you nood fo nccoss fho funcfIons.
You`d hnvo fo rowrIfo nII fho mIIIIons of IInos of codo In
AIo or In MIcrosoff whIch Is whnf CoogIo dId In An-
droId. OrnI Argumonf nf 36:00.
6
In fhoIr brIof ns nmIcI curIno In suorf of rovor-
snI, Scoff MconIy nnd IrInn SufhInbofh formor
oxocufIvos nf Sun who woro InvoIvod In fho dovoIomonf
of fho Jnvn InfformrovIdo n dofnIIod oxnmIo of fho

fho AndroId mofhod nnd cInss nnmos couId hnvo boon
dIfforonf from fho nnmos of fhoIr counfornrfs In Jnvn
nnd sfIII hnvo workod. /1*A0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%, 8?2 I.
Su. 2d nf 9?6. Iocnuso nIfornnfIvo oxrossIons |wo]ro
nvnIInbIo, fhoro Is no morgor. D++ )&#0$, 9?5 I.2d nf 840.
Wo furfhor fInd fhnf fho dIsfrIcf courf orrod In focus-
Ing Ifs morgor nnnIysIs on fho ofIons nvnIInbIo fo CoogIo
nf fho fImo of coyIng. If Is woII-osfnbIIshod fhnf coy-
rIghfnbIIIfy nnd fho scoo of rofocfnbIo ncfIvIfy nro fo bo
ovnIunfod nf fho fImo of cronfIon, nof nf fho fImo of In-
frIngomonf. D++ )**"+ /1:*5&+0, ;%43 <3 @10:5"# ;%&N",
;%4., ?25 I.2d 52l, 524 (9fh CIr. l984) (quofIng nfIonnI
CommIssIon on ow TochnoIogIcnI !sos of CoyrIghfod
Works, IInnI !oorf nf 2l (l9?9) (COT! !oorf)
(rocognIzIng fhnf fho CoyrIghf Acf wns dosIgnod fo
rofocf nII works of nufhorshI from fho momonf of fhoIr
fIxnfIon In nny fnngIbIo modIum of oxrossIon)). Tho
focus Is, fhoroforo, on fho ofIons fhnf woro nvnIInbIo fo
Sun/OrncIo nf fho fImo If cronfod fho AII nckngos. Of
cronfIvo choIcos InvoIvod In dosIgnIng n Jnvn nckngo.
!ookIng nf fho jnvn.foxf nckngo, fhoy oxInIn fhnf If
confnIns 25 cInssos, 2 Inforfncos, nnd hundrods of mofh-
ods fo hnndIo foxf, dnfos, numbors, nnd mossngos In n
mnnnor Indoondonf of nnfurnI humnn Inngungos . . . .
Ir. of MconIy nnd SufhIn l4-l5. Jnvn`s cronfors hnd fo
doformIno whofhor fo IncIudo n jnvn.foxf nckngo In fho
fIrsf Inco, how Iong fho nckngo wouId bo, whnf oIomonfs
fo IncIudo, how fo orgnnIzo fhnf nckngo, nnd how If
wouId roInfo fo ofhor nckngos. ;.. nf l6. ThIs doscrI-
fIon of Sun`s cronfIvo rocoss Is consIsfonf wIfh fho ovI-
donco rosonfod nf frInI. D++ AoIInnf Ir. l2-l3 (cIfIng
fosfImony fhnf If fook yonrs fo wrIfo somo of fho Jnvn
nckngos nnd fhnf Sun/OrncIo dovoIoors hnd fo wrosfIo
wIfh whnf funcfIons fo IncIudo In fho nckngo, whIch fo
uf In ofhor nckngos, nnd whIch fo omIf onfIroIy).

courso, onco Sun/OrncIo cronfod jnvn.Inng.Mnfh.mnx,
rogrnmmors who wnnf fo uso fhnf nrfIcuInr nckngo
hnvo fo cnII If by fhnf nnmo. Iuf, ns fho courf ncknowI-
odgod, nofhIng rovonfod CoogIo from wrIfIng Ifs own
docInrIng codo, nIong wIfh Ifs own ImIomonfIng codo, fo
nchIovo fho snmo rosuIf. In such cIrcumsfnncos, fho
choson oxrossIon sImIy doos nof morgo wIfh fho Idon
boIng oxrossod.
?

If sooms ossIbIo fhnf fho morgor docfrIno, whon
roorIy nnnIyzod, wouId oxcIudo fho fhroo nckngos
IdonfIfIod by fho dIsfrIcf courf ns coro nckngos from fho
scoo of ncfIonnbIo InfrIngIng conducf. ThIs wouId bo so If
fho Jnvn nufhors, nf fho fImo fhoso nckngos woro cronf-
od, hnd onIy n IImIfod numbor of wnys fo oxross fho
mofhods nnd cInssos fhoroIn If fhoy wnnfod fo wrIfo In fho
Jnvn Inngungo. In fhnf Insfnnco, fho Idon mny woII bo
morgod wIfh fho oxrossIon In fhoso fhroo nckngos.
8

?
Tho dIsfrIcf courf dId nof fInd morgor wIfh rosocf
fo fho sfrucfuro, soquonco, nnd orgnnIznfIon of OrncIo`s
Jnvn AII nckngos. or couId If, gIvon fho courf`s rocog-
nIfIon fhnf fhoro woro myrInd wnys In whIch fho AII
nckngos couId hnvo boon orgnnIzod. Indood, fho courf
found fhnf fho SSO Is orIgInnI nnd fhnf nofhIng In fho
ruIos of fho Jnvn Inngungo . . . roquIrod fhnf CoogIo
roIIcnfo fho snmo grouIngs. /1*A0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%,
8?2 I. Su. 2d nf 999. As dIscussod boIow, howovor, fho
courf nonofhoIoss found fhnf fho SSO Is nn uncoyrIghfn-
bIo mofhod of oornfIon.
8
Af ornI nrgumonf, counsoI for OrncIo wns nskod
whofhor wo shouId vIow fho fhroo coro nckngos dIffor-
onfIy vIs-n-vIs fho concof of n mofhod of oornfIon fhnn
fho ofhor nckngos. D++ OrnI Argumonf nf ?:43. Ho
rosondod: I fhInk nof your Honor. I wouId vIow fhom
dIfforonfIy wIfh rosocf fo fnIr uso . . . . If`s nof fhnf fhoy
nro moro bnsIc. If`s fhnf fhoro nro jusf sovornI mofhods,

CoogIo dId nof rosonf Ifs morgor nrgumonf In fhIs wny
boIow nnd doos nof do so horo, howovor. Indood, CoogIo
doos nof fry fo dIfforonfInfo nmong fho nckngos for
urosos of Ifs coyrIghfnbIIIfy nnnIysIs nnd doos nof
nonI fho InfrIngomonf vordIcf ns fo fho nckngos. Ior
fhoso ronsons, wo rojocf fho frInI courf`s morgor nnnIysIs.
b. Shorf Ihrnsos
Tho dIsfrIcf courf nIso found fhnf OrncIo`s docInrIng
codo consIsfs of uncoyrIghfnbIo shorf hrnsos. SocIfIcnI-
Iy, fho courf concIudod fhnf, whIIo fho AndroId mofhod
nnd cInss nnmos couId hnvo boon dIfforonf from fho
nnmos of fhoIr counfornrfs In Jnvn nnd sfIII hnvo
workod, coyrIghf rofocfIon novor oxfonds fo nnmos or
shorf hrnsos ns n mnffor of Inw. /1*A0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$(
2$1%, 8?2 I. Su. 2d nf 9?6.
Tho dIsfrIcf courf Is corrocf fhnf |w]ords nnd shorf
hrnsos such ns nnmos, fIfIos, nnd sIognns nro nof sub-
jocf fo coyrIghf rofocfIon. 3? C.I.!. 202.l(n). Tho
courf fnIIod fo rocognIzo, howovor, fhnf fho roIovnnf
quosfIon for coyrIghfnbIIIfy urosos Is nof whofhor fho
work nf Issuo confnIns shorf hrnsosns IIfornry works
offon dobuf, rnfhor, whofhor fhoso hrnsos nro cronfIvo.
D++ D14NA 1' G1"A P0#%2'$850#&$1% >1%#2&+0A, ;%43 <3
fhnf Is, roufInos, wIfhIn jusf fhoso fhroo nckngos fhnf nro
nocossnry fo 'sonk fho Jnvn Inngungo.` ofhIng In fho
ofhor fhIrfy-four nckngos Is nocossnry In ordor fo sonk
In Jnvn, so fo sonk. ;.. CounsoI concodod, howovor,
fhnf fhIs Issuo mIghf go fo morgor. If mIghf go fo fho
quosfIon whofhor somoonosInco wo concodod fhnf If`s
okny fo uso fho InngungoIf If`s nIrIghf fo uso fho Inn-
gungo fhnf fhoro nro corfnIn fhIngs fhnf fho orIgInnI
dovoIoors hnd fo sny In ordor fo uso fhnf Inngungo,
nrgunbIy, nIfhough I sfIII fhInk If`s ronIIy n fnIr uso nnnIy-
sIs. ;..

=0+810A, 689 I.3d 29, 52 (lsf CIr. 20l2) (nofIng fhnf nof
nII shorf hrnsos wIII nufomnfIcnIIy bo doomod uncoy-
rIghfnbIo); 2++ #"21 l MoIvIIIo I. Immor & nvId Im-
mor, Immor on CoyrIghf 2.0l|I] (20l3) (|I]von n
shorf hrnso mny commnnd coyrIghf rofocfIon If If
oxhIbIfs suffIcIonf cronfIvIfy.). And, by dIssocfIng fho
IndIvIdunI IInos of docInrIng codo nf Issuo Info shorf
hrnsos, fho dIsfrIcf courf furfhor fnIIod fo rocognIzo fhnf
nn orIgInnI 41:C$%#&$1% of oIomonfs cnn bo coyrIghfnbIo.
D++ D1'&+", ;%43 <3 -0#81% >+.3 U D4$+%&$'$4 /1::4N%2,
ll8 I.3d 955, 964 (2d CIr. l99?) (nofIng fhnf, In @+$2&,
fho Courf mndo quIfo cIonr fhnf n comIInfIon of non-
rofocfIbIo oIomonfs cnn onjoy coyrIghf rofocfIon ovon
fhough Ifs consfIfuonf oIomonfs do nof).
Iy nnnIogy, fho oonIng of ChnrIos Ickons` ) P#"+ 1'
PJ1 /$&$+2 Is nofhIng buf n sfrIng of shorf hrnsos. Yof no
ono couId confond fhnf fhIs orfIon of Ickons` work Is
unworfhy of coyrIghf rofocfIon bocnuso If cnn bo brokon
Info fhoso shorfor consfIfuonf comononfs. Tho quosfIon
Is nof whofhor n shorf hrnso or sorIos of shorf hrnsos
cnn bo oxfrncfod from fho work, buf whofhor fho mnnnor
In whIch fhoy nro usod or sfrung fogofhor oxhIbIfs cronfIv-
Ify.
AIfhough fho dIsfrIcf courf nnronfIy focusod on In-
dIvIdunI IInos of codo, OrncIo Is nof sookIng coyrIghf
rofocfIon for n socIfIc shorf hrnso or word. Insfond,
fho orfIon of docInrIng codo nf Issuo Is ?,000 IInos, nnd
CoogIo`s own Jnvn guru concodod fhnf fhoro cnn bo
cronfIvIfy nnd nrfIsfry ovon In n sIngIo mofhod docInrn-
fIon. JoInf AondIx (J.A.) 20,9?0. Iocnuso OrncIo
oxorcIsod cronfIvIfy In fho soIocfIon nnd nrrnngomonf of
fho mofhod docInrnfIons whon If cronfod fho AII nckngos
nnd wrofo fho roIovnnf docInrIng codo, fhoy confnIn ro-
focfnbIo oxrossIon fhnf Is onfIfIod fo coyrIghf rofoc-
fIon. D++ )&#0$, 9?5 I.2d nf 840; 2++ #"21 l? !.S.C. l0l,
l03 (rocognIzIng coyrIghf rofocfIon for comIInfIons
whIch nro dofInod ns work fhnf Is soIocfod, coordInnfod,
or nrrnngod In such n wny fhnf fho rosuIfIng work ns n
whoIo consfIfufos nn orIgInnI work of nufhorshI). Ac-
cordIngIy, wo concIudo fhnf fho dIsfrIcf courf orrod In
nIyIng fho shorf hrnsos docfrIno fo fInd fho docInrIng
codo nof coyrIghfnbIo.
c. Sconos n InIro
Tho sconos n fnIro docfrIno, whIch Is roInfod fo fho
morgor docfrIno, oornfos fo bnr corfnIn ofhorwIso cron-
fIvo oxrossIon from coyrIghf rofocfIon. )**"+ /1:*5&(
+0, ;%43 <3 >$40121'& /10*., 35 I.3d l435, l444 (9fh CIr.
l994). If rovIdos fhnf oxrossIvo oIomonfs of n work of
nufhorshI nro nof onfIfIod fo rofocfIon ngnInsf In-
frIngomonf If fhoy nro sfnndnrd, sfock, or common fo n
foIc, or If fhoy nocossnrIIy foIIow from n common fhomo
or soffIng. >$&+", l24 I.3d nf l3?4. !ndor fhIs docfrIno,
whon corfnIn commonInco oxrossIons nro IndIsonsnbIo
nnd nnfurnIIy nssocInfod wIfh fho fronfmonf of n gIvon
Idon, fhoso oxrossIons nro fronfod IIko Idons nnd fhoro-
foro |nro] nof rofocfod by coyrIghf. DJ$02HA <3 /#0+A,
3?6 I.3d 84l, 850 (9fh CIr. 2004). In fho comufor con-
foxf, fho scono n fnIro docfrIno donIos rofocfIon fo ro-
grnm oIomonfs fhnf nro dIcfnfod by oxfornnI fncfors such
ns 'fho mochnnIcnI socIfIcnfIons of fho comufor on whIch
n nrfIcuInr rogrnm Is Infondod fo run` or 'wIdoIy nccof-
od rogrnmmIng rncfIcos wIfhIn fho comufor Indusfry.`
D1'&+", ll8 I.3d nf 963 (cIfnfIon omIffod).
Tho frInI courf rojocfod CoogIo`s roIInnco on fho sconos
n fnIro docfrIno. If dId so In n foofnofo, fIndIng fhnf
CoogIo hnd fnIIod fo rosonf ovIdonco fo suorf fho cInIm
fhnf oIfhor fho grouIng of mofhods wIfhIn fho cInssos or
fho codo choson for fhom wouId bo so oxocfod nnd
cusfomnry ns fo bo ormIssIbIo undor fho sconos n fnIro
docfrIno. /1*A0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%, 8?2 I. Su. 2d nf
999 n.9. SocIfIcnIIy, fho frInI courf found fhnf If Is
ImossIbIo fo sny on fhIs rocord fhnf #"" of fho cInssos nnd
fhoIr confonfs nro fyIcnI of such cInssos nnd, on fhIs
rocord, fhIs ordor rojocfs CoogIo`s gIobnI nrgumonf bnsod
on 24+%+2 # '#$0+. ;..
On nonI, CoogIo rofors fo sconos n fnIro concofs
brIofIy, ns do somo nmIcI, nnronfIy confondIng fhnf,
bocnuso rogrnmmors hnvo bocomo nccusfomod fo nnd
comforfnbIo usIng fho grouIngs In fho Jnvn AII nckng-
os, fhoso grouIngs nro so commonInco ns fo bo IndIson-
snbIo fo fho oxrossIon of nn nccofnbIo rogrnmmIng
Infform. As such, fho nrgumonf goos, fhoy nro so nssocI-
nfod wIfh fho Idon of whnf fho nckngos nro nccomIIsh-
Ing fhnf fhoy shouId bo fronfod ns Idons rnfhor fhnn
oxrossIon. D++ Ir. of AmIcI CurIno !ncksnco !S, Inc.,
of nI. nf l9-22.
CoogIo cnnnof roIy on fho sconos n fnIro docfrIno ns nn
nIfornnfIvo ground uon whIch wo mIghf nffIrm fho
coyrIghfnbIIIfy judgmonf of fho dIsfrIcf courf. ThIs Is so
for sovornI ronsons. IIrsf, ns nofod, IIko morgor, In fho
Infh CIrcuIf, fho sconos n fnIro docfrIno Is n comononf
of fho InfrIngomonf nnnIysIs. |S]ImIInrIfy of oxrossIon,
whofhor IIfornI or non-IIfornI, whIch nocossnrIIy rosuIfs
from fho fncf fhnf fho common Idon Is onIy cnnbIo of
oxrossIon In moro or Ioss sforoofyod form, wIII rocIudo
n fIndIng of ncfIonnbIo sImIInrIfy. 4 Immor on Coy-
rIghf l3.03|I]|3]. Thus, fho oxrossIon Is nof oxcIudod
from coyrIghf rofocfIon; If Is jusf fhnf corfnIn coyIng Is
forgIvon ns n nocossnry IncIdonf of #%A oxrossIon of fho
undorIyIng Idon. D++ D#&#<#, 323 I.3d nf 8l0 n.3 (Tho
Infh CIrcuIf fronfs sconos n fnIro ns n dofonso fo In-
frIngomonf rnfhor fhnn ns n bnrrIor fo coyrIghfnbIIIfy.).
Socond, CoogIo hns nof objocfod fo fho frInI courf`s
concIusIon fhnf CoogIo fnIIod fo mnko n suffIcIonf fncfunI
rocord fo suorf Ifs confonfIon fhnf fho grouIngs nnd
codo choson for fho 3? Jnvn AII nckngos woro drIvon by
oxfornnI fncfors or romIsod on fonfuros fhnf woro oIfhor
commonInco or ossonfInI fo fho Idon boIng oxrossod.
CoogIo rovIdos no rocord cIfnfIons IndIcnfIng fhnf such n
showIng wns mndo nnd doos nof confond fhnf fho frInI
courf orrod whon If oxrossIy found If wns nof. Indood,
CoogIo doos nof ovon mnko fhIs nrgumonf wIfh rosocf fo
fho coro nckngos.
IInnIIy, CoogIo`s roIInnco on fho docfrIno boIow nnd
fho nmIcI roforonco fo If horo nro romIsod on n fundn-
monfnI mIsundorsfnndIng of fho docfrIno. !Iko morgor,
fho focus of fho sconos n fnIro docfrIno Is on fho cIrcum-
sfnncos rosonfod fo fho cronfor, nof fho coIor. D++ >$&+",
l24 I.3d nf l3?5 (fIndIng orror fo fho oxfonf fho frInI
courf dIscussod whofhor oxfornnI fncfors such ns mnrkof
forcos nnd offIcIoncy consIdornfIons jusfIfIod IqfoI`s coy-
Ing of fho commnnd codos). Tho courf`s nnnIyfIcnI focus
musf bo uon fho oxfornnI fncfors fhnf dIcfnfod Sun`s
soIocfIon of cInssos, mofhods, nnd codonof uon whnf
CoogIo oncounforod nf fho fImo If choso fo coy fhoso
grouIngs nnd fhnf codo. D++ $.. |T]ho sconos n fnIro
docfrIno IdonfIfIos nnd oxcIudos from rofocfIon ngnInsf
InfrIngomonf oxrossIon whoso cronfIon 'fIowod nnfurnIIy
from consIdornfIons oxfornnI fo fho nufhor`s cronfIvIfy.`
;.. (quofIng Immor l3.03|I]|3], nf l3-l3l (l99?)). If Is
fhIs showIng fho frInI courf found CoogIo fnIIod fo mnko,
nnd CoogIo cIfos fo nofhIng In fho rocord whIch IndIcnfos
ofhorwIso.
Ior fhoso ronsons, fho frInI courf wns corrocf fo con-
cIudo fhnf fho sconos n fnIro docfrIno doos nof nffocf fho
coyrIghfnbIIIfy of oIfhor fho docInrIng codo In, or fho SSO
of, fho Jnvn AII nckngos nf Issuo.
2. Tho Sfrucfuro, Soquonco, nnd OrgnnIznfIon
of fho AII Inckngos
Tho dIsfrIcf courf found fhnf fho SSO of fho Jnvn AII
nckngos Is cronfIvo nnd orIgInnI, buf novorfhoIoss hoId
fhnf If Is n sysfom or mofhod of oornfIon . . . nnd, fhoro-
foro, cnnnof bo coyrIghfod undor l? !.S.C. l02(b).
/1*A0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%, 8?2 I. Su. 2d nf 9?6-??. In
ronchIng fhIs concIusIon, fho dIsfrIcf courf sooms fo hnvo
roIIod uon Inngungo confnInod In n IIrsf CIrcuIf docIsIon:
?1&52 -+<+"1*:+%& /10*3 <3 K10"#%. ;%&+0%#&$1%#", ;%4.,
49 I.3d 80? (lsf CIr. l995), #''N. J$&B15& 1*$%$1% CA
+R5#""A .$<$.+. 4150&, 5l6 !.S. 233 (l996).
9

In ?1&52, If wns undIsufod fhnf fho dofondnnf coIod
fho monu commnnd hIornrchy nnd Inforfnco from !ofus l-
2-3, n comufor srondshoof rogrnm fhnf onnbIos usors
fo orform nccounfIng funcfIons oIocfronIcnIIy on n com-
ufor. 49 I.3d nf 809. Tho monu commnnd hIornrchy
roforrod fo n sorIos of commnndssuch ns Coy, IrInf,
nnd QuIfwhIch woro nrrnngod Info moro fhnn 50
monus nnd submonus. ;.. AIfhough fho dofondnnf dId
nof coy nny !ofus sourco codo, If coIod fho monu com-
mnnd hIornrchy Info Ifs rIvnI rogrnm. Tho quosfIon
boforo fho courf wns whofhor n comufor monu commnnd
hIornrchy Is coyrIghfnbIo subjocf mnffor. ;..
AIfhough If nccofod fho dIsfrIcf courf`s fIndIng fhnf
!ofus dovoIoors mndo somo oxrossIvo choIcos In soIocf-
Ing nnd nrrnngIng fho commnnd forms, fho IIrsf CIrcuIf
found fhnf fho commnnd hIornrchy wns nof coyrIghfnbIo
bocnuso, nmong ofhor fhIngs, If wns n mofhod of oorn-
fIon undor SocfIon l02(b). In ronchIng fhIs concIusIon,
fho courf dofInod n mofhod of oornfIon ns fho monns
by whIch n orson oornfos somofhIng, whofhor If bo n
cnr, n food rocossor, or n comufor. ;.. nf 8l5.
l0
Io-
cnuso fho !ofus monu commnnd hIornrchy rovIdod fho
monns by whIch usors confroI nnd oornfo !ofus l-2-3, If
9
Tho Suromo Courf grnnfod corfIornrI In ?1&52,
buf, shorfIy nffor ornI nrgumonf, fho Courf nnnouncod
fhnf If wns oqunIIy dIvIdod nnd fhnf JusfIco Sfovons fook
no nrf In fho consIdornfIon or docIsIon of fho cnso. Tho
Courf fhoroforo Ioff fho IIrsf CIrcuIf`s docIsIon undIs-
furbod. D++ ?1&52, 5l6 !.S. nf 233-34.
l0
Tho ?1&52 mnjorIfy cIfod no nufhorIfy for fhIs dof-
InIfIon of mofhod of oornfIon.

wns doomod unrofocfnbIo. ;.. Ior oxnmIo, If usors
wnnfod fo coy mnforInI, fhoy wouId uso fho Coy
commnnd nnd fho commnnd forms wouId foII fho comuf-
or whnf fo do. AccordIng fo fho ?1&52 courf, fho fncf fhnf
!ofus dovoIoors couId hnvo dosIgnod fho !ofus monu
commnnd hIornrchy dIfforonfIy Is ImmnforInI fo fho
quosfIon of whofhor If Is n 'mofhod of oornfIon.` ;.. nf
8l6. (nofIng fhnf our InIfInI InquIry Is nof whofhor fho
!ofus monu commnnd hIornrchy Incorornfos nny oxros-
sIon). Tho courf furfhor IndIcnfod fhnf, |I]f socIfIc
words nro ossonfInI fo oornfIng somofhIng, fhon fhoy nro
nrf of n 'mofhod of oornfIon` nnd, ns such, nro unro-
focfnbIo. ;..
On nonI, OrncIo nrguos fhnf fho dIsfrIcf courf`s roII-
nnco on ?1&52 Is mIsIncod bocnuso If Is dIsfInguIshnbIo
on Ifs fncfs nnd Is InconsIsfonf wIfh Infh CIrcuIf Inw.
Wo ngroo. IIrsf, whIIo fho dofondnnf In ?1&52 dId nof
coy nny of fho undorIyIng codo, CoogIo concodos fhnf If
coIod orfIons of OrncIo`s docInrIng sourco codo vorbnfIm.
Socond, fho ?1&52 courf found fhnf fho commnnds nf Issuo
fhoro (coy, rInf, ofc.) woro nof cronfIvo, buf If Is undIs-
ufod horo fhnf fho docInrIng codo nnd fho sfrucfuro nnd
orgnnIznfIon of fho AII nckngos nro bofh cronfIvo nnd
orIgInnI. IInnIIy, whIIo fho courf In ?1&52 found fho
commnnds nf Issuo woro ossonfInI fo oornfIng fho
sysfom, If Is undIsufod fhnfofhor fhnn orhns ns fo
fho fhroo coro nckngosCoogIo dId nof nood fo coy fho
sfrucfuro, soquonco, nnd orgnnIznfIon of fho Jnvn AII
nckngos fo wrIfo rogrnms In fho Jnvn Inngungo.
Moro ImorfnnfIy, howovor, fho Infh CIrcuIf hns nof
ndofod fho courf`s mofhod of oornfIon ronsonIng In
?1&52, nnd wo concIudo fhnf If Is InconsIsfonf wIfh bInd-
Ing rocodonf.
ll
SocIfIcnIIy, wo fInd fhnf ?1&52 Is Incon-
ll
As OrncIo oInfs ouf, fho Infh CIrcuIf hns cIfod
?1&52 onIy ono fImo, on n rocodurnI Issuo. D++ -#%V#R

sIsfonf wIfh Infh CIrcuIf cnso Inw rocognIzIng fhnf fho
sfrucfuro, soquonco, nnd orgnnIznfIon of n comufor
rogrnm Is oIIgIbIo for coyrIghf rofocfIon whoro If
qunIIfIos ns nn oxrossIon of nn Idon, rnfhor fhnn fho Idon
IfsoIf. D++ 71B%21% /1%&01"2, 886 I.2d nf ll?5-?6. And,
whIIo fho courf In ?1&52 hoId fhnf oxrossIon fhnf Is nrf
of n 'mofhod of oornfIon` cnnnof bo coyrIghfod, 49 I.3d
nf 8l8, fhIs courfnIyIng Infh CIrcuIf Inwronchod
fho oxncf oosIfo concIusIon, fIndIng fhnf coyrIghf
rofocfs fho oxrossIon of |n] rocoss or mofhod, )&#0$,
9?5 I.2d nf 839.
Wo fInd, moroovor, fhnf fho hnrd nnd fnsf ruIo sof
down In ?1&52 nnd omIoyod by fho dIsfrIcf courf horo
I.o., fhnf oIomonfs whIch orform n funcfIon cnn novor bo
coyrIghfnbIoIs nf odds wIfh fho Infh CIrcuIf`s on-
dorsomonf of fho nbsfrncfIon-fIIfrnfIon-comnrIson nnnIy-
sIs dIscussod onrIIor. As fho Tonfh CIrcuIf concIudod In
oxrossIy rojocfIng fho ?1&52 mofhod of oornfIon nnnIy-
sIs, In fnvor of fho Socond CIrcuIf`s nbsfrncfIon-fIIfrnfIon-
comnrIson fosf, nIfhough nn oIomonf of n work mny bo
chnrncforIzod ns n mofhod of oornfIon, fhnf oIomonf mny
novorfhoIoss confnIn oxrossIon fhnf Is oIIgIbIo for coy-
rIghf rofocfIon. >$&+", l24 I.3d nf l3?2. SocIfIcnIIy,
fho courf found fhnf SocfIon l02(b) doos nof oxfInguIsh
fho rofocfIon nccordod n nrfIcuInr oxrossIon of nn Idon
moroIy bocnuso fhnf oxrossIon Is ombodIod In n mofhod
of oornfIon nf n hIghor IovoI of nbsfrncfIon. ;..
Ofhor courfs ngroo fhnf comononfs of n rogrnm fhnf
cnn bo chnrncforIzod ns n mofhod of oornfIon mny
??/ <3 D1%A /10*., 263 I.3d 942, 954 (9fh CIr. 200l)
(cIfIng ?1&52 for fho roosIfIon fhnf doIny hns boon hoId
ormIssIbIo, nmong ofhor ronsons, whon If Is nocossIfnfod
by fho oxhnusfIon of romodIos fhrough fho ndmInIsfrnfIvo
rocoss . . . whon If Is usod fo ovnIunfo nnd ronro n
comIIcnfod cInIm).

novorfhoIoss bo coyrIghfnbIo. Ior oxnmIo, fho ThIrd
CIrcuIf rojocfod n dofondnnf`s nrgumonf fhnf oornfIng
sysfom rogrnms nro or so uncoyrIghfnbIo bocnuso nn
oornfIng sysfom Is n mofhod of oornfIon for n comuf-
or. )**"+ /1:*5&+0, ;%43 <3 @0#%H"$% /1:*5&+0 /10*., ?l4
I.2d l240, l250-52 (3d CIr. l983). Tho courf dIsfIn-
guIshod bofwoon fho mofhod whIch Insfrucfs fho com-
ufor fo orform Ifs oornfIng funcfIons nnd fho
InsfrucfIons fhomsoIvos, nnd found fhnf fho InsfrucfIons
woro coyrIghfnbIo. ;.. nf l250-5l. In Ifs nnnIysIs, fho
courf nofod: |f]hnf fho words of n rogrnm nro usod
uIfImnfoIy In fho ImIomonfnfIon of n rocoss shouId In no
wny nffocf fhoIr coyrIghfnbIIIfy. ;.. nf l252 (quofIng
COT! !oorf nf 2l). Tho courf focusod on whofhor fho
Idon Is cnnbIo of vnrIous modos of oxrossIon nnd IndI-
cnfod fhnf, |I]f ofhor rogrnms cnn bo wrIffon or cronfod
whIch orform fho snmo funcfIon ns |I]n AIo`s oornfIng
sysfom rogrnm, fhon fhnf rogrnm Is nn oxrossIon of
fho Idon nnd honco coyrIghfnbIo. ;.. nf l253. ofnbIy,
no ofhor cIrcuIf hns ndofod fho IIrsf CIrcuIf`s mofhod of
oornfIon nnnIysIs.
Courfs hnvo IIkowIso found fhnf cInssIfyIng n work ns
n sysfom doos nof rocIudo coyrIghf for fho nrfIcuInr
oxrossIon of fhnf sysfom. D++ P101 /13 <3 M U M !01.23
/1., ?8? I.2d l208, l2l2 (8fh CIr. l986) (rojocfIng fho
dIsfrIcf courf`s docIsIon fhnf noIInnf`s nrfs numborIng
sysfom Is nof coyrIghfnbIo bocnuso If Is n 'sysfom` nnd
IndIcnfIng fhnf SocfIon l02(b) doos nof rocIudo rofoc-
fIon for fho nrfIcuInr oxrossIon of fhnf sysfom); 2++
#"21 ):3 -+%&#" )22N% <3 -+"&# -+%&#" !"#%2 )22N%, l26
I.3d 9??, 980 (?fh CIr. l99?) (A dIcfIonnry cnnnof bo
cnIIod n 'sysfom` jusf bocnuso now novoIs nro wrIffon
usIng words, nII of whIch nonr In fho dIcfIonnry. or Is
word-rocossIng soffwnro n 'sysfom` jusf bocnuso If hns n
commnnd sfrucfuro for roducIng nrngrnhs.).
Horo, fho dIsfrIcf courf rocognIzod fhnf fho SSO ro-
sombIos n fnxonomy, buf found fhnf If Is novorfhoIoss n
commnnd sfrucfuro, n sysfom or mofhod of oornfIonn
Iong hIornrchy of ovor sIx fhousnnd commnnds fo cnrry
ouf ro-nssIgnod funcfIons. /1*A0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%,
8?2 I. Su. 2d nf 999-l000.
l2
In ofhor words, fho courf
concIudod fhnf, nIfhough fho SSO Is oxrossIvo, If Is nof
coyrIghfnbIo bocnuso If Is nIso funcfIonnI. Tho robIom
wIfh fho dIsfrIcf courf`s nronch Is fhnf comufor ro-
grnms nro by dofInIfIon funcfIonnIfhoy nro nII dosIgnod
fo nccomIIsh somo fnsk. Indood, fho sfnfufory dofInIfIon
of comufor rogrnm ncknowIodgos fhnf fhoy funcfIon
fo brIng nbouf n corfnIn rosuIf. D++ l? !.S.C. l0l
(dofInIng n comufor rogrnm ns n sof of sfnfomonfs or
InsfrucfIons fo bo usod dIrocfIy or IndIrocfIy In n comufor
In ordor fo brIng nbouf n corfnIn rosuIf). If wo woro fo
nccof fho dIsfrIcf courf`s suggosfIon fhnf n comufor
rogrnm Is uncoyrIghfnbIo sImIy bocnuso If cnrr|Ios]
ouf ro-nssIgnod funcfIons, no comufor rogrnm Is
rofocfnbIo. Thnf rosuIf confrndIcfs Congross`s oxross
Infonf fo rovIdo coyrIghf rofocfIon fo comufor ro-
grnms, ns woII ns bIndIng Infh CIrcuIf cnso Inw fIndIng
comufor rogrnms coyrIghfnbIo, dosIfo fhoIr ufIIIfnrI-
nn or funcfIonnI uroso. Though fho frInI courf dId ndd
fho cnvonf fhnf If doos nof hoId fhnf fho sfrucfuro, so-
quonco nnd orgnnIznfIon of nII comufor rogrnms mny bo
sfoIon, /1*A0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%, 8?2 I. Su. 2d nf
l002, If Is hnrd fo soo how Ifs mofhod of oornfIon nnnIy-
sIs couId Iond fo nny ofhor concIusIon.
WhIIo If doos nof nonr fhnf fho Infh CIrcuIf hns
nddrossod fho rocIso Issuo, wo concIudo fhnf n sof of
commnnds fo Insfrucf n comufor fo cnrry ouf dosIrod
l2
ThIs nnnIogy by fho dIsfrIcf courf Is monnIngfuI
bocnuso fnxonomIos, In vnryIng forms, hnvo gonornIIy
boon doomod coyrIghfnbIo. D++, +383, !0#4&$4+ >8:&3 ;%'13
/10*3 <3 ):3 >+.3 )22N%, l2l I.3d 5l6, 5l?-20 (9fh CIr.
l99?); ):3 -+%&#", l26 I.3d nf 9?8-8l.

oornfIons mny confnIn oxrossIon fhnf Is oIIgIbIo for
coyrIghf rofocfIon. D++ >$&+", l24 I.3d nf l3?2. Wo
ngroo wIfh OrncIo fhnf, undor Infh CIrcuIf Inw, nn
orIgInnI workovon ono fhnf sorvos n funcfIonIs onfI-
fIod fo coyrIghf rofocfIon ns Iong ns fho nufhor hnd
muIfIIo wnys fo oxross fho undorIyIng Idon. SocfIon
l02(b) doos nof, ns CoogIo sooms fo suggosf, nufomnfIcnIIy
dony coyrIghf rofocfIon fo oIomonfs of n comufor
rogrnm fhnf nro funcfIonnI. Insfond, ns nofod, Soc-
fIon l02(b) codIfIos fho Idon/oxrossIon dIchofomy nnd fho
IogIsInfIvo hIsfory confIrms fhnf, nmong ofhor fhIngs,
SocfIon l02(b) wns Infondod fo mnko cIonr fhnf fho
oxrossIon ndofod by fho rogrnmmor Is fho coyrIghfn-
bIo oIomonf In n comufor rogrnm. H.!. !o. o. l4?6,
94fh Cong., 2d Soss. 54, 0+*0$%&+. $% l9?6 !.S.C.C.A..
5659, 56?0. Thoroforo, ovon If nn oIomonf dIrocfs n com-
ufor fo orform oornfIons, fho courf musf novorfhoIoss
doformIno whofhor If confnIns nny sonrnbIo oxrossIon
onfIfIod fo rofocfIon.
On nonI, OrncIo doos nofnnd concodos fhnf If cnn-
nofcInIm coyrIghf In fho Idon of orgnnIzIng funcfIons of
n comufor rogrnm or In fho nckngo-cInss-mofhod
orgnnIznfIonnI sfrucfuro In fho nbsfrncf. Insfond, OrncIo
cInIms coyrIghf rofocfIon onIy In Ifs *#0&$45"#0 wny of
nnmIng nnd orgnnIzIng onch of fho 3? Jnvn AII nckng-
os.
l3
OrncIo rocognIzos, for oxnmIo, fhnf If cnnnof
coyrIghf fho Idon of rogrnms fhnf oon nn Infornof
l3
Af ornI nrgumonf, counsoI for OrncIo oxInInod
fhnf If wouId novor cInIm fhnf nnyono who usos n nck-
ngo-cInss-mofhod mnnnor of cInssIfyIng vIoInfos our
coyrIghf. Wo don`f own ovory concoIvnbIo wny of orgnn-
IzIng, wo own onIy our socIfIc oxrossIonour socIfIc
wny of nnmIng onch of fhoso 362 mofhods, uffIng fhom
Info 36 cInssos, nnd 20 subcInssos. OrnI Argumonf nf
l6:44.

connocfIon, buf If cnn coyrIghf fho rocIso sfrIngs of
codo usod fo do so, nf Ionsf so Iong ns 'ofhor Inngungo Is
nvnIInbIo` fo nchIovo fho snmo funcfIon. AoIInnf !oIy
Ir. l3-l4 (cIfnfIon omIffod). Thus, OrncIo concodos fhnf
CoogIo nnd ofhors couId omIoy fho Jnvn Inngungomuch
IIko nnyono couId omIoy fho IngIIsh Inngungo fo wrIfo n
nrngrnh wIfhouf vIoInfIng fho coyrIghfs of ofhor
IngIIsh Inngungo wrIfors. And, fhnf CoogIo mny omIoy
fho nckngo-cInss-mofhod sfrucfuro much IIko nufhors
cnn omIoy fho snmo ruIos of grnmmnr choson by ofhor
nufhors wIfhouf fonr of InfrIngomonf. Whnf OrncIo con-
fonds Is fhnf, boyond fhnf oInf, CoogIo, IIko nny nufhor,
Is nof ormIffod fo omIoy fho rocIso hrnsIng or rocIso
sfrucfuro choson by OrncIo fo fIosh ouf fho subsfnnco of
Ifs nckngosfho dofnIIs nnd nrrnngomonf of fho roso.
As fho dIsfrIcf courf ncknowIodgod, CoogIo couId hnvo
sfrucfurod AndroId dIfforonfIy nnd couId hnvo choson
dIfforonf wnys fo oxross nnd ImIomonf fho funcfIonnIIfy
fhnf If coIod.
l4
SocIfIcnIIy, fho courf found fhnf fho
l4
AmIcI MconIy nnd SufhIn oxInIn fhnf n quIck
oxnmInnfIon of ofhor rogrnmmIng onvIronmonfs shows
fhnf cronfors of ofhor dovoIomonf Infforms rovIdo fho
snmo funcfIons wIfh whoIIy dIfforonf cronfIvo choIcos.
Ir. of MconIy nnd SufhIn l?. Ior oxnmIo, In Jnvn, n
dovoIoor soffIng fho fImo zono wouId cnII fho sofTImo-
Zono mofhod wIfhIn fho nfoIormnf cInss of fho jn-
vn.foxf nckngo. ;.. AIo`s IOS Infform, on fho ofhor
hnnd, dovofos nn onfIro cInss fo sof fho fImo zono In nn
nIIcnfIonfho 'STImoZono` cInss whIch Is In fho
IoundnfIon frnmowork. ;.. nf l?-l8 (nofIng fhnf n
frnmowork Is AIo`s formInoIogy for n sfrucfuro conco-
funIIy sImIInr fo Jnvn`s 'nckngo`). MIcrosoff rovIdos
sImIInr funcfIonnIIfy wIfh nn onfIroIy dIfforonf sfrucfuro,
nnmIng schomo, nnd soIocfIon. ;.. nf l8 (In Ifs WIndows
Ihono dovoIomonf Infform, MIcrosoff sforos Ifs fImo

vory snmo funcfIonnIIfy couId hnvo boon offorod In An-
droId wIfhouf duIIcnfIng fho oxncf commnnd sfrucfuro
usod In Jnvn. /1*A0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%, 8?2 I. Su. 2d
nf 9?6. Tho courf furfhor oxInInod fhnf CoogIo couId
hnvo offorod fho snmo funcfIons In AndroId by ro-
nrrnngIng fho vnrIous mofhods undor dIfforonf grouIngs
nmong fho vnrIous cInssos nnd nckngos. ;.. Tho ovI-
donco showod, moroovor, fhnf CoogIo dosIgnod mnny of Ifs
own AII nckngos from scrnfch, nnd, fhus, couId hnvo
dosIgnod Ifs own corrosondIng 3? AII nckngos If If
wnnfod fo do so.
CIvon fho courf`s fIndIngs fhnf fho SSO Is orIgInnI nnd
cronfIvo, nnd fhnf fho docInrIng codo couId hnvo boon
wrIffon nnd orgnnIzod In nny numbor of wnys nnd sfIII
hnvo nchIovod fho snmo funcfIons, wo concIudo fhnf
SocfIon l02(b) doos nof bnr fho nckngos from coyrIghf
rofocfIon jusf bocnuso fhoy nIso orform funcfIons.
3. CoogIo`s InforoornbIIIfy Argumonfs
nro IrroIovnnf fo CoyrIghfnbIIIfy
OrncIo nIso nrguos fhnf fho dIsfrIcf courf orrod In In-
vokIng InforoornbIIIfy In Ifs coyrIghfnbIIIfy nnnIysIs.
SocIfIcnIIy, OrncIo nrguos fhnf CoogIo`s InforoornbIIIfy
nrgumonfs nro onIy roIovnnf, If nf nII, fo fnIr usonof fo
fho quosfIon of whofhor fho AII nckngos nro coyrIghfn-
bIo. Wo ngroo.
In chnrncforIzIng fho SSO of fho Jnvn AII nckngos
ns n mofhod of oornfIon, fho dIsfrIcf courf oxInInod
fhnf |d]uIIcnfIon of fho commnnd sfrucfuro Is nocossnry
for InforoornbIIIfy. /1*A0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%, 8?2 I.
Su. 2d nf 9??. Tho courf found fhnf, |I]n ordor for nf
zono rogrnms In fho 'TImoZonoInfo` cInss In Ifs 'Sysfoms`
nnmosnco (MIcrosoff`s vorsIon of n 'nckngo` or 'frnmo-
work`).). AgnIn, fhIs Is consIsfonf wIfh fho ovIdonco
rosonfod nf frInI.

Ionsf somo of |fho ro-AndroId Jnvn] codo fo run on An-
droId, CoogIo wns roquIrod fo rovIdo fho snmo jn-
vn.nckngo.CInss.mofhod() commnnd sysfom usIng fho
snmo nnmos wIfh fho snmo 'fnxonomy` nnd wIfh fho snmo
funcfIonnI socIfIcnfIons. ;.. nf l000 (omhnsIs omIffod).
And, fho courf concIudod fhnf CoogIo roIIcnfod whnf
wns nocossnry fo nchIovo n dogroo of InforoornbIIIfybuf
no moro, fnkIng cnro, ns snId boforo, fo rovIdo Ifs own
ImIomonfnfIons. ;.. In ronchIng fhIs concIusIon, fho
courf roIIod rImnrIIy on fwo Infh CIrcuIf docIsIons:
D+8# F%&+0*0$2+2 <3 )441"#.+, ;%4., 9?? I.2d l5l0 (9fh CIr.
l992), nnd D1%A /1:*5&+0 F%&+0&#$%:+%&, ;%43 <3 /1%(
%+4&$I, /10*., 203 I.3d 596 (9fh CIr. 2000).
Iofh D+8# nnd D1%A nro fnIr uso cnsos In whIch coy-
rIghfnbIIIfy wns nddrossod onIy fnngonfInIIy. In D+8#, for
oxnmIo, Sogn mnnufncfurod n vIdoo gnmo consoIo nnd
gnmo cnrfrIdgos fhnf confnInod hIddon funcfIonnI ro-
grnm oIomonfs nocossnry fo nchIovo comnfIbIIIfy wIfh
fho consoIo. ofondnnf AccoIndo: (l) rovorso-ongInoorod
Sogn`s vIdoo gnmo rogrnms fo dIscovor fho roquIromonfs
for comnfIbIIIfy; nnd (2) cronfod Ifs own gnmos for fho
Sogn consoIo. D+8#, 9?? I.2d nf l5l4-l5. As nrf of fho
rovorso-ongInoorIng rocoss, AccoIndo mndo InformodInfo
coIos of objocf codo from Sogn`s consoIo. ;.. AIfhough
fho courf rocognIzod fhnf fho InformodInfo coyIng of
comufor codo mny InfrIngo Sogn`s coyrIghf, If concIudod
fhnf dIsnssombIy of coyrIghfod objocf codo Is, ns n
mnffor of Inw, n fnIr uso of fho coyrIghfod work If such
dIsnssombIy rovIdos fho onIy monns of nccoss fo fhoso
oIomonfs of fho codo fhnf nro nof rofocfod by coyrIghf
nnd fho coIor hns n IogIfImnfo ronson for sookIng such
nccoss. ;.. nf l5l8. Tho courf ngrood wIfh AccoIndo fhnf
Ifs coyIng wns nocossnry fo oxnmIno fho unrofocfod
funcfIonnI nsocfs of fho rogrnm. ;.. nf l520. And,
bocnuso AccoIndo hnd n IogIfImnfo Inforosf In mnkIng Ifs
cnrfrIdgos comnfIbIo wIfh Sogn`s consoIo, fho courf found
fhnf AccoIndo`s InformodInfo coyIng wns fnIr uso.
!IkowIso, In D1%A, fho Infh CIrcuIf found fhnf fho
dofondnnf`s rovorso ongInoorIng nnd InformodInfo coyIng
of Sony`s coyrIghfod soffwnro rogrnm wns n fnIr uso for
fho uroso of gnInIng nccoss fo fho unrofocfod oIomonfs
of Sony`s soffwnro. D1%A, 203 I.3d nf 602. Tho courf
oxInInod fhnf Sony`s soffwnro rogrnm confnInod unro-
focfod funcfIonnI oIomonfs nnd fhnf fho dofondnnf couId
onIy nccoss fhoso oIomonfs fhrough rovorso ongInoorIng.
;.. nf 603. Tho dofondnnf usod fhnf InformnfIon fo cronfo
n soffwnro rogrnm fhnf Iof consumors Iny gnmos do-
sIgnod for Sony`s IInySfnfIon consoIo on fhoIr comufors.
ofnbIy, fho dofondnnf`s soffwnro rogrnm dId nof con-
fnIn nny of Sony`s coyrIghfod mnforInI. ;.. nf 598.
Tho dIsfrIcf courf chnrncforIzod D1%A nnd D+8# ns
cIoso nnnIogIos fo fhIs cnso. /1*A0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%,
8?2 I. Su. 2d nf l000. AccordIng fo fho courf, bofh
docIsIons hoId fhnf Inforfnco rocoduros fhnf woro nocos-
snry fo duIIcnfo In ordor fo nchIovo InforoornbIIIfy woro
funcfIonnI nsocfs nof coyrIghfnbIo undor SocfIon
l02(b). ;.. Tho dIsfrIcf courf`s roIInnco on D+8# nnd
D1%A In fho coyrIghfnbIIIfy confoxf Is mIsIncod, howov-
or.
As nofod, bofh cnsos woro focusod on fnIr uso, nof co-
yrIghfnbIIIfy. In D+8#, for oxnmIo, fho onIy quosfIon wns
whofhor AccoIndo`s InformodInfo coyIng wns fnIr uso.
Tho courf novor nddrossod fho quosfIon of whofhor Sogn`s
soffwnro codo, whIch hnd funcfIonnI oIomonfs, nIso con-
fnInod sonrnbIo cronfIvo oxrossIon onfIfIod fo rofoc-
fIon. !IkowIso, nIfhough fho courf In D1%A doformInod
fhnf Sony`s comufor rogrnm hnd funcfIonnI oIomonfs, If
novor nddrossod whofhor If nIso hnd oxrossIvo oIomonfs.
D+8# nnd D1%A nro nIso fncfunIIy dIsfInguIshnbIo bocnuso
fho dofondnnfs In fhoso cnsos mndo InformodInfo coIos fo
undorsfnnd fho funcfIonnI nsocfs of fho coyrIghfod
works nnd fhon cronfod now roducfs. D++ D1%A, 203 I.3d
nf 606-0?; D+8#, 9?? I.2d nf l522-23. ThIs Is nof n cnso
whoro CoogIo rovorso-ongInoorod OrncIo`s Jnvn nckngos
fo gnIn nccoss fo unrofocfod funcfIonnI oIomonfs con-
fnInod fhoroIn. As fho formor !ogIsfor of CoyrIghfs of
fho !nIfod Sfnfos oInfod ouf In hIs brIof nmIcus curIno,
|h]nd CoogIo rovorso ongInoorod fho rogrnmmIng nck-
ngos fo fIguro ouf fho Idons nnd funcfIonnIIfy of fho orIgI-
nnI, nnd fhon cronfod Ifs own sfrucfuro nnd Ifs own IIfornI
codo, OrncIo wouId hnvo no romody undor coyrIghf
whnfsoovor. Ir. for AmIcus CurIno !nIh Omnn 29.
Insfond, CoogIo choso fo coy bofh fho docInrIng codo nnd
fho ovornII SSO of fho 3? Jnvn AII nckngos nf Issuo.
Wo dIsngroo wIfh CoogIo`s suggosfIon fhnf D1%A nnd
D+8# cronfod nn InforoornbIIIfy oxcofIon fo coyrIghf-
nbIIIfy. D++ AoIIoo Ir. 39 (cIfIng D1%A nnd D+8# for fho
roosIfIon fhnf comnfIbIIIfy oIomonfs nro nof coy-
rIghfnbIo undor socfIon l02(b) (omhnsIs omIffod)).
AIfhough bofh cnsos rocognIzod fhnf fho soffwnro ro-
grnms nf Issuo fhoro confnInod unrofocfod funcfIonnI
oIomonfs, n doformInnfIon fhnf somo oIomonfs nro unro-
focfod Is nof fho snmo ns snyIng fhnf fho onfIro work Iosos
coyrIghf rofocfIon. To nccof CoogIo`s rondIng wouId
confrndIcf Infh CIrcuIf cnso Inw rocognIzIng fhnf bofh
fho IIfornI nnd non-IIfornI comononfs of n soffwnro
rogrnm nro oIIgIbIo for coyrIghf rofocfIon. D++ 71B%(
21% /1%&01"2, 886 I.2d nf ll?5. And If wouId Ignoro fho
fncf fhnf fho Infh CIrcuIf ondorsod fho nbsfrncfIon-
fIIfrnfIon-comnrIson InquIry In D+8# IfsoIf.
As rovIousIy dIscussod, n courf musf oxnmIno fho
soffwnro rogrnm fo doformIno whofhor If confnIns cron-
fIvo oxrossIon fhnf cnn bo sonrnfod from fho undorIyIng
funcfIon. D++ D+8#, 9?? I.2d nf l524-25. In doIng so, fho
courf fIIfors ouf fho oIomonfs of fho rogrnm fhnf nro
Idons ns woII ns oIomonfs fhnf nro dIcfnfod by consIdor-
nfIons of offIcIoncy, so ns fo bo nocossnrIIy IncIdonfnI fo
fhnf Idon; roquIrod by fncfors oxfornnI fo fho rogrnm
IfsoIf. )"&#$, 982 I.2d nf ?0?.
To doformIno whofhor corfnIn nsocfs of nn nIIogodIy
InfrIngod soffwnro nro nof rofocfod by coyrIghf Inw, fho
focus Is on oxfornnI fncfors fhnf InfIuoncod fho choIco of
fho cronfor of fho InfrIngod roducf. -5% U K0#.2&0++&
D1'&J#0+ D+0<23, ;%43 <3 =0#4+ /1%25"&$%8, ;%4., 30? I.3d
l9?, 2l5 (3d CIr. 2002) (cIfIng )"&#$, 982 I.2d nf ?l4;
>$&+", l24 I.3d nf l3?5). Tho Socond CIrcuIf, for oxnmIo,
hns nofod fhnf rogrnmmors nro offon consfrnInod In
fhoIr dosIgn choIcos by oxfrInsIc consIdornfIons IncIud-
Ing fho mochnnIcnI socIfIcnfIons of fho comufor on
whIch n nrfIcuInr rogrnm Is Infondod fo run nnd com-
nfIbIIIfy roquIromonfs of ofhor rogrnms wIfh whIch n
rogrnm Is dosIgnod fo oornfo In conjuncfIon. )"&#$, 982
I.2d nf ?09-l0 (cIfIng 3 MoIvIIIo I. Immor & nvId
Immor, Immor on CoyrIghf l3.0l nf l3-66-?l
(l99l)). Tho Infh CIrcuIf hns IIkowIso rocognIzod fhnf:
(l) comufor rogrnms confnIn mnny IogIcnI, sfrucfurnI,
nnd vIsunI dIsIny oIomonfs fhnf nro dIcfnfod by . . .
oxfornnI fncfors such ns comnfIbIIIfy roquIromonfs nnd
Indusfry domnnds; nnd (2) |I]n somo cIrcumsfnncos,
ovon fho oxncf sof of commnnds usod by fho rogrnmmor
Is doomod funcfIonnI rnfhor fhnn cronfIvo for urosos of
coyrIghf. D+8#, 9?? I.2d nf l524 (InfornnI cIfnfIon
omIffod).
Iocnuso coyrIghfnbIIIfy Is focusod on fho choIcos
nvnIInbIo fo fho InInfIff nf fho fImo fho comufor ro-
grnm wns cronfod, fho roIovnnf comnfIbIIIfy InquIry nsks
whofhor fho InInfIff`s choIcos woro dIcfnfod by n nood fo
onsuro fhnf Ifs rogrnm workod wIfh oxIsfIng fhIrd-nrfy
rogrnms. -5% U K0#.2&0++&, 30? I.3d nf 2l5; 2++ #"21
)&#0$, 9?5 I.2d nf 840 (IxfornnI fncfors dId nof dIcfnfo
fho dosIgn of fho l0IS rogrnm.). Whofhor n dofond-
nnf Infor sooks fo mnko Ifs rogrnm InforoornbIo wIfh
fho InInfIff`s rogrnm hns no bonrIng on whofhor fho
soffwnro fho InInfIff cronfod hnd nny dosIgn IImIfnfIons
dIcfnfod by oxfornnI fncfors. D++ -5% U K0#.2&0++&, 30?
I.3d nf 2l5 (fIndIng nn oxorf`s fosfImony on Inforoorn-
bIIIfy whoIIy mIsIncod bocnuso ho Iookod nf oxfornnII-
fIos from fho oyos of fho IngInrIsf, nof fho oyos of fho
rogrnm`s cronfor). Sfnfod dIfforonfIy, fho focus Is on fho
comnfIbIIIfy noods nnd rogrnmmIng choIcos of fho nrfy
cInImIng coyrIghf rofocfIonnof fho choIcos fho do-
fondnnf mndo fo nchIovo comnfIbIIIfy wIfh fho InInfIff`s
rogrnm. ConsIsfonf wIfh fhIs nronch, courfs hnvo
rocognIzod fhnf, onco fho InInfIff cronfos n coyrIghfnbIo
work, n dofondnnf`s dosIro fo nchIovo fofnI comnfIbII-
Ify . . . Is n commorcInI nnd comofIfIvo objocfIvo whIch
doos nof onfor Info fho . . . Issuo of whofhor nrfIcuInr
Idons nnd oxrossIons hnvo morgod. )**"+ /1:*5&+0,
?l4 I.2d nf l253.
CIvon fhIs rocodonf, wo concIudo fhnf fho dIsfrIcf
courf orrod In focusIng Ifs InforoornbIIIfy nnnIysIs on
CoogIo`s dosIros for Ifs AndroId soffwnro. D++ /1*A0$8B&#(
C$"$&A -+4$2$1%, 8?2 I. Su. 2d nf l000 (CoogIo roIIcnf-
od whnf wns nocossnry fo nchIovo n dogroo of
InforoornbIIIfy wIfh Jnvn.). Whofhor CoogIo`s soffwnro
Is InforoornbIo In somo sonso wIfh nny nsocf of fho
Jnvn Infform (nIfhough ns CoogIo concodos, corfnInIy nof
wIfh fho JVM) hns no bonrIng on fho fhroshoId quosfIon of
whofhor OrncIo`s soffwnro Is coyrIghfnbIo. If Is fho
InforoornbIIIfy nnd ofhor noods of OrncIonof fhoso of
CoogIofhnf nIy In fho coyrIghfnbIIIfy confoxf, nnd
fhoro Is no ovIdonco fhnf whon OrncIo cronfod fho Jnvn
AII nckngos nf Issuo If dId so fo moof comnfIbIIIfy
roquIromonfs of ofhor ro-oxIsfIng rogrnms.
CoogIo mnInfnIns on nonI fhnf Ifs uso of fho Jnvn
cInss nnd mofhod nnmos nnd docInrnfIons wns 'fho onIy
nnd ossonfInI monns` of nchIovIng n dogroo of Inforoorn-
bIIIfy wIfh oxIsfIng rogrnms wrIffon In fho |Jnvn Inn-
gungo]. AoIIoo Ir. 49. Indood, gIvon fho rocord
ovIdonco fhnf CoogIo dosIgnod AndroId so fhnf If wouId
%1& bo comnfIbIo wIfh fho Jnvn Infform, or fho JVM
socIfIcnIIy, wo fInd CoogIo`s InforoornbIIIfy nrgumonf
confusIng. WhIIo CoogIo roonfodIy cIfos fo fho dIsfrIcf
courf`s fIndIng fhnf CoogIo hnd fo coy fho nckngos so
fhnf nn n wrIffon In Jnvn couId run on AndroId, If cIfos
fo no ovIdonco In fho rocord fhnf nny such n oxIsfs nnd
oInfs fo no Jnvn ns fhnf oIfhor ro-dnfod or osf-dnfod
AndroId fhnf couId run on fho AndroId Infform.
l5
Tho
comnfIbIIIfy CoogIo soughf fo fosfor wns nof wIfh Orn-
cIo`s Jnvn Infform or wIfh fho JVM confrnI fo fhnf Inf-
form. Insfond, CoogIo wnnfod fo cnIfnIIzo on fho fncf
fhnf soffwnro dovoIoors woro nIrondy frnInod nnd oxorI-
oncod In usIng fho Jnvn AII nckngos nf Issuo. Tho
dIsfrIcf courf ngrood, fIndIng fhnf, ns fo fho 3? Jnvn AII
nckngos, CoogIo boIIovod Jnvn nIIcnfIon rogrnmmors
wouId wnnf fo fInd fho snmo 3? sofs of funcfIonnIIfIos In
fho now AndroId sysfom cnIInbIo by fho snmo nnmos ns
usod In Jnvn. /1*A0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%, 8?2 I. Su. 2d
nf 9?8. CoogIo`s Inforosf wns In nccoIornfIng Ifs dovoIo-
monf rocoss by Iovorng|Ing] Jnvn for Ifs oxIsfIng bnso of
dovoIoors. J.A. 2033, 2092. AIfhough fhIs comofIfIvo
objocfIvo mIghf bo roIovnnf fo fho fnIr uso InquIry, wo
concIudo fhnf If Is IrroIovnnf fo fho coyrIghfnbIIIfy of
OrncIo`s docInrIng codo nnd orgnnIznfIon of fho AII nck-
ngos.
IInnIIy, fo fho oxfonf CoogIo suggosfs fhnf If wns onfI-
fIod fo coy fho Jnvn AII nckngos bocnuso fhoy hnd
l5
urIng ornI nrgumonf, CoogIo`s counsoI sfnfod
fhnf n rogrnm wrIffon In fho Jnvn Inngungo cnn run on
AndroId If If`s onIy usIng nckngos wIfhIn fho 3?. So If
I`m n dovoIoor nnd I hnvo wrIffon n rogrnm, I`vo wrIffon
If In Jnvn, I cnn sfIck nn AndroId hondor on If nnd If wIII
run In AndroId bocnuso If Is usIng fho IdonfIcnI nnmos of
fho cInssos, mofhods, nnd nckngos. OrnI Argumonf nf
3l:3l. CounsoI dId nof IdonfIfy nny rogrnms fhnf uso
onIy fho 3? AII nckngos nf Issuo, howovor, nnd dId nof
nffosf fhnf nny such rogrnm wouId bo usofuI. or dId
CoogIo cIfo fo nny rocord ovIdonco fo suorf fhIs cInIm.

bocomo fho offocfIvo Indusfry sfnndnrd, wo nro unor-
sundod. CoogIo cIfos no nufhorIfy for Ifs suggosfIon fhnf
coyrIghfod works Ioso rofocfIon whon fhoy bocomo
ouInr, nnd wo hnvo found nono.
l6
In fncf, fho Infh
CIrcuIf hns rojocfod fho nrgumonf fhnf n work fhnf Infor
bocomos fho Indusfry sfnndnrd Is uncoyrIghfnbIo. D++
!0#4&$4+ >8:&3 ;%'13 /10*3 <3 ):3 >+.3 )22N%, l2l I.3d
5l6, 520 n.8 (9fh CIr. l99?) (nofIng fhnf fho dIsfrIcf courf
found InInfIff`s modIcnI codIng sysfom onfIfIod fo coy-
rIghf rofocfIon, nnd fhnf, nIfhough fho sysfom hnd
bocomo fho Indusfry sfnndnrd, InInfIff`s coyrIghf dId nof
rovonf comofIfors from dovoIoIng comnrnfIvo or
boffor codIng sysfoms nnd IobbyIng fho fodornI govorn-
monf nnd rIvnfo ncfors fo ndof fhom. If sImIy ro-
vonfs whoIosnIo coyIng of nn oxIsfIng sysfom.). CoogIo
wns froo fo dovoIo Ifs own AII nckngos nnd fo Iobby
rogrnmmors fo ndof fhom. Insfond, If choso fo coy
l6
CoogIo nrguos fhnf, In fho snmo wny n formorIy
dIsfIncfIvo frndomnrk cnn bocomo gonorIc ovor fImo, n
rogrnm oIomonf cnn Ioso coyrIghf rofocfIon whon If
bocomos nn Indusfry sfnndnrd. Iuf If Is fo bo oxocfod
fhnf hrnsos nnd ofhor frngmonfs of oxrossIon In n
hIghIy succossfuI coyrIghfod work wIII bocomo nrf of fho
Inngungo. Thnf doos nof monn fhoy Ioso nII rofocfIon In
fho mnnnor of n frndo nnmo fhnf hns bocomo gonorIc.
O#0%+0 K0123, ;%43 <3 ):3 K01#.4#2&$%8 /12., ?20 I.2d
23l, 242 (2d CIr. l983) (o mnffor how woII known n
coyrIghfod hrnso bocomos, Ifs nufhor Is onfIfIod fo
gunrd ngnInsf Ifs nrorInfIon fo romofo fho snIo of
commorcInI roducfs.). ofnbIy, ovon whon n nfonfod
mofhod or sysfom bocomos nn ncknowIodgod Indusfry
sfnndnrd wIfh ncquIosconco of fho nfonf ownor, nny
ormIssIbIo uso gonornIIy roquIros nymonf of n ronsonn-
bIo roynIfy, whIch CoogIo rofusod fo do horo. D++ 8+%+0#"(
"A ;% 0+ ;%%1<#&$1 ;! L+%&50+2, ??/, o. ll-C-9308, 20l3
!.S. Isf. !IXIS l4406l (.. III. Sof. 2?, 20l3).

OrncIo`s docInrIng codo nnd fho SSO fo cnIfnIIzo on fho
rooxIsfIng communIfy of rogrnmmors who woro nccus-
fomod fo usIng fho Jnvn AII nckngos. Thnf dosIro hns
nofhIng fo do wIfh coyrIghfnbIIIfy. Ior fhoso ronsons, wo
fInd fhnf CoogIo`s Indusfry sfnndnrd nrgumonf hns no
bonrIng on fho coyrIghfnbIIIfy of OrncIo`s work.
I. InIr !so
As nofod, fho jury hung on CoogIo`s fnIr uso dofonso,
nnd fho dIsfrIcf courf docIInod fo ordor n now frInI gIvon
Ifs concIusIon fhnf fho codo nnd sfrucfuro CoogIo coIod
woro nof onfIfIod fo coyrIghf rofocfIon. On nonI,
OrncIo nrguos fhnf: (l) n romnnd fo docIdo fnIr uso Is
oInfIoss; nnd (2) fhIs courf shouId fInd, ns n mnffor of
Inw, fhnf CoogIo`s commorcInI uso of OrncIo`s work In n
mnrkof whoro OrncIo nIrondy comofod wns nof fnIr uso.
AoIInnf Ir. 68.
InIr uso Is nn nffIrmnfIvo dofonso fo coyrIghf In-
frIngomonf nnd Is codIfIod In SocfIon l0? of fho CoyrIghf
Acf. =1"#%, l32 S. Cf. nf 890 (|T]ho fnIr uso dofonso, Is
codIfIod nf l? !.S.C. l0?.). SocfIon l0? ormIfs uso of
coyrIghfod work If If Is for urosos such ns crIfIcIsm,
commonf, nows roorfIng, fonchIng (IncIudIng muIfIIo
coIos for cInssroom uso), schoInrshI, or rosonrch. l?
!.S.C. l0?. Tho fnIr uso docfrIno hns boon roforrod fo
ns 'fho mosf froubIosomo In fho whoIo Inw of coyrIghf.`
>1%8+ <3 >#A# >#8#Q$%+2, ;%4., 688 I.3d ll64, ll?0 (9fh
CIr. 20l2) (quofIng -+""#0 <3 D#:5+" =1".JA%, ;%4., l04
I.2d 66l, 662 (2d CIr. l939) (or curInm)). If bofh or-
mIfs nnd roquIros courfs fo nvoId rIgId nIIcnfIon of fho
coyrIghf sfnfufo whon, on occnsIon, If wouId sfIfIo fho
vory cronfIvIfy whIch fhnf Inw Is dosIgnod fo fosfor.
/#:*C+"" <3 )45''(M12+ >52$4, ;%4., 5l0 !.S. 569, 5??
(l994) (quofIng D&+J#0& <3 )C+%., 495 !.S. 20?, 236
(l990)).
SocfIon l0? roquIros n cnso-by-cnso doformInnfIon
whofhor n nrfIcuInr uso Is fnIr, nnd fho sfnfufo nofos four
nonoxcIusIvo fncfors fo bo consIdorod. G#0*+0 U M1J
!5C"$2B+02, ;%43 <3 E#&$1% F%&+023, 4?l !.S. 539, 549
(l985). Thoso fncfors nro: (l) fho uroso nnd chnrncfor
of fho uso, IncIudIng whofhor such uso Is of n commorcInI
nnfuro or Is for nonrofIf oducnfIonnI urosos; (2) fho
nnfuro of fho coyrIghfod work; (3) fho nmounf nnd
subsfnnfInIIfy of fho orfIon usod In roInfIon fo fho coy-
rIghfod work ns n whoIo; nnd (4) fho offocf of fho uso
uon fho ofonfInI mnrkof for or vnIuo of fho coyrIghfod
work. l? !.S.C. l0?. Tho Suromo Courf hns ox-
InInod fhnf nII of fho sfnfufory fncfors nro fo bo ox-
Iorod, nnd fho rosuIfs woIghod fogofhor, In IIghf of fho
uroso|] of coyrIghf, whIch Is |f]o romofo fho Iro-
gross of ScIonco nnd usofuI Arfs. /#:*C+"", 5l0 !.S. nf
5?8, 5?5 (InfornnI cIfnfIons omIffod).
InIr uso Is n mIxod quosfIon of Inw nnd fncf. G#0*+0
U M1J, 4?l !.S. nf 560. Thus, whIIo subsIdInry nnd
confrovorfod fIndIngs of fncf musf bo rovIowod for cIonr
orror undor !uIo 52 of fho IodornI !uIos of CIvII Iroco-
duro, fho Infh CIrcuIf rovIows fho uIfImnfo nIIcnfIon
of fhoso fncfs do novo. D++ D+"&Q+0 <3 =0++% -#A, ;%4., ?25
I.3d ll?0, ll?5 (9fh CIr. 20l3) (cIfIng D9@) F%&:N&, ;%43
<3 -1.8+0 !01.23, ;%4., ?09 I.3d l2?3, l2?? (9fh CIr.
20l3)). Whoro fhoro nro no mnforInI fncfs nf Issuo nnd
fho nrfIos dIsufo onIy fho uIfImnfo concIusIons fo bo
drnwn from fhoso fncfs, wo mny drnw fhoso concIusIons
wIfhouf usurIng fho funcfIon of fho jury. ;.. (cIfIng
@$2B+0 <3 -++2, ?94 I.2d 432, 436 (9fh CIr. l986)). Indood,
fho Suromo Courf hns socIfIcnIIy rocognIzod fhnf,
|w]horo fho dIsfrIcf courf hns found fncfs suffIcIonf fo
ovnIunfo onch of fho sfnfufory fncfors, nn noIInfo courf
'nood nof romnnd for furfhor fncffIndIng . . . |buf] mny
concIudo ns n mnffor of Inw fhnf |fho chnIIongod uso]
|doos] nof qunIIfy ns n fnIr uso of fho coyrIghfod work.`
G#0*+0 U M1J, 4?l !.S. nf 560 (cIfnfIon omIffod).
Of courso, fho coroIInry fo fhIs oInf Is fruo ns woII
whoro fhoro nro mnforInI fncfs In dIsufo nnd fhoso fncfs
hnvo nof yof boon rosoIvod by fho frIor of fncf, noIInfo
courfs mny nof mnko fIndIngs of fncf In fho fIrsf Insfnnco.
D++ DB#J:5& K#%H, E3)3 <3 S0+22 )22142., 33 I.3d l4??,
l504 (9fh CIr. l994) (|W]o musf nvoId fIndIng fncfs In fho
fIrsf Insfnnco.); 2++ #"21 =1".+% K0$.8+ P+4B3, ;%43 <3
E1H$#, ;%4., 52? I.3d l3l8, l323 (Iod. CIr. 2008) (AoI-
Info courfs rovIow dIsfrIcf courf judgmonfs; wo do nof fInd
fncfs.). Horo, If Is undIsufod fhnf noIfhor fho jury nor
fho dIsfrIcf courf mndo fIndIngs of fncf fo whIch wo cnn
rofor In nssossIng fho quosfIon of whofhor CoogIo`s uso of
fho AII nckngos nf Issuo wns n fnIr uso wIfhIn fho
monnIng of SocfIon l0?. OrncIo urgos rosoIufIon of fho
fnIr uso quosfIon by nrguIng fhnf fho frInI courf shouId
hnvo docIdod fho quosfIon ns n mnffor of Inw bnsod on fho
undIsufod fncfs dovoIood nf frInI, nnd fhnf wo cnn do so
ns woII. CoogIo, on fho ofhor hnnd, nrguos fhnf mnny
crIfIcnI fncfs rognrdIng fnIr uso nro In dIsufo. If nssorfs
fhnf fho fncf fhnf fho jury couId nof ronch n rosoIufIon on
fho fnIr uso dofonso IndIcnfos fhnf nf Ionsf somo rosumn-
bIy ronsonnbIo jurors found Ifs uso fo bo fnIr. And, CoogIo
nssorfs fhnf, ovon If If Is fruo fhnf fho dIsfrIcf courf orrod
In dIscussIng concofs of InforoornbIIIfy whon consIdor-
Ing coyrIghfnbIIIfy, fhoso concofs nro sfIII roIovnnf fo Ifs
fnIr uso dofonso. Wo furn fIrsf fo n moro dofnIIod oxnmI-
nnfIon of fnIr uso.
Tho fIrsf fncfor In fho fnIr uso InquIry InvoIvos fho
uroso nnd chnrncfor of fho uso, IncIudIng whofhor such
uso Is of n commorcInI nnfuro or Is for nonrofIf oducn-
fIonnI urosos. l? !.S.C. l0?(l). ThIs fncfor InvoIvos
fwo sub-Issuos: (l) whofhor nnd fo whnf oxfonf fho now
work Is frnnsformnfIvo, /#:*C+"", 5l0 !.S. nf 5?9 (cIfn-
fIon nnd InfornnI quofnfIon mnrks omIffod); nnd
(2) whofhor fho uso sorvos n commorcInI uroso.
A uso Is frnnsformnfIvo If If ndds somofhIng now,
wIfh n furfhor uroso or dIfforonf chnrncfor, nIforIng fho
fIrsf wIfh now oxrossIon, monnIng or mossngo. ;.. Tho
crIfIcnI quosfIon Is whofhor fho now work moroIy suor-
sodo|s] fho objocfs of fho orIgInnI cronfIon . . . or Insfond
ndds somofhIng now. ;.. (cIfnfIons nnd InfornnI quofn-
fIon mnrks omIffod). ThIs InquIry mny bo guIdod by fho
oxnmIos gIvon In fho ronmbIo fo l0?, IookIng fo
whofhor fho uso Is for crIfIcIsm, or commonf, or nows
roorfIng, nnd fho IIko. ;.3 nf 5?8-?9. Tho Suromo
Courf hns rocognIzod fhnf nrodIc works, IIko ofhor works
fhnf commonf nnd crIfIcIzo, nro by fhoIr nnfuro offon
suffIcIonfIy frnnsformnfIvo fo fIf cIonrIy undor fho fnIr uso
oxcofIon. >#&&+" ;%43 <3 O#"H$%8 >15%&#$% !01.23, 353
I.3d ?92, 800 (9fh CIr. 2003) (cIfIng /#:*C+"", 5l0 !.S. nf
5?9).
Courfs hnvo doscrIbod now works ns frnnsformnfIvo
whon fho works uso coy-rIghfod mnforInI for urosos
dIsfIncf from fho uroso of fho orIgInnI mnforInI. F"<$2
!0+2"+A F%&+023, ;%43 <3 !#22*10& L$.+1, 349 I.3d 622, 629
(9fh CIr. 2003) (Horo, Inssorf`s uso of mnny of fho
foIovIsIon cIIs Is frnnsformnfIvo bocnuso fhoy nro cIfod ns
hIsforIcnI roforonco oInfs In fho IIfo of n romnrknbIo
onforfnInor.), 1<+005"+. 1% 1&B+0 8015%.2 CA @"+I$C"+
?$'+"$%+ DA23, ;%43 <3 !0+4$2$1% ?$'&, ;%4., 654 I.3d 989, 995
(9fh CIr. 20ll) (or curInm); 2++ #"21 K154B#& <3 K#"&$:10+
M#<+%2 ?&.3 !N2B$*, 6l9 I.3d 30l, 309-l0 (4fh CIr. 20l0)
(quofIng )3L3 +I 0+"3 L#%.+0BA8+ <3 $!#0#.$8:2, ??/, 562
I.3d 630, 638 (4fh CIr. 2009) (|A] frnnsformnfIvo uso Is
ono fhnf 'omIoy|s] fho quofod mnffor In n dIfforonf mnn-
nor or for n dIfforonf uroso from fho orIgInnI.`)). A uso
Is consIdorod frnnsformnfIvo onIy whoro n dofondnnf
chnngos n InInfIff`s coyrIghfod work or usos fho InIn-
fIff`s coyrIghfod work In n dIfforonf confoxf such fhnf fho
InInfIff`s work Is frnnsformod Info n now cronfIon.
!+0'+4& WX, ;%43 <3 ):#Q1%341:, ;%4., 508 I.3d ll46, ll65
(9fh CIr. 200?) (quofIng O#"" -#&# ;%43 <3 ?3)3 /15%&A
DB+0$''N2 -+*N&, 44? I.3d ?69, ??8 (9fh CIr. 2006), nnd
fIndIng fhnf CoogIo`s uso of fhumbnnII Imngos In Ifs
sonrch ongIno wns hIghIy frnnsformnfIvo).
A work Is nof frnnsformnfIvo whoro fho usor mnkos
no nIfornfIon fo fho +I*0+22$<+ 41%&+%& 10 :+22#8+ of fho
orIgInnI work. D+"&Q+0, ?25 I.3d nf ll??; 2++ #"21 O#""
-#&#, 44? I.3d nf ??8 (Tho ShorIff`s onrfmonf cronfod
oxncf coIos of !!MIA`s soffwnro. If fhon uf fhoso
coIos fo fho IdonfIcnI uroso ns fho orIgInnI soffwnro.
Such n uso cnnnof bo consIdorod frnnsformnfIvo.); >1%8+,
688 I.3d nf ll?6 (fIndIng fhnf n mngnzIno`s ubIIcnfIon of
hofogrnhs of n socrof coIobrIfy woddIng srInkIod wIfh
wrIffon commonfnry wns nf bosf mInImnIIy frnnsformn-
fIvo whoro fho mngnzIno dId nof frnnsform fho hofos
Info n now work . . . or Incorornfo fho hofos ns nrf of n
brondor work); F"<$2 !0+2"+A F%&+02., 349 I.3d nf 629
(fIndIng fhnf uso of coyrIghfod cIIs of IIvIs`s foIovIsIon
nonrnncos wns nof frnnsformnfIvo whoro somo of fho
cIIs |wo]ro Inyod wIfhouf much InforrufIon, If nny . . .
|nnd] Insfond sorvo|d] fho snmo InfrInsIc onforfnInmonf
vnIuo fhnf Is rofocfod by IInInfIffs` coyrIghfs.). Whoro
fho uso Is for fho snmo InfrInsIc uroso ns |fho coyrIghf
hoIdor`s] . . . such uso sorIousIy wonkons n cInImod fnIr
uso. O10".J$.+ /B504B 1' =1. <3 !B$"#3 /B504B 1' =1.,
;%4., 22? I.3d lll0, lll? (9fh CIr. 2000) (quofIng O+$22(
:#%% <3 @0++:#%, 868 I.2d l3l3, l324 (2d CIr. l989)).
AnnIysIs of fho fIrsf fncfor nIso roquIros InquIry Info
fho commorcInI nnfuro of fho uso. !so of fho coyrIghfod
work fhnf Is commorcInI fonds fo woIgh ngnInsf n fIndIng
of fnIr uso. G#0*+0 U M1J, 4?l !.S. nf 562 (Tho crux of
fho rofIf/nonrofIf dIsfIncfIon Is nof whofhor fho soIo
mofIvo of fho uso Is monofnry gnIn buf whofhor fho usor
sfnnds fo rofIf from oxIoIfnfIon of fho coyrIghfod
mnforInI wIfhouf nyIng fho cusfomnry rIco.). |T]ho
moro frnnsformnfIvo fho now work, fho Ioss wIII bo fho
sIgnIfIcnnco of ofhor fncfors, IIko commorcInIIsm, fhnf mny
woIgh ngnInsf n fIndIng of fnIr uso. /#:*C+"", 5l0 !.S.
nf 5?9.
Tho socond fncforfho nnfuro of fho coyrIghfod
workcnIIs for rocognIfIon fhnf somo works nro cIosor fo
fho coro of Infondod coyrIghf rofocfIon fhnn ofhors, wIfh
fho consoquonco fhnf fnIr uso Is moro dIffIcuIf fo osfnbIIsh
whon fho formor works nro coIod. ;.. nf 586. ThIs
fncfor furns on whofhor fho work Is InformnfIonnI or
cronfIvo. O10".J$.+ /B504B 1' =1., 22? I.3d nf lll8;
2++ #"21 G#0*+0 U M1J, 4?l !.S. nf 563 (Tho Inw gonornI-
Iy rocognIzos n gronfor nood fo dIssomInnfo fncfunI works
fhnn works of fIcfIon or fnnfnsy.). CronfIvo oxrossIon
fnIIs wIfhIn fho coro of fho coyrIghf`s rofocfIvo uros-
os. /#:*C+"", 5l0 !.S. nf 586. Iocnuso comufor ro-
grnms hnvo bofh funcfIonnI nnd oxrossIvo comononfs,
howovor, whoro fho funcfIonnI comononfs nro fhomsoIvos
unrofocfod (bocnuso, o.g., fhoy nro dIcfnfod by consIdorn-
fIons of offIcIoncy or ofhor oxfornnI fncfors), fhoso oIo-
monfs shouId bo nffordod n Iowor dogroo of rofocfIon
fhnn moro frndIfIonnI IIfornry works. D+8#, 9?? I.2d nf
l526. Thus, whoro fho nnfuro of fho work Is such fhnf
uroIy funcfIonnI oIomonfs oxIsf In fho work nnd If Is
nocossnry fo coy fho oxrossIvo oIomonfs In ordor fo
orform fhoso funcfIons, consIdornfIon of fhIs socond
fncfor nrgunbIy suorfs n fIndIng fhnf fho uso Is fnIr.
Tho fhIrd fncfor nsks fho courf fo oxnmIno fho
nmounf nnd subsfnnfInIIfy of fho orfIon usod In roInfIon
fo fho coyrIghfod work ns n whoIo. l? !.S.C. l0?(3).
AnnIysIs of fhIs fncfor Is vIowod In fho confoxf of fho
coyrIghfod work, nof fho InfrIngIng work. Indood, fho
sfnfufory Inngungo mnkos cIonr fhnf n fnkIng mny nof bo
oxcusod moroIy bocnuso If Is InsubsfnnfInI wIfh rosocf fo
fho $%'0$%8$%8 work. G#0*+0 U M1J, 4?l !.S. nf 565.
As Judgo !onrnod Hnnd cogonfIy romnrkod, 'no IngIn-
rIsf cnn oxcuso fho wrong by showIng how much of hIs
work ho dId nof Irnfo.` ;.. (quofIng DB+".1% <3 >+&01(
=1".JA% !$4&50+2 /10*., 8l I.2d 49, 56 (2d CIr. l936)). In
confrnsf, fho fncf fhnf n subsfnnfInI orfIon of fho In-
frIngIng work wns coIod vorbnfIm Is ovIdonco of fho
qunIIfnfIvo vnIuo of fho coIod mnforInI, bofh fo fho orIgI-
nnfor nnd fo fho IngInrIsf who sooks fo rofIf from mnr-
kofIng somoono oIso`s coyrIghfod oxrossIon. ;.. Tho
Infh CIrcuIf hns rocognIzod fhnf, whIIo whoIosnIo
coyIng doos nof rocIudo fnIr uso or so, coyIng nn
onfIro work mIIIfnfos ngnInsf n fIndIng of fnIr uso.
O10".J$.+ /B504B 1' =1., 22? I.3d nf lll8 (InfornnI
cIfnfIon nnd quofnfIon omIffod). If fho socondnry usor
onIy coIos ns much ns Is nocossnry for hIs or hor Infondod
uso, fhon fhIs fncfor wIII nof woIgh ngnInsf hIm or hor.
S+""A <3 )00$C# D1'& /10*., 336 I.3d 8ll, 820-2l (9fh CIr.
2003). !ndor fhIs fncfor, nffonfIon furns fo fho orsun-
sIvonoss of n nrodIsf`s jusfIfIcnfIon for fho nrfIcuInr
coyIng dono, nnd fho onquIry wIII hnrkon bnck fo fho
fIrsf of fho sfnfufory fncfors . . . |bocnuso] fho oxfonf of
ormIssIbIo coyIng vnrIos wIfh fho uroso nnd chnrncfor
of fho uso. /#:*C+"", 5l0 !.S. nf 586-8?.
Tho fourfh nnd fInnI fncfor focusos on fho offocf of fho
uso uon fho ofonfInI mnrkof for or vnIuo of fho coy-
rIghfod work. G#0*+0 U M1J, 4?l !.S. nf 566. ThIs
fncfor rofIocfs fho Idon fhnf fnIr uso Is IImIfod fo coyIng
by ofhors whIch doos nof mnforInIIy ImnIr fho mnrkofn-
bIIIfy of fho work whIch Is coIod. ;.. nf 566-6?. Tho
Suromo Courf hns snId fhnf fhIs fncfor Is undoubfodIy
fho sIngIo mosf Imorfnnf oIomonf of fnIr uso. ;.. nf 566.
If roquIros fhnf courfs consIdor nof onIy fho oxfonf of
mnrkof hnrm cnusod by fho nrfIcuInr ncfIons of fho
nIIogod InfrIngor, buf nIso whofhor unrosfrIcfod nnd
wIdosrond conducf of fho sorf ongngod In by fho dofond-
nnf . . . wouId rosuIf In n subsfnnfInIIy ndvorso Imncf on
fho ofonfInI mnrkof for fho orIgInnI. /#:*C+"", 5l0 !.S.
nf 590 (cIfnfIon nnd quofnfIon mnrks omIffod). Mnrkof
hnrm Is n mnffor of dogroo, nnd fho Imorfnnco of fhIs
fncfor wIII vnry, nof onIy wIfh fho nmounf of hnrm, buf
nIso wIfh fho roInfIvo sfrongfh of fho showIng on fho ofhor
fncfors. ;.. nf 590 n.2l.
OrncIo nssorfs fhnf nII of fhoso fncfors suorf Ifs o-
sIfIon fhnf CoogIo`s uso wns nof fnIr usoCoogIo know-
IngIy nnd IIIIcIfIy coIod n cronfIvo work fo furfhor Ifs own
commorcInI urosos, dId so vorbnfIm, nnd dId so fo fho
dofrImonf of OrncIo`s mnrkof osIfIon. Thoso undIsufn-
bIo fncfs, nccordIng fo OrncIo, shouId ond fho fnIr uso
InquIry. OrncIo`s osIfIon Is nof wIfhouf forco. On mnny
of fhoso oInfs, CoogIo doos nof dobnfo OrncIo`s chnrncfor-
IznfIon of Ifs conducf, nor couId If on fho rocord ovIdonco.
CoogIo confonds, howovor, fhnf, nIfhough If ndmIffod-
Iy coIod orfIons of fho AII nckngos nnd dId so for whnf
woro uroIy commorcInI urosos, n ronsonnbIo juror sfIII
couId fInd fhnf: (l) CoogIo`s uso wns frnnsformnfIvo;
(2) fho Jnvn AII nckngos nro onfIfIod onIy fo wonk
rofocfIon; (3) CoogIo`s uso wns nocossnry fo work wIfhIn
n Inngungo fhnf hnd bocomo nn Indusfry sfnndnrd; nnd
(4) fho mnrkof Imncf on OrncIo wns nof subsfnnfInI.
On bnInnco, wo fInd fhnf duo rosocf for fho IImIf of
our noIInfo funcfIon roquIros fhnf wo romnnd fho fnIr
uso quosfIon for n now frInI. IIrsf, nIfhough If Is undIs-
ufod fhnf CoogIo`s uso of fho AII nckngos Is commor-
cInI, fho nrfIos dIsngroo on whofhor Ifs uso Is
frnnsformnfIvo. CoogIo nrguos fhnf If Is, bocnuso If
wrofo Ifs own ImIomonfIng codo, cronfod Ifs own vIrfunI
mnchIno, nnd Incorornfod fho nckngos Info n
smnrfhono Infform. Ior Ifs nrf, OrncIo mnInfnIns fhnf
CoogIo`s uso Is nof frnnsformnfIvo bocnuso: (l) |f]ho snmo
codo In AndroId . . . onnbIos rogrnmmors fo Invoko fho
snmo ro-rogrnmmod funcfIons In oxncfIy fho snmo
wny; nnd (2) CoogIo`s uso of fho docInrIng codo nnd
nckngos doos nof sorvo n dIfforonf funcfIon from Jnvn.
AoIInnf !oIy Ir. 4?. WhIIo CoogIo ovorsfnfos whnf
ncfIvIfIos cnn bo doomod frnnsformnfIvo undor n corrocf
nIIcnfIon of fho Inw, wo cnnnof sny fhnf fhoro nro no
mnforInI fncfs In dIsufo on fho quosfIon of whofhor
CoogIo`s uso Is frnnsformnfIvo, ovon undor n corrocf
rondIng of fho Inw. As such, wo nro unnbIo fo rosoIvo fhIs
Issuo on nonI.
oxf, whIIo wo hnvo concIudod fhnf If wns orror for
fho frInI courf fo focus 5%.5"A on fho funcfIonnI nsocfs of
fho nckngos, nnd on CoogIo`s comofIfIvo dosIro fo
nchIovo commorcInI InforoornbIIIfy whon docIdIng
whofhor OrncIo`s AII nckngos nro onfIfIod fo coyrIghf
rofocfIon, wo oxrossIy nofod fhnf fhoso fncfors mny bo
roIovnnf fo n fnIr uso nnnIysIs. WhIIo fho frInI courf orrod
In concIudIng fhnf fhoso fncfors woro suffIcIonf fo ovor-
como OrncIo`s fhroshoId cInIm of coyrIghfnbIIIfy, ronson-
nbIo jurors mIghf fInd fhnf fhoy nro roIovnnf fo CoogIo`s
fnIr uso dofonso undor fho socond nnd fhIrd fncfors of fho
InquIry. D++ D+8#, 9?? I.2d nf l524-25 (dIscussIng fho
Socond CIrcuIf`s nronch fo bronk|Ing] down n comufor
rogrnm Info Ifs comononf subroufInos nnd sub-
subroufInos nnd fhon IdonfIf|yIng] fho Idon or coro func-
fIonnI oIomonf of onch In fho confoxf of fho socond fnIr
uso fncfor: fho nnfuro of fho coyrIghfod work). Wo fInd
fhIs nrfIcuInrIy fruo wIfh rosocf fo fhoso coro nckngos
whIch If sooms mny bo nocossnry for nnyono fo coy If
fhoy nro fo wrIfo rogrnms In fho Jnvn Inngungo. And, If
mny bo fhnf ofhors of fho nckngos woro sImIInrIy osson-
fInI comononfs of nny Jnvn Inngungo-bnsod rogrnm. So
fnr, fhnf fyo of fIIfrnfIon nnnIysIs hns nof occurrod.
IInnIIy, ns fo mnrkof Imncf, fho dIsfrIcf courf found
fhnf Sun nnd OrncIo novor succossfuIIy dovoIood Ifs own
smnrfhono Infform usIng Jnvn fochnoIogy. /1*A0$8B&(
#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%, 8?2 I. Su. 2d nf 9?8. Iuf OrncIo
nrguos fhnf, whon CoogIo coIod fho AII nckngos, OrncIo
wns IIconsIng In fho mobIIo nnd smnrfhono mnrkofs, nnd
fhnf AndroId`s roIonso subsfnnfInIIy hnrmod fhoso com-
morcInI oorfunIfIos ns woII ns fho ofonfInI mnrkof for n
Jnvn smnrfhono dovIco. Iocnuso fhoro nro mnforInI
fncfs In dIsufo on fhIs fncfor ns woII, romnnd Is nocos-
snry.
!IfImnfoIy, wo concIudo fhnf fhIs Is nof n cnso In
whIch fho rocord confnIns suffIcIonf fncfunI fIndIngs uon
whIch wo couId bnso n do novo nssossmonf of CoogIo`s
nffIrmnfIvo dofonso of fnIr uso. AccordIngIy, wo romnnd
fhIs quosfIon fo fho dIsfrIcf courf for furfhor rocoodIngs.
On romnnd, fho dIsfrIcf courf shouId rovIsIf nnd rovIso Ifs
jury InsfrucfIons on fnIr uso consIsfonf wIfh fhIs oInIon
so ns fo rovIdo fho jury wIfh n cIonr nnd nrorInfo
Icfuro of fho fnIr uso dofonso.
l?

II. COOC!I`S C!OSS-AIIIA!
CoogIo cross-nonIs from fho orfIon of fho dIsfrIcf
courf`s fInnI judgmonf onforod In fnvor of OrncIo on Ifs
cInIm for coyrIghf InfrIngomonf ns fo fho nIno IInos of
l?
CoogIo nrguos fhnf, If wo nIIow If fo rofry Ifs fnIr
uso dofonso on romnnd, If Is onfIfIod fo n rofrInI on In-
frIngomonf ns woII. Wo dIsngroo. Tho quosfIon of whofh-
or CoogIo`s coyIng consfIfufod InfrIngomonf of n
coyrIghfod work Is dIsfIncf nnd sonrnbIo from fho
quosfIon of whofhor CoogIo cnn osfnbIIsh n fnIr uso do-
fonso fo Ifs coyIng. D++ =#21"$%+ !01.23 /13 <3 /B#:*"$%
M+'$%$%8 /1., 283 !.S. 494, 500 (l93l) (Whoro fho rnc-
fIco ormIfs n nrfInI now frInI, If mny nof roorIy bo
rosorfod fo unIoss If cIonrIy nonrs fhnf fho Issuo fo bo
rofrIod Is so dIsfIncf nnd sonrnbIo from fho ofhors fhnf n
frInI of If nIono mny bo hnd wIfhouf InjusfIco.). Indood,
wo hnvo omhnsIzod moro fhnn onco In fhIs oInIon fho
oxfonf fo whIch fho quosfIons nro sonrnbIo, nnd fho
confusIon nnd orror cnusod whon fhoy nro bIurrod. Tho
Issuos nro nof Inforwovon nnd If wouId nof cronfo con-
fusIon nnd uncorfnInfy fo roInsfnfo fho InfrIngomonf
vordIcf nnd submIf fnIr uso fo n dIfforonf jury. ;.. Wo
nofo, moroovor, fhnf, bocnuso CoogIo onIy monfIons fhIs
oInf In nssIng, wIfh no dovoIomonf of nn nrgumonf In
suorf of If, undor our cnso Inw, If hns nof boon roorIy
rnIsod. D++ D:$&BS"$%+ K++4B#: /10*3 <3 )*1&+I /10*.,
439 I.3d l3l2, l320 (Iod. CIr. 2006) (whon n nrfy ro-
vIdos no dovoIood nrgumonf on n oInf, wo fronf fhnf
nrgumonf ns wnIvod) (coIIocfIng cnsos).

rnngoChock codo nnd fho oIghf docomIIod fIIos. IInnI
Judgmonf, 90#4"+ ):3, ;%43 <3 =118"+ ;%43, o. 3:l0-cv-
356l (.. CnI. Juno 20, 20l2), ICI o. l2ll. SocIfIcnI-
Iy, CoogIo nonIs from fho dIsfrIcf courf`s docIsIons:
(l) grnnfIng OrncIo`s mofIon for JMO! of InfrIngomonf ns
fo fho oIghf docomIIod Jnvn fIIos fhnf CoogIo coIod Info
AndroId; nnd (2) donyIng CoogIo`s mofIon for JMO! wIfh
rosocf fo rnngoChock.
Whon rovIowIng n dIsfrIcf courf`s grnnf or donInI of n
mofIon for JMO!, wo nIy fho rocodurnI Inw of fho
roIovnnf rogIonnI cIrcuIf, horo fho Infh CIrcuIf. P0#.$%8
P+4B23 ;%&N", ;%43 <3 +D*++., ;%4., 595 I.3d l340, l35? (Iod.
CIr. 20l0). Tho Infh CIrcuIf rovIows n dIsfrIcf courf`s
JMO! docIsIon do novo, nIyIng fho snmo sfnndnrd ns
fho dIsfrIcf courf. >#%85: <3 )4&$1% /1""+4&$1% D+0<3,
;%4., 5?5 I.3d 935, 938 (9fh CIr. 2009). To grnnf judg-
monf ns n mnffor of Inw, fho courf musf fInd fhnf fho
ovIdonco rosonfod nf frInI ormIfs onIy ono ronsonnbIo
concIusIon nnd fhnf no ronsonnbIo juror couId fInd In fho
non-movIng nrfy`s fnvor. ;.. nf 938-39 (cIfnfIon nnd
InfornnI quofnfIon mnrks omIffod).
OrncIo oxInIns fhnf fho oIghf docomIIod fIIos nf Is-
suo confnIn socurIfy funcfIons govornIng nccoss fo nof-
work fIIos whIIo rnngoChock fncIIIfnfos nn Imorfnnf
sorfIng funcfIon, froquonfIy cnIIod uon durIng fho oorn-
fIon of Jnvn nnd AndroId. OrncIo !osonso fo Cross-
AonI 60-6l. Af frInI, CoogIo concodod fhnf If coIod fho
oIghf docomIIod Jnvn codo fIIos nnd fho nIno IInos of codo
roforrod fo ns rnngoChock Info AndroId. Ifs onIy dofonso
wns fhnf fho coyIng wns do mInImIs. AccordIngIy, fho
dIsfrIcf courf Insfrucfod fho jury fhnf, |w]Ifh rosocf fo
fho InfrIngomonf Issuos concornIng fho rnngoChock nnd
ofhor sImIInr fIIos, CoogIo ngroos fhnf fho nccusod IInos of
codo nnd commonfs cnmo from fho coyrIghfod mnforInIs
buf confonds fhnf fho nmounfs InvoIvod woro so nogIIgIbIo
ns fo bo do mInImIs nnd fhus shouId bo oxcIudod. IInnI
Chnrgo fo fho Jury (Ihnso Ono), 90#4"+ ):3, ;%43 <3
=118"+, ;%4., o. 3:l0-cv-356l (.. CnI. Ar. 30, 20l2),
ICI o. l0l8, nf l4.
AIfhough fho jury found fhnf CoogIo InfrIngod Orn-
cIo`s coyrIghf In fho nIno IInos of codo comrIsIng
rnngoChock, If rofurnod n nonInfrIngomonf vordIcf ns fo
oIghf docomIIod socurIfy fIIos. Iuf bocnuso fho frInI
fosfImony wns fhnf CoogIo`s uso of fho docomIIod fIIos
wns sIgnIfIcnnfnnd fhoro wns no fosfImony fo fho con-
frnryfho dIsfrIcf courf concIudod fhnf |n]o ronsonnbIo
jury couId fInd fhnf fhIs coyIng wns do mInImIs. 90.+0
=0#%&$%8 7>9? 1% -+41:*$"+. @$"+2, 20l2 !.S. Isf.
!IXIS 664l?, nf *6. As such, fho courf grnnfod OrncIo`s
mofIon for JMO! of InfrIngomonf ns fo fho docomIIod
socurIfy fIIos.
On nonI, CoogIo mnInfnIns fhnf Ifs coyIng of
rnngoChock nnd fho docomIIod socurIfy fIIos wns do
mInImIs nnd fhus dId nof InfrIngo nny of OrncIo`s coy-
rIghfs. AccordIng fo CoogIo, fho dIsfrIcf courf shouId
hnvo donIod OrncIo`s mofIon for JMO! bocnuso subsfnn-
fInI ovIdonco suorfod fho jury`s vordIcf fhnf CoogIo`s uso
of oIghf docomIIod fosf fIIos wns do mInImIs. Cross-
AoIInnf Ir. ?6. CoogIo furfhor nrguos fhnf fho courf
shouId hnvo grnnfod Ifs mofIon for JMO! ns fo
rnngoChock bocnuso fho frInI ovIdonco rovonIod fhnf fho
nIno IInos of rnngoChock codo woro bofh qunnfIfnfIvoIy
nnd qunIIfnfIvoIy InsIgnIfIcnnf In roInfIon fo fho |Jnvn]
Infform. ;.. nf ?8.
In rosonso, OrncIo nrguos fhnf fho Infh CIrcuIf doos
nof rocognIzo n do mInImIs dofonso fo coyrIghf InfrIngo-
monf nnd fhnf, ovon If If doos, wo shouId nffIrm fho judg-
monfs of InfrIngomonf on grounds fhnf CoogIo`s coyIng
wns sIgnIfIcnnf. Iocnuso wo ngroo wIfh OrncIo on Ifs
socond oInf, wo nood nof nddross fho fIrsf, oxcof fo nofo
fhnf fhoro Is somo confIIcfIng Infh CIrcuIf rocodonf on
fho quosfIon of whofhor fhoro Is n froo-sfnndIng do mInI-
mIs dofonso fo coyrIghf InfrIngomonf or whofhor fho
subsfnnfInIIfy of fho nIIogod coyIng Is bosf nddrossod ns
nrf of n fnIr uso dofonso. /1:*#0+ E102+ <3 G+%0A G1"& U
/1., 99l I.2d 563, 566 (9fh CIr. l993) (IndIcnfIng fhnf
ovon n smnII fnkIng mny somofImos bo ncfIonnbIo nnd
fho quosfIon of whofhor n coyIng Is subsfnnfInI onough
fo bo ncfIonnbIo mny bo bosf rosoIvod fhrough fho fnIr uso
docfrIno), J$&B E+J&1% <3 -$#:1%., 388 I.3d ll89, ll92-
93 (9fh CIr. 2003) (Ior nn unnufhorIzod uso of n coy-
rIghfod work fo bo ncfIonnbIo, fho uso musf bo sIgnIfIcnnf
onough fo consfIfufo InfrIngomonf. ThIs monns fhnf ovon
whoro fho fncf of coyIng Is concodod, no IognI conso-
quoncos wIII foIIow from fhnf fncf unIoss fho coyIng Is
subsfnnfInI.) (InfornnI cIfnfIon omIffod)).
l8

Ivon nssumIng fhnf fho Infh CIrcuIf rocognIzos n
sfnnd-nIono do mInImIs dofonso fo coyrIghf InfrIngomonf,
howovor, wo concIudo fhnf: (l) fho jury ronsonnbIy found
fhnf CoogIo`s coyIng of fho rnngoChock fIIos wns moro
fhnn do mInImIs; nnd (2) fho dIsfrIcf courf corrocfIy
concIudod fhnf fho dofonso fnIIod ns n mnffor of Inw wIfh
rosocf fo fho docomIIod socurIfy fIIos.
IIrsf, fho unrobuffod fosfImony nf frInI rovonIod fhnf
rnngoChock nnd fho docomIIod socurIfy fIIos woro sIgnIf-
Icnnf fo bofh OrncIo nnd CoogIo. OrncIo`s oxorf, r. John
MIfchoII, fosfIfIod fhnf AndroId dovIcos cnII fho
l8
Af Ionsf ono roconf dIsfrIcf courf docIsIon hns roc-
ognIzod uncorfnInfy In Infh CIrcuIf Inw on fhIs oInf.
D++ K014#.+ /1::4N%2 DA23 <3 )WX E+&J10H2, ;%4., o. l0-
cv-3428, 20l3 !.S. Isf. !IXIS 8ll3, nf *33 (.. CnI.
Jnn. l0, 20l3) (Tho Infh CIrcuIf hns boon uncIonr nbouf
whofhor fho do mInImIs uso docfrIno sorvos ns nn nffIrmn-
fIvo dofonso undor fho CoyrIghf Acf`s fnIr uso oxcofIons
or whofhor fho docfrIno moroIy hIghIIghfs InInfIffs`
obIIgnfIon fo show fhnf 'fho uso musf bo sIgnIfIcnnf
onough fo consfIfufo InfrIngomonf.`) (cIfIng E+J&1%, 388
I.2d nf ll93; E102+, 99l I.2d nf 566).

rnngoChock funcfIon 2,600 fImos jusf In oworIng on fho
dovIco. AIfhough CoogIo nrguos fhnf fho oIghf docomIIod
fIIos woro InsIgnIfIcnnf bocnuso fhoy woro usod onIy fo
fosf fho AndroId Infform, r. MIfchoII fosfIfIod fhnf
usIng fho coIod fIIos ovon ns fosf fIIos wouId hnvo boon
sIgnIfIcnnf uso nnd fho dIsfrIcf courf socIfIcnIIy found
fhnf |f]horo wns no fosfImony fo fho confrnry. 90.+0
=0#%&$%8 7>9? 1% -+41:*$"+. @$"+2, 20l2 !.S. Isf.
!IXIS 664l?, nf *6. CIvon fhIs fosfImony, n ronsonnbIo
jury couId nof hnvo found CoogIo`s coyIng do mInImIs.
CoogIo omhnsIzos fhnf fho nIno IInos of rnngoChock
codo rorosonfod nn InfInIfosImnI orconfngo of fho 2.8
mIIIIon IInos of codo In fho l66 Jnvn nckngosIof nIono
fho mIIIIons of IInos of codo In fho onfIro |Jnvn] Infform.
CoogIo Cross-AonI Ir. ?8-?9. To fho oxfonf CoogIo Is
nrguIng fhnf n corfnIn mInImum numbor of IInos of codo
musf bo coIod boforo n courf cnn fInd InfrIngomonf, fhnf
nrgumonf Is wIfhouf morIf. D++ K#I&+0 <3 >/), ;%4., 8l2
I.2d 42l, 425 (9fh CIr. l98?) (|]o brIghf IIno ruIo oxIsfs
ns fo whnf qunnfum of sImIInrIfy Is ormIffod.). And,
gIvon fho frInI fosfImony fhnf bofh rnngoChock nnd fho
docomIIod socurIfy fIIos nro qunIIfnfIvoIy sIgnIfIcnnf nnd
CoogIo coIod fhom In fhoIr onfIrofy, CoogIo cnnnof show
fhnf fho dIsfrIcf courf orrod In donyIng Ifs mofIon for
JMO!.
Wo hnvo consIdorod CoogIo`s romnInIng nrgumonfs
nnd fInd fhom unorsunsIvo. AccordIngIy, wo nffIrm bofh
of fho JMO! docIsIons nf Issuo In CoogIo`s cross-nonI.
III. COOC!I`S IO!ICY-IASI A!C!MITS
Mnny of CoogIo`s nrgumonfs, nnd fhoso of somo nmIcI,
nonr romIsod on fho boIIof fhnf coyrIghf Is nof fho
corrocf IognI ground uon whIch fo rofocf InfoIIocfunI
roorfy rIghfs fo soffwnro rogrnms; fhoy oIno fhnf
nfonf rofocfIon for such rogrnms, wIfh Ifs InsIsfonco on
non-obvIousnoss, nnd shorfor forms of rofocfIon, mIghf
bo moro nIIcnbIo, nnd suffIcIonf. Indood, fho dIsfrIcf
courf`s mofhod of oornfIon nnnIysIs soomod fo sny ns
much. /1*A0$8B&#C$"$&A -+4$2$1%, 8?2 I. Su. 2d nf 984
(sfnfIng fhnf fhIs cnso rnIsos fho quosfIon of whofhor fho
coyrIghf hoIdor Is moro nrorInfoIy nssorfIng nn
oxcIusIvo rIghf fo n funcfIonnI sysfom, rocoss, or mofhod
of oornfIon fhnf boIongs In fho ronIm of nfonfs, nof
coyrIghfs). CoogIo nrguos fhnf |n]ffor D+8#, dovoIoors
couId no Iongor hoo fo rofocf |soffwnro] Inforfncos by
coyrIghf . . . D+8# sIgnnIod fhnf fho onIy roIInbIo monns
for rofocfIng fho funcfIonnI roquIromonfs for nchIovIng
InforoornbIIIfy wns by nfonfIng fhom. AoIIoo Ir. 40
(quofIng InmoIn SnmuoIson, )0+ !#&+%&2 1% ;%&+0'#4+2
;:*+.$%8 ;%&+01*+0#C$"$&A 93 MInn. !. !ov. l943, l959
(2009)). And, CoogIo roIIos honvIIy on nrfIcIos wrIffon by
Irofossor InmoIn SnmuoIson, who hns nrguod fhnf If
wouId bo bosf for n commIssIon of comufor rogrnm
oxorfs fo drnff n now form of InfoIIocfunI roorfy Inw for
mnchIno-rondnbIo rogrnms. InmoIn SnmuoIson,
/9EPT M+<$2$&+.Y PB+ /#2+ )8#$%2& /1*A0$8B& !01&+4&$1%
'10 /1:*5&+0 !0180#:2 $% >#4B$%+(M+#.#C"+ @10:, l984
uko !.J. 663, ?64 (l984). Irofossor SnmuoIson hns moro
roconfIy nrguod fhnf )"&#$ nnd D+8# confrIbufod fo fho
ovonfunI shIff nwny from cInIms of coyrIghf In rogrnm
Inforfncos nnd fownrd roIInnco on nfonf rofocfIon.
Infonf rofocfIon nIso bocnmo moro InusIbIo nnd nffrnc-
fIvo ns fho courfs bocnmo moro rocofIvo fo soffwnro
nfonfs. SnmuoIson, 93 MInn. !. !ov. nf l959.
AIfhough CoogIo, nnd fho nufhorIfy on whIch If roIIos,
soom fo suggosf fhnf soffwnro Is or shouId bo onfIfIod fo
rofocfIon onIy undor nfonf Inwnof coyrIghf Inw
sovornI commonfnfors hnvo roconfIy nrguod fho oxncf
oosIfo. D++ TochnoIogy QunrforIy, D&#"H$%8
P01""2, ICOOMIST, Mnr. 8, 20l4, hff://www.oconomIsf.
com/nows/fochnoIogy-qunrforIy/2l59832l-InfoIIocfunI-
roorfy-nffor-boIng-bInmod-sfymyIng-InnovnfIon-
nmorIcn-vnguo (|M]nny Innovnfors hnvo nrguod fhnf fho
oIocfronIcs nnd soffwnro IndusfrIos wouId fIourIsh If
comnnIos fryIng fo brIng now fochnoIogy (soffwnro
InnovnfIons IncIudod) fo mnrkof dId nof hnvo fo worry
nbouf boIng suod for InfrIngIng fhousnnds of nbsurd
nfonfs nf ovory furn. A orfocfIy ndoqunfo monns of
rofocfIng nnd rownrdIng soffwnro dovoIoors for fhoIr
IngonuIfy hns oxIsfod for ovor 300 yonrs. If Is cnIIod
coyrIghf.); TImofhy I. !oo, O$"" &B+ D5*0+:+ /150& 2#<+
52 '01: 21'&J#0+ *#&+%&2Z, WASH. IOST, Iob. 26, 20l4, l:l3
IM, hff://www.wnshIngfonosf.com/bIogs/fho-swIfch/w/
20l4/02/26/wIII-fho-suromo-courf-snvo-us-from-soffwnro-
nfonfs/ (If you wrIfo n book or n song, you cnn gof coy-
rIghf rofocfIon for If. If you Invonf n now III or n boffor
mousofrn, you cnn gof n nfonf on If. Iuf for fho Insf
fwo docndos, soffwnro hns hnd fho dIsfIncfIon of boIng
ofonfInIIy oIIgIbIo for bofh coyrIghf nnd nfonf rofoc-
fIon. CrIfIcs sny fhnf`s n mIsfnko. Thoy nrguo fhnf fho
comIox nnd oxonsIvo nfonf sysfom Is n forrIbIo fIf for
fho fnsf-movIng soffwnro Indusfry. And fhoy nrguo fhnf
nfonf rofocfIon Is unnocossnry bocnuso soffwnro Innovn-
fors nIrondy hnvo coyrIghf rofocfIon nvnIInbIo.).
ImorfnnfIy for our urosos, fho Suromo Courf hns
mndo cIonr fhnf |n]oIfhor fho CoyrIghf Sfnfufo nor nny
ofhor snys fhnf bocnuso n fhIng Is nfonfnbIo If mny nof
bo coyrIghfod. >#Q+0 <3 D&+$%, 34? !.S. 20l, 2l? (l954).
Indood, fho fhrusf of fho COT! !oorf Is fhnf coyrIghf
Is fho mosf suIfnbIo modo of IognI rofocfIon for comufor
soffwnro. Iofor S. MonoII, )% )%#"A2$2 1' &B+ D41*+ 1'
/1*A0$8B& !01&+4&$1% '10 )**"$4#&$1% !0180#:2, 4l Sfnn.
!. !ov. l045, l0?2 (l989); 2++ #"21 COT! !oorf nf l
(rocommondIng fhnf coyrIghf Inw bo nmondod fo mnko
If oxIIcIf fhnf comufor rogrnms, fo fho oxfonf fhnf fhoy
ombody nn nufhor`s orIgInnI cronfIon, nro roor subjocf
mnffor of coyrIghf). !nfII oIfhor fho Suromo Courf or
Congross foIIs us ofhorwIso, wo nro bound fo rosocf fho
Infh CIrcuIf`s docIsIon fo nfford soffwnro rogrnms
rofocfIon undor fho coyrIghf Inws. Wo fhus docIIno nny
InvIfnfIon fo docInro fhnf rofocfIon of soffwnro rogrnms
shouId bo fho domnIn of nfonf Inw, nnd onIy nfonf Inw.
COC!!SIO
Ior fho forogoIng ronsons, wo concIudo fhnf fho do-
cInrIng codo nnd fho sfrucfuro, soquonco, nnd orgnnIzn-
fIon of fho 3? Jnvn AII nckngos nf Issuo nro onfIfIod fo
coyrIghf rofocfIon. Wo fhoroforo rovorso fho dIsfrIcf
courf`s coyrIghfnbIIIfy doformInnfIon wIfh InsfrucfIons fo
roInsfnfo fho jury`s InfrIngomonf vordIcf. Iocnuso fho
jury hung on fnIr uso, wo romnnd CoogIo`s fnIr uso dofonso
for furfhor rocoodIngs consIsfonf wIfh fhIs docIsIon.
WIfh rosocf fo CoogIo`s cross-nonI, wo nffIrm fho
dIsfrIcf courf`s docIsIons: (l) grnnfIng OrncIo`s mofIon for
JMO! ns fo fho oIghf docomIIod Jnvn fIIos fhnf CoogIo
coIod Info AndroId; nnd (2) donyIng CoogIo`s mofIon for
JMO! wIfh rosocf fo fho rnngoChock funcfIon. Accord-
IngIy, wo nffIrm-In-nrf, rovorso-In-nrf, nnd romnnd for
furfhor rocoodIngs.
%00*$)(12*,23%$4+ $(5($6(12*,23%$4+
%,1 $()%,1(1

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