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Hulda Winnes - Air Pollution From Ships
Hulda Winnes - Air Pollution From Ships
Hulda Winnes - Air Pollution From Ships
The levels of SO
OH), or it reacts heterogeneously in the liquid phase or on surfaces
(Finlayson-Pitts and Pitts 2000).
2
in a plume have been observed to reach
background concentrations after a couple of hours, (Chen et al. 2005),
and the lifetime of SO
2
in a plume has been estimated by modelling to
be 0.5-2 days (Davis et al. 2001). SO
4
2-
NO
increases the hygroscopicity of
particles, which reduces the lifetime of the particles in the atmosphere
due to cloud formation around the particles and the subsequent
precipitation.
X
is involved in several photochemical reactions in the
atmosphere, and due to the high NO
X
concentrations in ship plumes,
their chemistry is influenced by the incoming solar radiation.
Consequently, the chemical pathways and lifetimes of NO and NO
2
Lifetimes of NO
will differ between tropical regions and mid-latitudes, and between
emissions at night and during the day.
X
have been estimated from observational studies.
Chen et al. found that 80% of the emitted NO
X
from a ship off the
coast of California were removed within 2.5 hours (Chen et al. 2005).
Beirle et al. concluded that NO
X
lifetime was, on average, 3.7 hours
38
based on data from satellite detections of NO
X
There are two major sinks for NO
from ships in service
between Sri Lanka and Indonesia (Beirle et al. 2004).
X
in the ship plume. One is HNO
3
that is formed in a reaction between NO
2
and OH. The other main
sink for NO
X
is the nitro organic compound peroxyacetyl nitrate,
PAN. Chen et al. (2005) estimate that about 20% of NO forms PAN,
which can be transported over long distances. The reactions are
chemically reversible and none of the sinks permanently remove NO
X
3.2 CONSIDERATIONS IN LOCAL INVENTORIES
from the atmosphere.
Locally, air quality can be affected by intense traffic, and criteria
pollutants often exceed guideline limits in large cities. Port cities do
not necessarily experience worse situations than other busy cities but
have an additional source of air pollution that has been recognised in
several studies (Isakson et al. 2001; Saxe and Larsen 2004; Itano et al.
2005; Lucialli et al. 2007; Marr et al. 2007; Wang and Corbett 2007;
Yang et al. 2007; De Meyer et al. 2008; Schrooten et al. 2008;
Vutukuru and Dabdub 2008; Winnes and Fridell 2010). The ships
influence on air quality depends on meteorological conditions, local
topography and ship traffic density.
In order to determine the contribution to local air pollution from
ships, all operational modes should be considered. The relative
importance of the modes manoeuvring and at berth will increase
compared to their influence in global inventories. The time at berth is
partly related to the type of ship, and lay times for different segments
and ship sizes vary. Dalsren et al. studied times at different opera-
tional modes and found that the time at sea during a year varied from
280 days for large cargo vessels to 130 days for small cargo vessels
(Dalsren et al. 2009).
During manoeuvring in and out of a harbour, the main engines are
exposed to variations in loads that result in fluctuating levels of
39
pollutants in the exhaust gas. Typically, NO
X
emissions will fluctuate
at low levels, while particles, hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide
fluctuate at high levels. SO
2
and CO
2
Emissions at different places and at different times will cause
different degrees of damage to surrounding environments and to
human health: susceptibility to acid deposition will depend on the
buffering capacity of the bedrock; typically carbonate rich minerals
such as limestone have a high buffering capacity while granites have
low buffering capacity and thereby are sensitive to acid deposition,
different crops are reacting differently to similar levels of ozone
(Sellden and Pleijel 1995; Ashmore 2005) and population density and
demographic composition will determine the effects of health altering
pollutants in the atmosphere. These responses may be linearly or
exponentially related to ambient concentrations. Certain response
functions are characterised by critical concentration threshold levels
above which the effect of the pollutant becomes increasingly severe.
Others, such as particles, seemingly have no such no-effect
concentration and have effects at the lowest potential ambient levels
as well (World Health Organization 2006). Therefore, peak
concentrations that may occur during specific meteorological
conditions such as ground inversions or during periods with extreme
pollutant loads will potentially cause proportionally large damage.
will be low due to low oil
consumption. Emissions of particles have observable peaks in number
concentrations at engine start up and shut down. However, the
manoeuvring period is normally short and the absolute amounts of
emissions are often negligible in a global perspective. In previous
research little attention has been paid to emissions from manoeuvring
ships.
40
41
4 EVALUATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
There are numerous frameworks for the assessment of environmental
impacts. The studies within this thesis use three different approaches
to evaluate environmental impact. Two of those, life cycle assessment
(LCA) and external cost estimates used in cost-benefit analyses, will
be briefly presented in the following paragraphs. The third is based on
methods from the systems engineering discipline and directs the design
team of a ship. For a description of this method the reader is referred
to Winnes (2005) and Winnes and Ulfvarson (2006).
When using life cycle assessment methods, an inventory that covers
resource use, energy use and emissions from activities within chosen
system boundaries is conducted. The collected data are related to a
functional unit: a measurable unit that describes the utility provided by
the studied product or service. The data on emissions and other
aspects are then grouped in categories corresponding to their
characteristic impacts. Within each category, the relative importance
of the different activities can be assessed in order to determine which
activities are most detrimental. A following step can be to conduct a
valuation analysis where impact categories are weighted and
aggregated to a one-dimensional value. The valuation procedure is an
optional step in the standard from International Standardisation
Organization (ISO) that treats LCA (SIS 2002).
By following the LCA procedure, the environmental impact from a
set of studied activities can be accounted for. The impact is also
related to the purpose of a product or a service. If the study comprises
several alternative services or products with similar functions,
estimations on favourable options from an environmental perspective
can be made.
A valuation of environmental effects is often based on subjective
judgements. In LCA practice, methods can be based on expert
42
judgments (Goedkoop and Spriensma 2000), the distance to a political
target (Baumann and Tillman 2004) or other approaches. In order to
conduct cost-benefit analyses (CBA), the environmental damage
needs to be quantified in terms of costs. The benefits that society
experiences from avoiding costs like these external costs or
externalities can then be related to project costs such as installation of
abatement equipment. CBAs are used for both project evaluation and
regulatory review and has a longer tradition in the US than in Europe
(Navrud and Pruckner 1997).
The calculation of external costs is an estimation of the costs that
originate from degradation of environmental assets and damage to
human health. Goods without a market price are valuated by revealed
preference methods and stated preference methods, where the first
method estimates values for goods based on what people pay for them,
and the last bases estimates on what people state that they are
prepared to pay for a good.
A European project, the ExternE, developed an approach for
calculation and valuation of externalities of energy that has become
widely used. It is referred to as the Impact Pathway Approach (Institut
fr Energiewirtschaft und Energieanwendung and Universitt
Stuttgart 2005). Essentially, it suggests that potentially harmful
substances should be followed from exhaust gas emissions via
dispersion, transformation, exposure and quantification of impacts to a
final valuation of the effects. ExternE, as far as possible, bases its
valuation of air pollution on willingness-to-pay studies based on
revealed preferences but also uses market prices (Institut fr
Energiewirtschaft und Energieanwendung and Universitt Stuttgart
2005). External cost factors for emissions from ships have been
estimated by this methodology in several studies. Together, the
differences in valuation of life years and statistical life, the different
estimates of what part of the emission reaches shore and the level of
detail concerning the effects produce the range of values that are
43
presented in Figure 7 (Holland and Watkiss 2002; Holland et al. 2005;
Bickel et al. 2006; SIKA 2009).
1
10
100
1000
10000
100000
1000000
10000000
Regional
(Emissions from
the North Sea)
Regional
(Emissions from
the North Sea)
Regional
(Emissions from
the North Sea)
Urban (City with
500,000
inhabitants)
SO2 NOX PM2.5 PM2.5
C
o
s
t
(
/
t
o
n
n
e
p
o
l
l
u
t
a
n
t
)
Figure 7. Ranges of external cost estimates for SO
2
, NO
X
, and PM
2.5
from
three different projects; CAFE-CBA, HEATCO and ASEK. CAFE-CBA
and HEATCO are projects with European scope while ASEK only considers
effects in Sweden. Costs are in
2005
/tonne pollutant.
As is seen in Figure 7, there are large variations between the estimates
of the same pollutant. In order to produce reliable results in a study of
externalities, a single estimate is not sufficient.
Wang et al. (2007), Bosch et al. (2009) and Tzannatos (2010) are
examples of studies on externalities caused by ships. Tzannatos
estimate the experienced externalities from ferries and cruise ships in
the port of Pireaus. The two other studies investigate the costs and
benefits associated with regulatory measures. Wang et al. (2007) study
the potential effects of reducing SO
2
emissions from ships by
44
designating the US west coast as an emission control area. The ratios
of benefits over costs are in favour of regulations to limit SO
2
over a
range of fuel costs and benefit values. Bosch et al. (2009) study
alternative scenarios and the potentials of expanding the European
emissions control areas. The study is conducted for the European
Commission as a support in the revision of the Directive 1999/32/EC
on the sulphur content of certain liquid fuels.
45
5 TECHNOLOGICAL IMPROVEMENT POTENTIALS
Several options that reduce air pollutant emissions from marine
engines are available today. The increased widespread use of them is
largely driven by regulative measures, although some examples of
successful voluntary initiatives exist.
5.1 LIMITATIONS DUE TO THE SHIP DESIGN PROCESS
A study of the life cycle of ships as constructions reveals several
obstacles for environmental improvement. The expected lifetime of a
ship is around 30 to 35 years. UNCTAD reports that the average age
of ships at demolition yards was around 30 years in 2009 for selected
ship types (Asariotis et al. 2009). As a consequence, a large part of the
fleet has technical solutions that are restricted to a knowledge base
from the year that the ship was constructed. The data used during the
decision-making process of the ship design will influence the environ-
ment around the ship for tens of years.
Ships are different from many other technical devices in the sense
that they are normally produced as one of a kind. This means that no
prototypes are made, but instead experience from one ship is assessed
and may cause incremental improvements on subsequent designs.
Narrow time limits during the design process place further demands
on precise information on environmental performance at early stages
in the design phase in order to achieve high environmental perfor-
mance. As described in Paper V, all data for decision-making on
exhaust gas cleaning equipment needs to be treated within a time
window, open in the range of a few weeks to a couple of months,
concurrently with decisions on speed and power requirements
(Interview series 1 2001 - 2002; Interview series 2 2003).
46
Following the initial mission analysis that describes what types of
goods are to be transported, how they will be loaded onto the ship,
which routes the ship will sail, how long it will be in service, and other
factors, a series of iterative decision-making about hull dimensions,
powering and on board arrangements are started. Parameters become
more and more inflexible as the process proceeds, allowing only minor
detail changes in the final iterations (Wijnolst 1995; Interview series 2
2003). The complexity of technical systems on board a ship together
with the limited space means that the introduction of new equipment
will be costly for the shipowner. This is a contributing reason to the
low frequency of integration of environmental aspects into the ship
design process.
5.2 TECHNOLOGICAL IMPROVEMENTS
The strategy for the abatement of a pollutant will be designed in
consideration of the mechanisms behind the formation of the
pollutant. Accordingly, NO
X
emissions are abated by modifying
engine parameters that reduce the temperature of the combustion air
or the time at peak temperatures. Sulphur dioxide emissions are
reduced by removing sulphur from the fuel in a refinery. Both of these
species can also be abated by after-treatment, which means that they
are allowed to form but are removed from the gas phase emissions.
Particles are complex pollutant groups that comprise a number of
chemical species. Particles are mainly targeted by the same abatement
strategies that are used for SO
2
Using low-sulphur oil is an obvious way to reduce SO
.
2
-emissions.
The switch from fuel oil with high sulphur content to oil with lower
sulphur concentrations can be done either by switching to heavy fuel
oil with low sulphur content or to marine distillate oil (MD). The finer
quality oil is more common to use in medium and high-speed engines.
An alternative to using the low-sulphur fuels is to use scrubbers of
different designs. The scrubber decreases the concentrations of SO
2
47
and particle levels in the exhaust gases by capturing them in an
alkaline liquid stream. Sea water as well as aqueous alkaline chemicals
can function as scrubber liquid. Scrubbers that use sea water are
referred to as open systems while scrubbers using an industrially
produced alkaline chemical are referred to as closed systems. In both
systems the scrubber liquid is filtered before effluents are released into
the surrounding water. The sludge from the process is disposed of at
port facilities. Allowing water that has cleaned the exhaust gases from
SO
2
The technological solutions that are used to reduce NO
and particles into the water can cause damage to marine eco-
systems because it contains contaminant residues from the exhaust
gases. The effluent from the open scrubber system will also be acidic
unless it is diluted prior to the outlet (Karle and Turner 2007). Model-
tests indicate rapid dilution from ships in full speed in open water,
although the dilution in ports is likely to be slower and will rely more
on local conditions (Buhaug et al. 2006). The scrubber has been
proven to be a cost-efficient alternative to low sulphur fuels. The
number of installations of scrubbers on commercial ships is, however,
very low and installations are therefore associated with uncertainties
regarding operational reliability and costs. The cleaning capacity of
scrubbers is determined by the amount of the scrubber fluid and by its
alkalinity (Andreasen and Mayer 2007).
X
In order to comply with Tier I, a few basic internal engine
modifications are sufficient. These modifications include valve and
nozzle modifications of slow speed engines. The modified valves lower
the NO
emissions
from new ships are developed to suit the requirements in the three
tiers of MARPOL Annex VI. Tier I requires reductions of
approximately 5-15% from a base line value for slow and medium
speed engines (Cooper and Gustavsson 2004), with further reductions
of 15-20% in Tier II. Additional reductions of 75% for ships in the
emission control areas of Tier III will be valid from 2016.
X
emissions by approximately 20% but were originally inten-
48
ded to reduce HC and particulates (Goldsworthy 2002; Entec UK
Limited et al. 2005; Henningsen and Aabo 2007).
More advanced internal engine modifications entail changes in
compression ratio, injection rate shaping, and time of injection, among
others. Most of these technologies lead to reductions in NO
X
The scheduled NO
emis-
sions of up to 30% due to lowered temperatures during different
combustion stages, but will as a side effect reduce combustion
efficiency (Goldsworthy 2002; Entec UK Limited et al. 2005).
X
regulations in Tier III require NO
X
The water-based technologies can be divided into three groups:
direct water injection (DWI), humidification of inlet air (e.g. Humid
Air Motor (HAM)) and oil-water emulsion. At DWI, a water jet is
injected simultaneously with the fuel towards the combustion flame
(Prior et al. 2005). NO
emissions
to be so low that installations of cleaning technologies are necessary.
There is a range of water-based technologies available and together
with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and the selective catalytic
reduction (SCR) technique, these are likely to constitute a main part
of the installations on ships susceptible to Tier III. Tier III introduces
emission limits that are not to be exceeded for low engine loads, which
may cause challenges to both the EGR and SCR technologies
(International Maritime Organization 2009).
X
formation is reported to be reduced by
approximately 50% without an increase in fuel consumption (Entec
UK Limited et al. 2005; Prior et al. 2005). Some technologies humidify
the inlet air by evaporated water and one example of this is the Humid
Air Motor (HAM) technology. These technologies are sometimes
referred to as fumigation technologies. The HAM technique uses sea
water and is unique in this aspect. HAM installations are reported to
achieve a 70% NO
X
reduction (Riom et al. 2001; Entec UK Limited et
al. 2005), while other fumigation techniques have reached 30-60%
reductions (Prior et al. 2005). The third water-based technique consists
of letting water in oil emulsion replace the oil as fuel. A 20-25%
reduction of NO
X
emissions has been estimated (Srgrd et al. 2001),
49
but this figure is highly dependent on the water/oil ratio (Prior et al.
2005). All water-based technologies involve a certain risk of H
2
SO
3
None of the water-based technologies will be able to reduce NO
formation, which leads to corrosion when it sticks to the walls of the
exhaust system and engine and the technologies can influence the
specific fuel consumption (Entec UK Limited et al. 2005; Ghojel et al.
2006).
X
to Tier III levels. As a consequence, combinations of water-based
technologies and EGR are being developed at the engine
manufacturer MAN Diesel & Turbo. Wrtsil are similarly developing
EGR systems for their engines to be used in combination with other
techniques. EGR cools and re-circulates a portion of the exhaust gases
to the combustion chamber, which increases the heat capacity of the
cylinder gases and lowers the oxygen level, thus leading to lower
combustion temperatures and lower NO
X
The NO
emissions. The reason that
the technique is not yet common on board ships is that combustion of
HFO produces large amounts of particles and sulphur compounds in
the exhausts, causing soot deposits and corrosion. The gases cannot be
directed back to the cylinder without prior cleaning (Srgrd et al.
2001; Entec UK Limited et al. 2005). In order to fit the equipment on a
ship burning HFO, an extra device to scrub the recirculated gas is
needed. Another potential solution is to use low sulphur fuel and a
filter that traps particles (Henningsen and Aabo 2007).
X
reduction efficiency of EGR depends on the amount of
recirculated gas. Larger fractions of exhaust gas in the cylinder give
greater reductions but increased smoke formation and fuel
consumption. According to Goldsworthy, 69% NO
X
reduction at 28%
EGR and 22% NO
X
reduction at 6% EGR has been reported by
engine manufacturers (Goldsworthy 2002). The function of the EGR
is influenced by the engine load; the recirculated portion of gases at
reduced loads is less CO
2
dense than at operations at full speed when
both the turbo charger efficiency and the fuel injection are high
(Larsson 2010; STT Emtec Emission and Engine Technology 2010).
50
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) is a NO
X
abatement techno-
logy installed on approximately 300 marine engines in 2006 (Lvblad
and Fridell 2006). The exhaust gas is treated with urea that reacts with
NO
X
to form N
2
, CO
2
and water. The reaction takes place in an SCR
reactor that contains ceramic catalyst elements coated with metal
oxides such as vanadium oxide and titanium oxide (Sletnes et al. 2005).
Urea production is energy demanding and the environmental tradeoffs
related to the operation of an SCR on a ship are described and
discussed in Paper IV (Andersson and Winnes 2010 in preparation).
SCRs should not be operated below 300C. Lower temperatures lower
the efficiency of the reaction (Sletnes et al. 2005). A potential reduc-
tion of NO
X
Few alternative fuels are being considered as potential substitutes
for the conventional marine fossil fuels. One option that has become
more frequently used is liquefied natural gas (LNG). LNG has
previously been used as a fuel for LNG carriers but is being
introduced in other segments of the fleet. However, the lack of
infrastructure for LNG in many ports limits the extent of the
technologys use. Two other issues that are likely to hold back the
development of LNG use in ships are the costly engine changes on
existing ships that its use necessitates and the additional space
requirements for LNG storage (Sletnes et al. 2005). A change from
residual fuels to LNG reduces NO
exceeding 90% is accomplished when the temperatures
are 270C to 500C (Entec UK Limited et al. 2005; Lvblad and
Fridell 2006).
X
emissions by approximately 90%
compared to traditional four-stroke diesel combustion, and it almost
eliminates emissions of SO
2
and particles (Sletnes et al. 2005).
51
6 THE REGULATORY FRAMEWORK
Public opinion is expressed through laws and regulations in order to
protect people, their properties and nature from being damaged.
Environmental damage is sometimes regulated by international
conventions or protocols when the environmental effect extends
beyond national boundaries. The first international convention con-
cerning air pollution was the Convention of Long-range Trans-
boundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP) in 1979. CLRTAP regulates
damage to human health and the environment caused by
transboundary air pollution (www.unece.org 2010).
Improvements in the environmental performance of ships are to a
large extent dependent on the status of international conventions even
though several examples of national or regional incentive-based
schemes have proven successful in increasing installation rates for
exhaust gas cleaning equipment. In order to promote clean techno-
logies, a number of economic incentive systems exist that may also
regulate the discrepancies between costs associated with abatement
technologies and the externalities from air pollution. Emissions from
ships are in this sense under regulated since the external costs from air
pollution from ships have been much higher per tonne pollutant than
the corresponding abatement costs (Wang and Corbett 2007; Bosch et
al. 2009; Winnes et al. 2010 in preparation). A study by IIASA also
concluded that the abatement of emissions from ships was
considerably more cost-efficient than the abatement of emissions from
land-based sectors (Cofala et al. 2007). The thematic strategy of the
European Commission aims at 81% reduction of SO
2
and 60%
reduction of NO
X
by 2020. The emission control costs were estimated
to be reduced by between 23 and 57% if ships were included in the
strategic scheme (Cofala et al. 2007).
52
6.1 INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS
Following the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas
(UNCLOS), regulations concerning international shipping are
established with an international consensus. These regulations can
then, upon entry into force, be established as national laws by the
states that ratify them. The UNCLOS entered into force in November
1994 with the purpose to orderly regulate ocean related matters in
such fields as scientific research and commercial activities. It states a
territorial zone to be within a 12 nautical miles distance from shore
and an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) to be within 200 nautical miles
from shore. In the territorial zone, the coastal states exercise sove-
reignty while their rights in the EEZ are somewhat limited (UN 1982).
The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) is, as mentioned
previously, a UN agency with a main task to develop and maintain a
comprehensive regulatory framework for shipping (www.imo.org
2007). The IMO convention entered into force already in 1958.
Suggestions for, and adoptions of, new conventions in IMO can
involve any of the IMO member states. The entry into force of the
IMO conventions is normally conditioned by the signatures of a
specified number of member states with a specified minimum fraction
of the world fleet tonnage. When the conditions are met, the
convention enters into force for the states that have accepted it. Air
pollution is, as mentioned previously, regulated by the Annex VI of
MARPOL. The Annex regulates ship emissions of ozone depleting
substances, NO
X
, SO
X
, volatile organic carbons from tankers, and
certain uses of incinerators (International Maritime Organization
2009). As mentioned in the introductory chapter, emission control
areas have been introduced. In these ECAs the emission limits are
lower and the adaptation to new limits occurs at a more rapid pace
than in the rest of the ocean. The scheduled limits as stated in
MARPOL Annex VI are presented in Figure 8.
53
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
18.0
0 1000 2000 3000
N
O
X
e
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
s
g
/
k
W
h
RPM
Tier I, 2000
Tier II, 2011
Tier III, 2016
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
2005 2010 2015 2020
M
a
x
i
m
u
m
a
l
l
o
w
e
d
s
u
l
p
h
u
r
c
o
n
t
e
n
t
i
n
f
u
e
l
(
%
w
t
)
Year
Global
SECA
Figure 8. Limits of NO
X
emissions from marine engines and limits of allowed
sulphur content in marine fuels as scheduled by MARPOL Annex VI
(International Maritime Organization 2009)
Regional conglomerations of states have been founded in so-called
Memoranda of Understandings (MoUs) on port state control in
several instances. For example, several Western European countries
and Canada are parties in the Paris Memorandum of Understanding
on Port State Control. This is an international agreement in which port
states require ships entering their ports to fulfil standards of
international conventions. The same requirements are placed on all
ships regardless of whether or not they have signed the conventions.
Similar agreements have been met in other regions of the world
(DeSombre 2006). The MoUs are powerful in keeping safety and
pollution protection standards at the level of international
conventions. Ships flying the flags of nations with records of low
compliance are frequently inspected and held in port if risks are
identified (DeSombre 2006).
It is possible for shipowners to register their ships in essentially any
countrys ship register. This option makes it possible for shipowners to
54
follow the regulations and commitments of any country and thereby
find solutions that might be beneficial economically, sometimes at the
expense of safety and environmental protection (Goss 2008). Flag of
convenience is a term used for ship registers that offer shipowners a
low cost alternative.
The use of flags of convenience became common in the 1920s when
US cruise ships were registered in Panama in order to be allowed to
serve alcohol on board. According to an estimation from the year
2000, 40% of the worlds tonnage sailed under flags that could be
classified as flags of convenience (DeSombre 2000). UNCTAD lists
ten major open and international registry fleets that held 56% of the
worlds tonnage in 2009. However, countries that traditionally have
been categorised as flags of convenience are not necessarily reluctant
to sign the recent regulations on environmental protection by IMO.
For example, Liberia, which is a register with a foundation in US
tanker ships, has signed several international treaties relevant to safe
shipment of oil due to pressure from shipowners (DeSombre 2006).
6.2 EU REGULATIONS
The European Union limits the sulphur content of marine fuel oils
used in the region in directive 2005/33/EC
4
. The directive states that
all passenger ships that operate in regular service to or from
community ports as well as ships that sail in the SO
X
4
A directive is a legislative act of the
emission control
areas specified by the IMO should not use fuel with a sulphur content
exceeding 1.0% by July 2010. Exhaust gas cleaning equipment, such as
sea water scrubbers, can be used as long as the resulting emission
levels correspond to the levels from combustion of the specified low
European Union which requires
member states to achieve a particular result without dictating the means of
achieving that result.
55
sulphur oil provided they have no adverse effects on ecosystems. From
January 2010 onward, a 0.1% sulphur cap for marine fuel used in EU
ports and inland waterways is in effect (The European Parliament and
the Council of the European Union 2005).
6.3 NATIONAL REGULATIVE MEASURES AND
ECONOMIC INCENTIVES
National rules, besides those following the international conventions,
are limited geographically to the territorial waters along a countrys
coast and inland waterways. Several nations have implemented
incentive-based systems for emission reductions from ships that traffic
their waters, and any shipowner can voluntarily have their ships
participate in the program.
The economic incentives to manage airborne emissions from ships
basically consist of a reduction or a retroactive repayment of harbour
and fair way fees. Examples are the Green Award Foundation from
1994 in Rotterdam, the Swedish environmentally differentiated fair
way due and similar systems in the port of Vancouver in Canada and
the port of Turku in Finland (Green Award Foundation 2007; Port of
Turku /Turku Port Authority 2010; Port of Vancouver /Vancouver
Port Authority 2010). Another approach is the speed reduction
program adopted by the port of Long Beach in 2001 where ships
voluntarily reduce speed in a defined area close to shore (Alexander
2007). In Norway, a NO
X
Obviously, shipowners can, on a voluntary basis, use more or less
standardised tools to profile themselves as environmentally conscious,
implement environmental management systems or join corporate
social responsibility (CSR) formations, though this would probably be
in response to customer requirements. More ship specific are the
notations on environmental performance issued by some of the
tax comprising ships in domestic traffic was
introduced in 2007 (Sjfartsdirektoratet 2010).
56
leading classification societies (Det Norske Veritas 2000; Lloyd's
Register 2004).
An example of a tradable emission permit scheme for NO
X
and
SO
2
inclusive of ship emissions is running in California. However, the
ships as such are participating as part of the transport chain of land-
based industries and the shipowners are not a main participant player
on this market (Harrison et al. 2005).
57
7 PRESENTATION OF STUDIES: DESCRIPTIONS OF
METHODS AND RESULTS
In addition to the short versions of the studies described in the
following paragraphs, they are also presented in the appended papers:
the measurement studies are presented in Papers I and II, the LCA
study of a ship transport with the use of a urea dependent catalyst is
presented in Paper III, the cost-benefit study of emissions from ships
in Gothenburg is presented in Paper IV, and the study on integration
of aspects of ships environmental performance in the ship design
process is presented in Paper V. The methods used in the research are
literature surveys, interview series, case studies and on board
measurements.
7.1 MEASUREMENT STUDIES
Emission measurements of gaseous pollutant species and particulate
matter were carried out on board two ships. One of the ships was an
11.000 dwt tanker dwt with a four-stroke main engine of 4,500 kW and
600 rpm. On this ship, the main objective was to determine potential
differences in emissions from using two different fuels: one a HFO and
the other an MGO. Emissions from the combustion of the two fuels
were measured during three steady state loads of the engines at
around 50%, 70% and 90% of maximum continuous rating (MCR),
respectively. The second ship was a ferry with four, four-stroke main
engines, each of 12,600 kW and 500 rpm. Emission measurements
were done on two of those engines with the purpose of quantifying
emissions from the main engines when leaving and approaching quay.
The data from the ferry were complemented by data from one
manoeuvring period of the tanker. In total, nine manoeuvring periods
were covered by the studies, although the collected data differed in
58
scope between the periods due to occasional problems with the
measurement equipment.
The measurements were made at decks high up in the engine room,
close to the end of the funnel. At these locations, holes were cut in the
exhaust pipes. The sampling from the exhausts and parts of the
instrument setup on the tanker is pictured in Figure 9 and Figure 10.
Figure 9. Sampling from the exhaust pipe
Figure 10. Dilution tube and parts of the equipment used for particle
measurements
59
7.1.1 FUEL SHIFT STUDY
Concentrations of gas constituents were measured continuously in the
hot exhaust. NO
X
, CO, CO
2
, O
2
, total HC, and SO
2
The two fuels used on the tanker comprised a HFO with 1.6%
sulphur content and a MGO with 0.03% sulphur content. It was found
that besides its effect on SO
were monitored.
Particle emissions, which were the focus of the study, were measured
both as number concentrations and mass concentrations. The
instrument used to measure number concentrations had a detection
range from 0.30 m to 20 m. The potentially numerous mode with
particle diameters <0.1 m was thus not included in the analysis.
Analyses of the fuels were carried out by an accredited laboratory.
2
The number concentrations of particles were, however, not reduced
by the fuel shift for any of the load settings that were tested. In all tests
the smallest sizes of particles were in slightly higher concentrations
from combustion of MGO than during periods with HFO combustion.
A clear numerical dominance of particles with diameters from 0.30 m
to 0.40 m was observed for both fuels. It is likely that the highest
number concentrations comprise particles of even smaller diameters.
emissions, the fuel type had a large effect
on the particle mass concentrations. The combustion of MGO reduced
the mass of particles to approximately half of what was seen at HFO
combustion. As less sulphur is present, less sulphate containing
particles form. In addition, the ash content is generally significantly
higher in the heavy fuel oils, which reduces the number of condensed
mineral species around which particles may form. A third explanation
is the likelihood of a higher content of poly aromatic hydrocarbons in
the heavy fuel oil, which might increase soot formation.
Average PM emission factors for HFO and MD were calculated
after combining the results from these observations with previously
published values from refereed journals and where the measurements
followed the ISO standard 8178. Emissions from combustion of heavy
fuel oil were concluded to be 1.34 g/kWh with a standard deviation of
60
0.78 g/kWh. The average particle emission factor for combustion of
marine distillates was concluded to be 0.33 g/kWh with a standard
deviation of 0.15 g/kWh. The respective average sulphur contents of
the fuels in these studies were 1.89% for HFO and 0.21% for MD.
There is a dependence of the emission factor on engine type and
engine load that was not considered in the recommended average
emission factors due to the low amount of data available. The PM
emission factors from measurements with fuels that were high in
sulphur were almost exclusively from slow speed diesels. The fact that
the data represented several different engine loads was another factor
that made conclusive remarks difficult.
There is a potentially low generality of results when only a few
objects are included in a study. The data from the study were validated
by comparison to previous studies. The results from this study were in
the range of previous values of emission factors and particle number
concentrations.
Paper I gives further details on the methods and results from these
measurements.
7.1.2 MANOEUVRING STUDY
The other component of the emission measurements were aimed at
determining emissions during manoeuvring in and out of harbour. The
focus was once again particle emissions, but this time also on NO
X
The number concentrations of particles (mainly particles with
diameters of 0.30-0.40 m) were clearly elevated during the
manoeuvring periods. Even after calculations to a per hour basis, the
number concentration of particles in the exhausts appeared higher
than during normal operations. A distinct peak in concentration,
which to 76-79% consisted of particles with diameters 0.30-0.40 m,
was observed every time the engine was started and similarly at engine
shut-down. Once again, 0.30 m represent the lower detection limit of
emissions.
61
the instrument. No significant differences in number concentrations
were observed between ships approaching port and ships leaving port.
Standard deviations for these particle concentrations varied from 26%
to 56% around the average value in the seven manoeuvring periods
covered by the measurements. This is inclusive of the peak
concentrations at the engine start-up and shut-down. At constant load
during cruising, the standard deviations never exceeded 13% of the
average value.
The SCRs installed on the ferry reduced the NO
X
emissions at
cruising speed conditions by 89%. When the SCRs were not operated,
the NO
X
emissions during manoeuvring were lower than during
cruising operations. NO
X
Details on this study are presented in Paper II.
levels fluctuated during manoeuvring.
7.2 IMPACT ASSESSMENT STUDY OF UREA FOR SCRS ON
SHIPS
This impact assessment study is a change-oriented life cycle
assessment that estimates the effect on environmental impact from
using or not using a selective catalytic reduction system on board a
ship. Emission data from previous measurements (Cooper 2001) on
one ship with an SCR system in operation and another one without
any abatement technology installations were used to represent
emissions from ship operation. The data gathered from the activities
involved in urea production and the transport of urea was related to 1
kWh of propulsion energy from the engine and added to the emission
data from the ship with SCR.
Most data on energy use and emissions from the production of urea
were collected from reports and personal contacts with manufacturers,
which is not an unusual method in LCA practice.
The data from the inventory were used in an impact assessment in
which they were grouped into impact categories (classification), and
the respective and total impact potentials of the studied pollutants
62
were calculated (characterisation). All the assumptions made and a
more thorough description of the method can be found in Paper III
(Andersson and Winnes 2010 in preparation).
The urea is produced in an energy-intensive process in which
natural gas and coal are common energy sources. Although this
increases the global warming potential related to transport with SCR,
the results from the LCA study point in favour of using SCR on ships.
All impact categories (photo oxidant formation, acidification,
eutrophication and human toxicity) except global warming potential
are substantially lower when using the SCR as compared to the
alternative without abatement measures. The global warming
potential, on the other hand, is higher when the SCR is used. The
transport of urea was shown to have very little influence on the results,
regardless of its origin.
7.3 COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS (CBA) STUDY
In order to estimate potential benefits and costs related to policy
options for the reduction of emissions to air from ships, a case study of
emissions of NO
X
, SO
2
and PM from the 8,500 ships calling
Gothenburg in 2008 was conducted. The choice of pollutants was a
consequence of the fact that NO
X
and SO
2
The inventory is conducted with a bottom-up approach which
estimates emissions based on calculations of the activity and
consequent energy consumption of each individual ship within the
geographical and temporal limits of the study. For an inventory of
emissions on a local scale, the information on energy use by ships will
by necessity be based on assumptions or specific information on the
included ships, as opposed to global inventories where fuel sales
statistics can provide information that enables top-down approaches.
were targeted by the
studied regulative initiatives, and that PM is considered to be
significantly reduced by regulations on the sulphur content of fuels.
63
During the process of calculating the total emission, estimates and
generic values were used in combination with very site-specific data.
The site specific data were ship calls, ship main engine power and time
at berth to name three significant factors. Details on the data sources
are found in Paper IV (Winnes et al. 2010 in preparation).
The total emissions were approximately 4,300 tons of NO
X
, 0.3 tons
of PM and 1.7 tons of SO
2
Reductions in emissions of NO
. Around 55% of all emissions occur while
the ship is at berth in a base scenario. Manoeuvring emissions
account for approximately 18-19%, and the at sea emissions
correspond to 27%. The emissions from at sea depend on the chosen
geographical limit from which point emissions are considered to reach
the city.
X
, SO
2
The use of a monetary evaluation method for assessing the impacts
of emissions has the benefit of making the societal costs comparable to
costs for reducing or eliminating the emissions at the source. When
applying the evaluation model on a local scale, the dispersion of the
pollutants are essential to consider. In this study, pre-defined values of
damage related to the emitted mass of different pollutants are used.
These factors are country specific or based on the population of large
cities and contain information from dispersion models and dose-
response functions. Mainly health effects from primary and secondary
pollutants are considered.
and PM attributed to the
environmentally differentiated fair way due system, a directive limiting
the sulphur content in marine fuels and the option to connect to shore
side electricity, were evaluated. All emission reductions achieved by
installations and use of emission abatement technologies were
assessed from actual installations on board the ships.
In an analysis of the costs associated with abatement and damage to
health and the natural environment (external costs) it was established
that a complete transition to low sulphur fuels when ships are at berth
has so far been most beneficial solution from a societal point of view.
The ratio between benefits and costs ranges from a low estimate of
64
approximately 1.4:1 to a high estimate of approximately 5.9:1. This
means that in an overall analysis of the costs, the value invested in low
sulphur fuel will return 1.5 to approximately 6 times this value as
avoided external costs.
Similar ratios for the fair way due system was estimated to 1.2:1 to
3.7:1. Both options were thus beneficial from a societal perspective.
The shore side electricity was associated with negative costs, which
means that this option presented a potential win-win situation from
which both ship-owners and society in general could benefit.
The uncertainties involved in this study are described in detail in
Paper IV. Some assumptions that are believed to have a large impact
on the results and their uncertainties are related to the lack of a site
specific dispersion model, the low resolution of fuel qualities that are
used and also the emission factors, mainly for particles. The analysis of
externalities of elevated pollutant levels is presented as a plausible
range that is believed to capture the costs of the covered damage.
The generality of the values on emissions and effects are limited
since the local composition and number of calls is site specific.
However, the methodological approach and the discussion about
uncertainties are useful in other inventories on a local scale.
7.4 SHIP DESIGN METHODOLOGY STUDY
The initial study concerned the potentials of a more flexible approach
towards environmental thinking during the ship design process. The
results that can be considered as relevant in the context of subsequent
work are mainly indirect and concern the lack of data for specific
operational modes.
The options to introduce environmental aspects in the early phases
of the ship design process were investigated by interview series with
experienced ship designers and other stakeholders from the shipping
industry. The data from these interviews were treated with methods
from the systems engineering discipline. For further details the reader
65
is referred to the licentiate thesis published on the subject (Winnes
2005) and the appended Paper V.
66
67
8 PUTTING THE PIECES TOGETHER ANALYSIS AND
CONCLUSIONS
The issue of reducing environmental problems that result from air
pollution from ships needs to be approached from different levels. In
this thesis, a local approach is taken and aspects of air pollution from
ships in port cities are in focus. Particle emissions in particular are
interesting in a local context due to their potential negative effects on
health.
A high level system comprising nature, technology and society is
described as a background framework of the conducted studies. Local
differences in effects on nature from ship emissions require detailed
emission factors of certain pollutants for accurate evaluation. This
work contributes to a better understanding of fuel dependency of
particle emissions and quantifies emissions during manoeuvring in
port areas. Particles are in contrast to SO
X
and NO
X
not limited as
such in regulatory texts. Instead, decreased emission levels rely on the
reduction that occurs when SO
X
Answers to the research questions introduced in chapter
emissions are abated. Specific limits
are necessary in order to control particle emissions since the
composition of particles are diverse and depend on both fuel and
engine characteristics. Up-coming strengthened emission limits within
the regulatory framework around ship emissions emphasise a need for
efficient abatement technologies that also function at low engine
loads. Judging by the cost benefit study, the air pollution in port cities
and their surroundings are much benefitted by technologies used in
the port area.
1.2 are in
the following paragraphs discussed based on results from the
conducted studies.
68
1 How will a fuel shift towards low-sulphur fuels within the maritime
sector affect emissions of particles to air?
Many measurement studies account for the abundance of sulphate
particles from combustion of the sulphur dense marine fuels (Kasper
et al. 2007; Agrawal et al. 2008; Lack et al. 2009; Moldanov et al.
2009; Murphy et al. 2009). The approach in the study that was
conducted during the work for this thesis was to measure emissions of
particles on board a ship. In addition, two fuel qualities were used in
the same engine, each fuel during three different steady state engine
loads. This approach was beneficial for comparison of emissions from
the different fuels since all effects on particle emissions could be
attributed to the fuel shift.
It could be concluded from the conducted study, and in
consideration of related published literature, that the particulate mass
from marine engines will be reduced by a shift to low sulphur fuels.
However, the particle formation is also related to the fuel ash content
and the content of aromatic compounds and asphaltenes in the fuel,
and all of those are generally reduced by the same fuel shift. It was
also concluded that further studies on number concentrations of
particles from combustion of different fuel types are needed in order
to be able to accurately conclude on the potential damage caused by
particle emissions to air from ships.
2 What are the emissions of NO
X
and particles during ships
manoeuvring phases?
The reasoning preceding the question concerns four factors: first, the
increasing awareness of health issues related to particle levels in the
atmosphere; second, the regulations on emissions to air from ships,
which cover NO
X
directly but treat PM only as an effect from the
reduction of sulphur in fuels; third, technologies for NO
X
reduction
that are less efficient during manoeuvring; and lastly, the lack of
69
available data from this operational mode, which is contradictory to
the fact that manoeuvring often occur in populated areas.
The size distribution from the manoeuvring periods was measured
on three medium speed four stroke engines. Two of those were of the
same make and model. All measurements indicated that the small
sized particles were more abundant during manoeuvring operations
compared to operations at cruising speed. Similar to what is stated in
the answer to research question 1, more studies on the subject are
needed to confirm these observations.
The NO
X
emissions from one ship were abated by SCR during the
operations at sea. The result was that, for this particular journey,
during two manoeuvring periods of 25-30 minutes each approximately
30 kgs of NO
X
were emitted compared to approximately 45 kgs
emitted during the at sea mode, which lasted 2 h 30 minutes. The
reduction efficiency of the SCR results in low emissions during the at
sea mode, but these results imply a need to find effective abatement
techniques that operate at low exhaust temperatures. In the light of
the MARPOL Tier III regulations on NO
X
-emissions, a development
of technologies in this direction may be necessary.
3 Which aspects need extra attention in emission inventories on a local
level and how should these aspects be treated?
An appropriate answer to this question needs to be based on an
evaluation of the effects caused by the emissions. The inventory of
emissions in the port of Gothenburg and the results from the cost
benefit study were used to answer this issue. The question was thus
approached from different directions: the health effects and a limited
number of environmental effects that are caused by ship emissions to
air in a port city were evaluated; results from the measurement studies
were used to provide information on the amounts of emissions during
manoeuvring; and inconsistency in emission factors for the pollutants
were studied.
70
An evaluation of air pollution caused by ships requires accurate
emission factors. It has often been said that ships are individuals. This
makes generic factors on pollutant emissions related to engine work or
fuel consumption uncertain. The emission factors are strong contri-
buting factors to uncertainties in local emission inventories.
The issue of particle reduction is urgent considering the amounts of
particles emitted from ship engines and the damage they cause to
human health. The elevated numbers of small size particles emitted
during the manoeuvring operations should be considered when the
health effects from ship emissions are assessed. All air quality
guidelines that have been examined in the line of this work refer to
mass of particulate matter. Characteristics of particle emissions
referring to number concentrations and toxic content, to name two
examples, are likely more descriptive than mass of particles as a means
of assessing impact on health.
Advanced modelling on plume chemistry and weather conditions
are required in order to make the most accurate assessments of the
fates of pollutants. No such modelling was done in the studies of
Gothenburg. The contribution of ship emissions to concentration
levels in a port city is not necessarily high even though the total
emitted amounts from ships are high. The ship plumes originate at
around 10 to 50 m height above sea level and are lifted and dispersed
over large areas. One exception can be during periods of ground
inversions, when the emissions from ships will occur below the
inversion layer. On such occasions, emissions below the inversion layer
including those from ships will be trapped in a limited volume of air.
4 What improvements in air quality and damage reduction will follow
political incentive based systems that target ship emissions?
There are several political incentives that target NO
X
and SO
2
emissions from ships. Particle emissions are considered to be abated
by the same technologies that reduce SO
2
.
71
The international regulations and the various priorities of the
different member states of IMO can delay progress of environmental
regulations where investments are costly and the benefits are diffuse.
However, taking the opportunity to introduce local or regional
incentive based systems can reduce the air pollution caused by ships.
In the CBA study it was concluded that the effects from the Swedish
fair way due system and the option to connect to shore side electricity
had accomplished societal benefits equal to the EU directive that
limits sulphur concentration for ships at berth.
In October 2008, the International Maritime Organization (IMO)
agreed upon new international regulations on air pollution of NO
X
from new ships (MEPC 2008), which has increased the need for
abatement technologies. Technologies that clean NO
X
The downside of SCR is the energy intensive production of urea.
Considerations of the lifecycle of urea production, its transportation
and its use in an SCR installed on a ship showed higher overall
contribution to global warming potential from a case with SCR, as
expected, compared to ship operation without the use of SCR and
urea. However, the benefits from reduced acidification potentials,
photo oxidant formation, eutrophication and human toxicity were
more distinct.
from the
exhaust will be more widespread after the likely tightening of
permitted emission levels by IMO in Tier III of MARPOL Annex VI.
Two abatement technologies that are expected to be frequently used
are SCR and EGR in combination with water-based technologies.
Considering the replacement rate of old ships with newer ones that
comply with the different Tiers, it will take many years before
improved air quality resulting from this regulation is experienced.
Sulphur oxide emission levels are directly reduced by lower sulphur
contents in fuel. The mass concentrations of particle emissions are
related to the sulphur content of the fuel. However, the particle
number concentrations in the exhausts following combustion of low-
sulphur marine gasoil were observed to be on levels equal to or higher
72
than the concentrations from heavy fuel oil combustion during the
measurement campaign. This implies that although the mass of
particles in the exhausts is greatly reduced after a fuel shift to low
sulphur oils, the damage experienced by the surroundings of the ship is
not necessarily reduced.
73
9 FURTHER WORK
The contribution of this work is in line with the aim to quantify
environmental effects that emissions to air from ships may cause on a
local scale and to consider effects of technological as well as political
measures of improvement. A few of the aspects that would benefit
from further studies in order to come closer to this quantification are
listed below.
It is clear that the emission factors of particles in particular are
connected to many uncertainties and that these uncertainties need to
be reduced in order to make accurate estimates of health risks and
potential environmental effects caused by airborne emission from
ships. The particles of diameters below approximately 0.1 m are very
rarely studied, even though it has been indicated that they are
abundant in the exhaust gases and are considered to be related to
potentially high health risks. There is thus a need for further on board
studies of particle emissions targeting particles of these size classes.
The results from the measurements of emissions from ships in
manoeuvring operations should be considered as preliminary.
Complementary studies are needed to clarify which observations from
the three engines in the study are of a general character and those that
were specific to the studied engines and engine types.
An impact assessment can always be done in more detail. A local
emission inventory should ideally be followed by site-specific
dispersion modelling and site specific response calculations. In order
to stay within the limits of available resources for this project, this part
was left out of the CBA and inventory study in this work. This
limitation introduced uncertainty to the results by reducing the
potential to conclude on ships contributions to peak concentrations of
pollutants the air masses, for example. Further efforts to conclude on
74
external cost factors suitable for the studies area should also be a
priority in a future study.
75
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