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Theories (Theory)
of Outdoor & Adventure
Education
James Neill
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What is theory?
Theories in outdoor education
Nature is ood
Trainin the mind throuh the !ody (Hahn)
Reason "or "ree#in$ (Gager)
No%elty
Experiential learnin cycles (Kolb)
&n"ree#e'chane're"ree#e (Rhodes)
(an the mountains speak "or themsel%es? (James)
)etaphorical (Bacon)
Six enerations o" "acilitation (Priest & Gass)
*ut+ard Bound process model (Walsh & Golins)
(hallene !y (hoice (Schoel, Prouty, & Radclie)
Hattie, et al -.//01
2ou!le 2iamond )odel (!tin & Bandoro)
Learnin (om!ination Lock (Beard & Wilson)
.3 reasons +hy experiential learnin is e""ecti%e ("uc#ner
& $adler)
4 systems model "or outdoor education ($eill)
)ore theoretical elements555
(onclusion
Re"erences
What is Theory?
4 theory is a proposed explanation "or ho+ a phenomenon operates or
"unctions5 6or example, a theory o" the mind attempts to explain ho+
thinkin +orks5
4 ood theory should make its assumptions clear and !e a!le to make
testa!le predictions5 7n su!8ecti%e "ields, such as psycholoy and education,
ood theory should also !e a!le to account "or the rich and %aried reality o"
di""erent people$s experiences5

Theories in Outdoor Education
There is a pot pourri of theories which attempt to explain the potential of
outdoor education to effect desired processes and outcomes. In general,
outdoor education theory emphasizes that programs:
relie%e a person o" the constrainin "acades o" e%eryday post'modern
li"e,
enae a person in a uni9ue, dynamic, and %aried opportunities to
"ind out a!out one$s sel" and to de%elop aspects o" character
maintain "reshness and authenticity %ia direct encounter +ith ra+
challene and strule -"or more detail, o to Summary o" *utdoor
Education Research1
Outdoor and adventure education theories should explain the observable
phenomena that occur in education programs, be they educational, emotional,
social, psychological, or environmental outcomes. Theories may try to cover
components of outdoor education or may focus on particular components.
Nature is good
The oriinal theory is the notion that 'returning to nature' is good, and
that !y li%in a hard, rued li"e in the outdoors that people come to learn
important lessons a!out themsel%es5 This could perhaps !e called "Garden
of Eden" theory5 6or more in"ormation, see Wilderness : *utdoor
Education: Nature$s role in education : human de%elopment5
Training the mind through the ody (!ahn)
4 second main theory is that o" "training the mind through the ody"5
7n the early days o" *ut+ard Bound, ;urt Hahn$s emphasi#ed that *ut+ard
Bound +as trainin through the body, not or the body5 Read more a!out
;urt Hahn$s philosophy o" education, includin his antidotes to the diseases
o" modern youth5
"eason for #ree$in'
Ron <aer +rote a classic article in the early ./0=$s +hich arued "or the
touher side o" outdoor education as important5 Thus, this article "ollo+ed
and contri!uted to traditional *ut+ard Bound philosophy5
Nove%ty
Se%eral theories ha%e emphasi#ed that the no%el en%ironment, the no%el
acti%ities, and the no%el social settins, "ree a person up "rom normal
constraints, so that more exploration can take place and there is more
excitement and moti%ation due to the stimulation o" the no%el situations
-e55, Hattie, )arsh, Neill, : Richards, .//0> Luckner : Nadler, .//0> Walsh
: <olins, ./0?15
E&'erientia% %earning cyc%es ((o%)
)ost outdoor education and ad%enture'!ased prorams share a theoretical
emphasis on e&'erientia% %earning 'rinci'%es -2e+ey, ./@AB.//0> ;ol!,
./AC1, althouh there is no clear areement on +hich o" the se%eral
di""erent types o" experiential learnin cycles is most rele%ant to outdoor
education, althouh the three stae model, "do)revie*)'%an" seems to
!est satis"y the la+ o" parsimony -the simplest o" t+o or more theories is
pre"era!le15

+nfree$e)change)refree$e ("hoades)
Rhoades (19!" proposed a simple three#step $unfree%e#change#refree%e$ model
to describe the process of the growth and change during outdoor education
programs. The first step, &unfree%e' involves the process of letting go of certain
restricting attitudes during the initial stages of an outdoor education experience.
The second step, $change$ involves alteration of self#conceptions and ways of
thin(ing during the experience. The third step, $refree%e$ involves solidifying or
crystalli%ing the changes into a new, permanent form for the individual, a
process which ta(es place towards the end of an outdoor education program.
,an the -ountains .'ea/ for Themse%ves?
7n ./A=, Thomas James pointed out a competin tension amonst *ut+ard
Bound instructors '' some pre"erred to take participants throuh
ad%enturous experiences, lettin the experience speak "or itsel", +hilst
other, more touchy'"eely instructors, "elt it +as important to help
participants process, analy#e, and discuss their experiences -named the
D*ut+ard Bound ErocessD model !y Bacon, ./A01 -o to Neill, 3==3, D4re
the )ountains Still Speakin "or Themsel%es?D15

,ha%%enge y ,hoice (.choe%0 1routy0 & "adc%iffe)
D(hallene !y (hoiceD !ecame one o" the main philosophy catch'cries o"
Ero8ect 4d%enture and it is no+ represents a ma8or operatin principle o"
many ad%enture'!ased prorams, particularly in the &S45 Historically,
(hallene !y (hoice helped to distinuish !et+een the *ut+ard Bound
approach -+hich impelled students1 "rom the Ero8ect 4d%enture approach
+hich +as Dso"terD in that indi%iduals +ere encouraed to exercise their "ree
choice in decidin +hether or not to take on any particular challene5
To learn more a!out DimpellinD %ersus D(hallene !y (hoiceD, o to Ero8ect
4d%enture, 2r5 ;urt Hahn, and an interestin article !y (hristian 7tin -n5d51,
called DThe 7mpellin Erinciple in (hallene !y (hoiceD5

Out*ard 2ound 'rocess mode% (Wa%sh & Go%ins)
The most cited home'ro+n outdoor education $theory$ is the "Out*ard
2ound 1rocess -ode%"0 also sometimes re"erred to as the "Wa%sh and
Go%ins -ode%" -Walsh : <olins, ./0?15 This model proposes a series o"
se%en processes to explain the apparent po+er o" *ut+ard Bound prorams:
.5 4 moti%ated and ready learner +ho is placed into
35 prescri!ed physical and social en%ironments, then i%en a
@5 characteristic set o" pro!lem'sol%in tasks +hich creates a state o"
C5 adapti%e dissonance leadin to
F5 mastery or competence +hich in turn leads to
?5 reorani#ation o" the meanin and direction o" the experience5 7n
this +ay, the learner continues to !e
05 oriented to+ard li%in and learnin555
)ore detailed descriptions and commentaries on the *ut+ard Bound Erocess
model can !e "ound in:
)c;en#ie -3===1
Eriest : <ass -.//0 , pp5 3='33> .C='.C31
Si!thorp -in press1
Tucker -3===1
!attie0 et a% (3445)
Hattie, )arsh, Neill and Richards -.//01 proposed "our theoretical elements
+hich they suested !e "urther in%estiated:
immediately enain nature o" ad%enturous outdoor experiences
that emphasi#es a Dhere and no+D "ocus "or participants and ets
them acti%ely in%ol%ed>
di""icult, !ut achie%a!le oals are set and su!stantial support is
pro%ided to help participants achie%e these di""icult oals>
lare amount o" "eed!ack and hih 9uality "eed!ack is pro%ided to
the learner throuh their o+n actions, throuh the !eha%ior o"
others, "rom the instructor, "rom the tasks, and "rom the
en%ironment
reassessment o" indi%idual$s copin skills takes adaptation and
learnin o" ne+ copin skills
Hattie et al -.//01 also note that there is surprisinly little theoretical
literature in outdoor education emphasi#in the relationship that occurs
!et+een indi%iduals and elements o" the natural en%ironment durin outdoor
education experiences5
6ou%e 6iamond -ode% (7tin & 2andoroff)
(hristian 7tin and Scott Bandoro"" de%eloped the 2ou!le 2iamond )odel in
the mid'.//=$s to explain and uide the "acilitati%e process particularly in
therapeutic ad%enture prorams, !ut the model can !e applied to any
experiential education situation -7tin, 3==315 Basically, the model com!ines
;ol!$s Experiential Learnin (ycle and the therapeutic components
suested as important !y "amous psychotherapist, )ilton Erikson5 Each
indi%idual -!oth the client and the therapist1 is considered to undero C'
stae ;ol!ian learnin cycles durin the inter%ention5 The area !et+een the
client and the therapist is the Dtherapeutic milieuD5 <uidin this milieu is
Erikson$s DdiamondD, +hich has "our points -important components1:
<oal Settin
Tailorin
<i"t'+rappin
Erocessin
To learn more, do+nload some +orkshop handouts !y 7tin and Bandoro""
-3==.15 7tin and Bandoro"" also run ad%anced "acilitation +orkshops +hich
includes exploration o" the theory and use o" the model5
8earning comination %oc/ (2eard & Wi%son)
The most recent pu!lished theory is Beard and Wilson$s DLearnin
(om!ination LockD -3==31 +hich incorporates many o" the elements
suested !y psycholoical, educational, experiential, and outdoor education
theories, and attempts to !lend them into an o%erall model5 6or more
discussion and criti9ue, see Neill -in proress15
39 "easons *hy e&'erientia% %earning is effective (8uc/ner &
Nad%er)
E9uality
2e%elopin relationships 9uickly
2ise9uili!rium
Ero8ecti%e techni9ue
2ecreased time cycle
)eta learnin
(haos and crisis in a sa"e en%ironment
;inaesthetic imprint
(ommon lanuae B common mytholoy
Encourae risk takin
2i%ersity o" strenths
6un
6or one pararaph descriptions o" each o" these .3 reasons, o to the
Sa!reHG +e!site article5 )ore detailed in"ormation can !e "ound in Luckner
: Nadler$s !ook -.//015

A systems mode% for outdoor education
James Neill -3==@1 has proposed that the %arious proposed theoretical
elements can !e use"ully conceptuali#ed +ithin a systems "rame+ork5 The
main domains, +hich interact +ith one another, are:
indi%idual
roup
instructor
proram
en%ironment
acti%ityBtask
culture
6or more in"ormation, o to 4 Systems 6rame+ork "or *utdoor Education
Theory5

-ore Theoretica% E%ements:::

This is a list o" some more theoretical models or elements +hich ha%e !een
proposed as related to outdoor education:
4ttitude and !eha%ior mix -E+ert, ./A/1
4ttri!ution theory -E+ert, ./A/1
Beha%ioral theory -Eriest : <ass, .//0, p5 .F1
(ausal model -E+ert, ./A/1
(hallene contracts
o DTo ser%e to stri%e and not to yieldD -*ut+ard Bound motto1
o (hallene !y (hoice -Schoel, Erouty, : Radcli""e1
o 6ull %alue contract -Schoel, Erouty, : Radcli""e1
(oniti%e theory -Eriest : <ass, .//0, p5 .F1
(ompetence'e""ectance -E+ert, ./A/1
2e!rie"in
Expectancy theory -E+ert, ./A/1
Experiential -Eriest : <ass, .//0, p5 .F1
<oals -Eriest : <ass, .//0, p5 3=> Walsh : <olins, ./0?1
6ront'loadin
7n"ormation assimilation -Eriest : <ass, .//0, p5 .F1
Leader, instructor, "acilitator -Eriest : <ass, .//0, p5 3.> Walsh :
<olins, ./0?1
Learner -Eriest : <ass, .//0, p5 3=> Walsh : <olins, ./0?1
Risk %s5 conse9uence
Sel"'e""icacy -E+ert, ./A/1
Social support
Solo
StressB4rousal -E+ert, ./A/1
TasksB4cti%ities -Hattie, et al, .//0> Eriest : <ass, .//0, p5 3.>
Walsh : <olins, ./0?1

"eferences
Bacon, S5 B5 -./A015 %he e&olution o the 'ut(ard Bound )rocess5
<reen+ich, (T: *ut+ard Bound &S45 HhtmI
Beard, (5, : Wilson, J5 E5 -3==315 %he )o(er o e*)eriential learning+ ,
handboo# or trainers and educators5 London: ;oan Eae5
Bell, )5 -.//@15 What constitutes experience? Rethinkin theoretical
assumptions5 Journal o -*)eriential -ducation, ./-.1, ./'3C5
)ewey, *. (19+,-199". Experience and Education. .ew /or(0 1imon and
1chuster. 2htm3
4wert, 5. (19,9". Outdoor Adventure Pursuits: Foundations, Models, and
Theories. 1cottsdale, 560 7ublishing 8ori%ons.
<air, N5 E5 -.//015 'utdoor education+ %heory and )ractice5 London: (assell5
Hattie, J5 45, )arsh, H5 W5, Neill, J5 T5, : Richards, <5 E5 -.//015 4d%enture
education and *ut+ard Bound: *ut'o"'class experiences that make a lastin
di""erence5 Re&ie( o -ducational Research, /0, C@'A05 HhtmI
7tin, (5 -n5 d515 The impellin principle in (hallene !y (hoice5 Roc#y+
$e(sletter o the Roc#y 1ountain Region o the ,ssociation or -*)eriential
-ducation, /-@?15
7tin, (5 -3==315 The dou!le diamond model o" experiential education as a
"rame+ork5 7n Richards, ;5, : Smith, B5 -Eds1 %hera)y Within ,d&enture5
4us!ur, <ermany: Jiel5 -3/ Euro K @ E:H> Email: %erlaL#iel5or1
7tin, (5, : Bandoro"", S5 -3==.15 2acilitation on the edge+ 3e&elo)ing
)roessional s#ills and com)etence to acilitate thera)eutic change4
Wor#sho) )resented at the ,ssociation or -*)eriential -ducation5 3/th
4nnual 7nternational (on"erence o" the 4ssociation "or Experiential
Education, No%em!er, (harleston, WM5
Luckner, J5 : Nadler, R5 -.//015 Processing the e*)erience+ Strategies to
enhance and generali5e learning4 2u!u9ue, 74: ;endallBHunt5
)c7ntyre, N5 -.///15 7n%estiatin ad%enture experiences: 4n experiential
samplin approach5 Scisco 6onscientia, .-.1, .'.@5
)c;en#ie, )5 25 -3===15 Ho+ are ad%enture education proram outcomes
achie%ed?: 4 re%ie+ o" the literature5 ,ustralian Journal o 'utdoor
-ducation, 7-.1, ./'3A5 Hpd"I
Neill, J5 T5 -in proress15 Theoretical aspects o" outdoor education5 (hapter 3
o" doctoral dissertation, -nhancing Personal -ecti&eness+ %he
!m)acts o 'utdoor -ducation Programs5 &ni%ersity o" Western
Sydney5
Eriest, S5, : <ass, )5 -.//015 -ecti&e "eadershi) in ,d&enture
Programming5 (hampain, 7L: Human ;inetics5
Rhoades, *. 1. (19!". The problem of individual change in Outward ound: An
application of change and transfer theor!. ()octoral dissertation, 9niversity of
:assachusetts". "issertation Abstracts #nternational, $$, 5;9!!.
Si!thorp, J5 -in press15 4n empirical look at Walsh and <olins$ 4d%enture
Education Erocess )odel5 Journal o "eisure Research5
Tucker, N5 -3===15 Research studentshi)+ 2irst year interim re)ort5 Research
partnership: Brathay Hall Trust, 6oundation "or *utdoor 4d%enture,
Nottinham &ni%ersity5 Hpd"H
<alsh, =., > ?olins, ?. @. (19A". The exploration of the Outward ound
process. )enver, BO0 Bolorado Outward Cound 1chool. 2pdf3