Proceedings of the International Symposium on

Sustainable Systems and Technologies, v2 (2014

Identifying scales of dissipation for integrative sustainability science
Kyle Meisterling Environmental Studies and Institute for Energy Efficiency, University of
California, Santa Barbara, kyle.meisterling@gmail.com
Wayne Christiansen Dept of !ysics and "stronomy, University of #ort! Carolina$C!apel %ill
Mel Manalis Environmental Studies and Institute for Energy Efficiency UC Santa Barbara
Abstract. rocesses t!at occur over a vast range of scales support !uman economies and t!e
eart! system. &!is paper presents a ta'onomy of dissipation in t!e !uman$environment system.
Because it is conceptually simple and p!ysically meaningful, dissipation as a common currency
can bridge diverse models and t!us facilitate t!e collaboration re(uired for integrative and
transdisciplinary sc!olars!ip and decision$making. )e (uantify dissipation by estimating
entropy production rates for planetary, climatic, biosp!eric and ant!ropogenic processes. &!e
ta'onomy *e present spans si' orders of magnitude. It includes dissipation of p!oto$t!ermal,
c!emical, and kinetic gradients, as *ell as dissipation due to information management.
&!ermali+ation of lo*$entropy solar radiation to !eat at t!e environmental temperature is t!e
ma,or dissipation process on eart!. &!e dissipation t!at occurs via temperature gradients and
material transfer is about -. and -.. times smaller, respectively, t!an for solar radiation
t!ermali+ation. )e !ope t!is *ork can !elp to identify t!e scaling factors re(uired to better
(uantify t!e overlaps, modules, and !ierarc!ies operating in comple' !uman$environment
systems.
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Sustainable Systems and Technologies /ISS# 0102$2-324 is
publis!ed annually by t!e Sustainable Conoscente #et*ork. 5elissa Bilec and 6un$7i C!oi, co$editors.
ISSS&#et*ork@gmail.com.
Copyrig!t 8 0.-9 by 7yle 5eisterling, )ayne C!ristiansen, and 5el 5analis. :icensed under CC$B; 1...
Cite as<
7. 5eisterling, ). C!ristiansen, 5. 5analis. Identifying scales of dissipation for integrative sustainability science
Proc. ISSST. v0 /0.-94, doi<==
Introduction. &!is paper presents a ta'onomy of dissipation in t!e !uman$environment system.
If applicable, page number will go here after aggregating all papers
Identifying scales of dissipation for integrative sustainability science
Dissipation is conceptually simple and p!ysically meaningful in many circumstances. &!us, is
may serve as a common currency to link diverse models and facilitate t!e collaboration re(uired
for >integrative> and >trans$disciplinary> sc!olars!ip and decision$making /Seager 0..?@ AuinBe
et al. 0.--4. Cur *ork is aimed at !elping to account for t!e comple' and adaptive properties of
economies, ecosystems, and societies /Aasparatos, El$%aram, and %orner 0..?@ Sing! et al.
0..2@ Seager et al. 0.-1@ Se'ton and :inder 0.-94. It is our goal to provide a tool t!at !elps
define conte't for sustainability assessment, and to better situate interdependent systems /e.g.
o'ygen, carbon, >nutrient> cycles, climate4 to facilitate an integrated vie*.
Cne lesson from t!ermodynamics is t!e critical importance of system definition. E'ergy or free
energy refer to a property of t!e system and its environment, defined as t!e amount of *ork t!at
can be e'tracted from a system as it comes to e(uilibrium *it! some environment. &!e
determination of free energy /!ereafter exergy for brevity
-
4 re(uires accurate system definition.
" c!ange in t!e surroundings can affect e'ergy and entropy flo*s, so t!e definition of t!e
surrounding is critical. In t!e realm of bot! engineering and t!e sustainability sciences, a
representative background environment /e.g. temperature, c!emical composition4 !as been
defined to allo* e'ergy calculations /S+argut, 5orris, and Ste*ard -2??@ "o, Aunne*iek, and
Dosen 0..?4. %o*ever, over some scales /spatial or temporal4, a c!ange in t!e surroundings
can act as a >back$reaction> /feedback4 for t!e process of interest.
&!e notion of scale is important in many realms of science, including net*orks /Davas+ et al.
0..04, ecosystems /:avorel and Arigulis 0.-0@ Cardinale et al. 0.-0@ 6Ergensen and #ielsen
0.-1@ asari et al. 0.-1@ Auerrero et al. 0.-14, and p!ysics /)ilson -2FG4. rocesses t!at
occur over a vast range of scales support !uman economies and t!e eart! system. /;oung
-229@ Sc!imel 0..9@ 7leidon 0.-.@ DeHries et al. 0.-0@ %ug!es et al. 0.-1@ Cumming et al.
0.-14@ understanding t!ese scales can support a co!erent understanding of comple' !uman$
environment systems /Aiampietro, 5ayumi, and Damos$5artin 0..2@ Burger et al. 0.-0@
Cumming et al. 0.-14. SolB et al. state t!at *e >need to identify t!e scales at *!ic!
tec!nological !ierarc!ies operate> to better assess t!e prospects for economic gro*t! /SolB et
al. 0.-14 /p034. )e take t!is to include t!e scales of interactions *it!in and bet*een systems,
as *ell as t!e flo*s to and from t!e environment.
Scale is also important in biology /Bassett et al. 0.-.@ 7empes, Dutkie*ic+, and Hollo*s 0.-04,
and t!e metabolism of animals is a po*er la* function of si+e /&!omas -2-F@ )est, Bro*n,
and En(uist -22F@ Be,an -22F4. Similarly, t!e efficiency of engines and generators is a po*er$
la* function of capacity /Caduff et al. 0.--4. Economies of scale !ave been identified since at
least "dam Smit!, *!ereby larger economic enterprises are able to more efficiently conduct
t!eir business. " common frame*ork for economies of scale !as been proposed based on
Bolt+man$Aibbs statistics of t!e >costs> of a particle ,oining a net*ork /eterson, Di'it, and Dill
0.-14. In t!e global economic net*ork, certain regional Isub$net*orksJ are particularly important
for supporting trade /Duc!in and :evine 0.-14.
&!ere are also >dis$economies> of scale t!at limit si+e by making operation un$economic. Hor
e'ample, centrali+ed commodity production incurs larger distribution losses, because a given
product must be s!ipped from its point of production to t!e point of use, and t!is distance gets
longer as production is scaled$up and centrali+ed /:orente et al. 0.-04. In addition to losses
associated *it! material and energy flo*s, t!e trade$offs t!at define optimal system si+e involve
information management as *ell /"ltman, #agle, and &us!man 0.-14. Hinally, distributed
systems, as opposed to centrali+ed ones, can be more resilient in t!e face of disturbance
1
)e treat t!e terms Kavailable energyK, KavailabilityK, Kfree energyK and Ke'ergyK as synonyms
If applicable, page number will go here after aggregating all papers
Meisterling et al.
/Harrell, Lerriffi, and Do*latabadi 0..94.
Dissipation, entropy, and the
nd
!aw. Entropy and information !ave deep p!ysical connections
/S+ilard -202@ Brillouin -230@ :andauer -22-4. Entropy is a measure of t!e number of states
available to a system and is often described as t!e Klack of informationK one system !as about
anot!er. &!e 0nd :a* of &!ermodynamics describes t!e macroscopic >impossibility> of seeing a
closed system evolve to !ave fe*er (uantum configurations
0
, t!at is, lo*er entropy. &!e more
restrictive, and probably more common, statement of t!e 0nd :a* is t!at in t!e real *orld,
entropy in closed systems only increases. &!is describes t!e ubi(uitous presence of dissipative
losses associated *it! flo*s. &!e tendency for entropy increase lies at t!e !eart of t!e drive
to*ard e(uilibrium, including t!e free energy of mi'ing and t!e tendency for a polymer to curl up
/also kno*n as >entropic elasticity>4. )!en constraints are rela'ed, a system *ill tend to*ard
arrangements *it! more reali+able configurations. 6ust as t!e arrangement of symbols
represents information /e.g. *ritten language4, so does t!e arrangement of energy. &!e concept
of dissipation is per!aps more easily conceptuali+ed *it! energy t!an *it! information /e.g.
symbols4, but it applies to bot!.
Cne reason *!y dissipation is applied more easily to energy t!an to information may be
because *e are accustomed to engineered systems to manage energy. &!ese types of
mac!ines led scientists to study energy in a structured, constrained *ay, *!ic! allo*s
(uantitative, predictive analysis. %o*ever, *!en it comes to information, t!e illustrative
e'amples of information dissipation seem more concocted t!an *!at *e are used to in t!e
relatively less restricted area of personal communication. %o*ever, again, t!e tec!nology to
transmit, process and store /i.e. manage4 information led scientists to study information in a
more constrained, analytical *ay /S!annon -29?4 and !as led to an e'plosion of tec!nological
information management tasks.
Methods. Dissipation is a concept t!at applies to information, material and energy. )e (uantify
dissipation by estimating annual entropy production rates for planetary, climatic, biosp!eric and
ant!ropogenic processes. Since entropy is fundamentally a measure of /lack of4 information, it
(uantifies bot! energy and information$based tasks.
Hor c!emical processes, *e make a distinction bet*een t!ermo$ and p!ysio$c!emical
dissipation. Deduction$o'idation reactions involve re$arrangement of atomic nuclei and
electrons. &!ese processes can liberate or absorb !eat to and from t!e environment@ t!is !eat is
*!at *e call >!eating value> in t!e conte't of fuel
1
. In addition to t!is t!ermal energy, t!e
difference in concentration /partial pressures or concentrations4 bet*een reaction products and
t!e surroundings is a gradient of >type>, and is associated *it! e'ergy. &!us t!e e'ergy of a fuel
is composed of a t!ermal component and a component of >type> /note, !o*ever, t!at since
e'ergy is dependent on t!e environment, a c!ange in t!e surroundings can c!ange t!e
magnitude of a compoundKs t!ermo$c!emical and p!ysio$c!emical e'ergy4 /S+argut, 5orris,
and Ste*ard -2??4.
Photo"thermal dissipation. )!en !ig!$energy /lo*$entropy4 solar p!otons encounter t!e eart!
2
Hluctuation &!eorems (uantify t!e likeli!ood of observing 0
nd
:a* violations as a function of
t!e time scale /Sevick et al. 0..?4
3
#igher heating value /%%M4 assumes *ater formed during t!e re$do' reaction is allo*ed to
condense, and so t!e energy of vapor formation is available as !eat@ t!e !ower heating value
/:%M4 assumes t!e *ater is vapor, so t!e energy of vapori+ation is not available to t!e energy
conversion device.
If applicable, page number will go here after aggregating all papers
Identifying scales of dissipation for integrative sustainability science
system, many are almost immediately absorbed by matter /*!et!er in t!e atmosp!ere or
surface4. &!e absorbed energy is re$radiated as p!otons at temperatures c!aracteristic of t!e
eart! environment. In t!e process, many more p!otons are produced, but *it! lo*er per p!oton
energy, and !ig!er overall entropy. Some dissipation of t!e e'ergy of solar p!otons is delayed
by >!angups> in t!e eart! system /see /Dyson -2F-4 for an enlig!tening discussion of cosmic
!angups4.
)e take t!e dissipation due to t!ermali+ation at t!e surface and in t!e atmosp!ere from
7leidon, along *it! dissipation due to lig!t scattering and !eat diffusion, and t!e effective
surface and atmosp!eric temperatures of 0??7 and 0G07, respectively /7leidon 0.-.4 /values
corroborated *it! /ei'oto et al. -22-@ S+argut 0..1@ &renbert!, Hasullo, and 7ie!l 0..2@
ascale et al. 0.--44.
Material flows. Hollo*ing ascale et al., *e vie* t!e t!ermali+ation process as separate from
t!e material climate system because t!e radiative entropy production >is not relevant to t!e
operation of t!e material climate system>, since providing t!e system >at every point *it! !eat
sources and sinks e(ual to s!ort*ave absorption and net long*ave emissionN*ould not affect
t!e evolution of t!e climate system, since t!e fluid e(uations are concerned only *it! t!e
amount of !eat gained or lost.> /ascale et al. 0.--4 /p--29$--2G4. )e take evaporation from
Sc!lesinger and Bern!ardt /Sc!lesinger and Bern!ardt 0.-14, and atmosp!eric turbulent
dissipation from 5akarieva et al. /5akarieva et al. 0.-14 and auluis and Dias /auluis and
Dias 0.-04.
$iomass and primary productivity. &!roug! p!otosynt!esis, primary producers />plants> for
brevity4 convert some of t!e e'ergy of sunlig!t into c!emical e'ergy. &!e fate of primary
production is s!o*n in &able -. &errestrial and a(uatic p!otosynt!esi+ers bot! use about G.O
of t!e c!emical e'ergy for t!eir o*n respiration. 5ost of t!e remainder is available to t!e
ecosystem to be consumed.
Table 1. Fate of primary production in ocean and land ecosystems. From (Schlesinger and Bernhardt 2013),,
with page numbers indicated. Note that 15% of ocean NPP is "eported" to the deep ocean !some of which is
respired or dissol"ed, p#5$%.
Ocean Land
>plant> respiration G.O G.O
Despiration by
>decomposers>
1.O /p1GG4 9?O /p-G.4
Despiration by
>!erbivors>
-GO /p1GG4 0O /p-G.4
Dissolved GO /-FO of -G$
0.O@ p1GG4
P-O /p-G.4
Stock c!ange
Technical %primary& exergy. Cur estimate of global primary e'ergy use is from t!e Energy
Information "gency International 'nergy (utloo), and *e distinguis! bet*een fossil, nuclear,
and rene*able primary e'ergy supplies /EI" 0.-14.
Technical information. Hor processes of information management, t!e :andauer$S+ilard limit
specifies t!e entropy production re(uired upon t!e erasure of a bit. &!e processes of storage,
computing and communication are, in t!e ideal case, reversible /:andauer -23-@ Bennett -2F14.
In t!e real *orld t!oug!, *e cannot perfectly isolate our systems from t!e environment, and ,ust
If applicable, page number will go here after aggregating all papers
Meisterling et al.
as *ind resistance and rolling resistance of ve!icular transport cause some level of unavoidable
dissipation, so do fluctuations and noise limit !o* near *e can approac! reversible information
management. Some of our energy conversion devices are approac!ing t!e ma'imum p!ysical
limits, alt!oug! t!ese constraints can also be rela'ed via tec!nological advance /e.g. materials
able to *it!stand ever !ig!er temperatures4. &!e efficiency of information processing can still
improve by many orders of magnitude /7oomey, 5att!e*s, and )illiams 0.-14 and p!oton$
based information communication !as vastly improved information net*ork efficiency /&ucker
0.--4.
Cur estimate of t!e dissipation due to tec!no$information processes includes t!e computational
process and t!e communication process. 7oomey et al. /7oomey, 5att!e*s, and )illiams
0.-14 report t!e energy intensity of computing, %ilbert and :Qpe+ estimate global computational
capacity /%ilbert and :Qpe+ 0.--4, and :ambert et al. estimate t!e energy use of information
net*orking /:ambert et al. 0.-04.
Results. &!e dissipation processes *e !ave revie*ed span about si' orders of magnitude
/Figure 4. Cn a global scale, most of t!e entropy production in t!e eart! system comes from
t!e conversion of incoming solar radiation to lo*$temperature !eat t!at is radiated to space. Cf
t!e dissipation t!at *e account for in t!is *ork, about 2.O is produced by immediate
t!ermali+ation of solar p!otons in t!e eart! atmosp!ere or at t!e surface.
&!e >p!oto$t!ermal> category actually makes up about 22O of t!e dissipation *e account for,
and is s!o*n in Figure !.
Figure 1. &cales of dissipation in the earth system !note the log'scale%.
If applicable, page number will go here after aggregating all papers
Identifying scales of dissipation for integrative sustainability science

Figure 2. (etail of the "photo'thermal" dissipation processes !from from !)leidon *+1+, &chlesinger and
-ernhardt *+1#%%. Total is about ./+ T01 ).
"iscussion. 5ost previous *ork t!at uses p!ysics$based concepts to assess sustainability
!ave focused on e'ergy, *!ile recent sc!olars!ip is using a net*ork$inspired perspective to
address t!e importance of resilience. &!e analysis of dissipation presented !ere is intended as
a tool to enable scaling bet*een net*orks so as to facilitate modeling of cross$scale interactions
/e.g. /Aiampietro, 5ayumi, and Damos$5artin 0..2@ Auerrero et al. 0.-1@ asari et al. 0.-1@
%ug!es et al. 0.-144. Cne application could be in t!e (uantitative study of tradeoffs bet*een
efficiency and resilience/Lorac! and Ulano*ic+ 0..1@ 7or!onen and Seager 0..?@ "nderies et
al. 0.-1@ C!opra and 7!anna 0.-0@ L!u and Dut! 0.-14. &!e optimal efficiency$resilience
balance is emergent and likely dependent on bot! scale /Davas+ et al. 0..04 and t!e
overlapping community structures of comple' systems /alla et al. 0..G@ BarabRsi 0.-0@
5ones, Micsek, and Micsek 0.-04. &!is *ork *ill !elp to identify t!e scaling factors re(uired to
better (uantify t!ese relations!ips.
&!e scales mig!t also be useful for conceptuali+ing t!e distinct forms of capital t!at underpin
modern economic t!eory. Maluing information (uantitatively is not ne* /ask anyone *!o !as
boug!t a ne*spaper, or been bribed4, but t!e !uge scale
9
of information in our economies may
complicate t!e *ay information is valued. Hinally, by refining t!e Ktec!nical e'ergyK category,
t!ese scales of dissipation may be useful to link tasks and services to t!e po*er available to be
!arvested from t!e environment /Mullers et al. 0..24.
Ac#no$ledge%ents. &!e aut!ors *is! to t!ank %o*ard and :isa )enger and t!e Institute for
Energy Efficiency at t!e University of California, Santa Barbara for supporting our researc!.
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