Abrahmov, S.L. & Ronen, M. 2008.
Double blending: online theory with on-campus practice in
photography instruction. Innovations in Education and Teaching International45(1): 3-14
Original Title
Double blending: online theory with on-campus practice in
photography instruction
Abrahmov, S.L. & Ronen, M. 2008.
Double blending: online theory with on-campus practice in
photography instruction. Innovations in Education and Teaching International45(1): 3-14
Abrahmov, S.L. & Ronen, M. 2008.
Double blending: online theory with on-campus practice in
photography instruction. Innovations in Education and Teaching International45(1): 3-14
Innovations in Education and Teaching International
Vol. 45, No. 1, February 2008, 314
ISSN 1470-3297 print/ISSN 1470-3300 online 2008 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/14703290701757385 http://www.informaworld.com Double blending: online theory with on-campus practice in photography instruction Shlomo Lee Abrahmov* and Miky Ronen School of Design and the Instructional Systems Technologies Department, Holon Institute of Technology, Israel Taylor and Francis Ltd RIIE_A_275707.sgm 10.1080/14703290701757385 Innovations in Education and Teaching International 1470-3297 (print)/1470-3300 (online) Original Article 2008 Taylor & Francis 45 1000000February 2008 Shlomo LeeAbrahmov artman2002@gmail.com This paper presents a blended learning model in which the online component is not used to replace some of the traditional on-campus activities of a course but to introduce new teaching objectives that would not have been possible to achieve, because of class time limitations and the nature of the course. The instructional model was aimed at integrating a theoretical layer of visual literacy in a traditional practical photography course, using various online individual and collaborative activities. The paper presents the model, details the instructional design of the web-based elements and their integration with the practical on-campus activity, and summarises an evaluation study performed with three classes. We suggest that this double blending approach combining online theory with on-campus practice could be used to cope with similar instructional challenges in other subject matter domains. Keywords: Visual literacy; photography instruction; blended learning; web-based teaching Introduction Basic photography instruction is traditionally carried out in a purely practical course, in which the students learn photographic skills by shooting, developing and printing black and white materials (Sartorius 2000). Newbury (1997) pointed out that the traditional approach to teaching photogra- phy lacks a broader intellectual significance, and argued for the need of such education to achieve more than a set of practical skills. With the advent of photography as a cultural and social medium, there are additional challenges to photography education, such as teaching photogra- phers to be visually literate (Goin 2001). Robbins (2000) stressed that photographic education must endeavour to redefine itself in order to retain its relevance to contemporary culture. With this perspective, photography instruction could be used to introduce the students to the basic skills of visual literacy which involves both the reading and writing of images. As a basic course of introducing the students to the various aspects of practical photography, the duration of one semester poses a challenge for the instructor who had many learning outcomes to achieve in a limited period. Our goal was to include a theoretical element in the practical course, which will enable the students to gain the basic skills of reading photographs and in doing so introduce the concept of visual literacy within practical photography instruction. The challenge Photography can be compared to writing, a medium that could be used in various levels of mean- ings: to produce a shopping list, a journalistic account or to create an intricate work of literature. *Corresponding author. Email: artman2002@gmail.com 4 S.L. Abrahmov and M. Ronen The ultimate goal of photography instruction is to teach the literature level of photography. Therefore, an effective instruction requires the development of reading skills as well as the prac- tice of writing skills in which both the reading of images and the making of them are regarded as informed activities. Clarke (1997) claims that instead of looking at photographs, which implies a passive act of recognition, we should insist on reading them. The act of reading involves an active and complex comprehension of relationships and the assignation of meanings, as well as the exploration of the interaction between the reader and the image, in a similar fashion to our activity when reading text. Tagg (1993) posited that we should explore the meaning of a photo- graph more like the reading of a complex sentence than the reading of a single word. Trachtenberg (1988) suggests that we should enter the photograph, negotiate its intricate passages and by doing so we can begin to sort out its implications, its explicit intentions and those that remain hidden. Sayre et al. (1999) described visual language as a silent language which is not easily trans- lated into the verbal, thus, they explained, it can be difficult to discuss, critique, prove or teach. Photography as a visual language is difficult for many people to perceive, because they are used to photographs as being unary, or transparent windows to the world. If photographs are transpar- ent (Cohen and Meskin 2004; Lopes 2003; Walton 1984), we do not have to look at a photograph to get specific insights, or need to engage special reading skills, because transparency means that there are no significant differences between the way we perceive photographs and the way we perceive their referents. This factual approach to photographs is common to novice photogra- phers and it creates problems in teaching when we want the students to leave the tangible world of facts in order to accept the poetic or symbolic quality of the image (Sayre et al. 1999). Thus, the first concern to address is the students initial perception of photography, as a medium with a factual level of meaning only. The pedagogy constructed in the theoretical part of this course is aimed at changing this perception of photography and achieving an understanding of photo- graphs as having an additional interpretive level of meaning which is interlinked with their factual level. This approach stresses the relation between practical aspects of photographs creation with how these aspects influence the content of the photographs. Photography teaching as presented in this article commences the process by which photogra- phers gain the ability to be visually literate. This kind of visual literacy has to do with critical knowledge that includes awareness of the intentionality of how an image is constructed in order to offer a particular response or experience (Kellner 2002; Raney 1999). When one talks about theory of photography the intention is not theory of optics, films structures etc. but critical theory which explores meanings in photographs. This theory is based upon adapting an approach to photographs that explores interrelated levels of meanings. In his Camera Lucida, Barthes (1981) talked about a photograph as being unary when it does not transform the reality of its origin in some significant fashion. Conversely, a photograph becomes richer in its implications when it possesses more than one layer of meaning. Barthes, in his essay The Photographic Message (1977), discussed two kinds of messages in a photograph; one is the denotative message and the second is the connotative message. Feinstein (1996) described these two levels as the literal and the non-literal or metaphoric levels of interpretation. In order to clarify the distinction between them we can call the first the factual level and the second the interpretive level. Barthes schema of denotation and connotation offers a simple and powerful method of reading and interpreting images (Barrett 2003). The theoretical underpinning for this course, then, is based on teaching the students to explore the development of these two layers of mean- ing in photographs. In addition, the theoretical layer is intended to enhance the use of professional terms and crite- ria that are specific to photography and other visual media. The terms used for reading images, or for basic visual literacy, are developed from the perspective of the visual practitioner in photography. The idea is to create a similarity between the terms used to create photographs and Innovations in Education and Teaching International 5 the terms that are used to read them. The use of common criteria is significant because as the definition of full visual literacy includes both the reading and the writing of images, common criteria help the students perform in both of these activities. With this perspective, the parallel activities in this course, one theoretical and the other practical, are intended to enrich each other. It seems that this approach to the enhancement of the use of terms could be applied successfully in other educational situations where such a challenge is encountered. Web-based teaching of photography As in all other subject domains, the web is also used for the teaching of practical photography. Typical examples are the online diploma photography studies described by Hamilton (2003) and the Virtual Studio (Brown and Cruickshank 2003). While these courses offer a web alternative to the on-campus teaching, their contents and instructional approach are very similar to the tradi- tional courses, focusing mainly on the practical and technical aspects of photography. Nowadays, many higher education courses adopt a blended model, which combines online and face-to-face instruction. This model usually refers to a hybrid approach in which the online component replaces part of the on-campus traditional activities (Dean et al. 2001; McDonald and McAteer 2003; Murphy 2003; Myint and Atputhasamy 2003; Voos 2003). The incorporation of online elements into academic courses offers various ways of implementing traditional instruc- tional methods, as well as the ability to incorporate new strategies made feasible by this medium. Nevertheless, each delivery method should be chosen for what it can deliver best (Zenger and Uehlein 2001). Our goal in using the web was not to replace the traditional activities in this course but to introduce the new teaching objectives that would not have been possible to achieve because of class time limitations and the definition of the course as practical by nature. The double blending instructional model The photography course is part of the mandatory core requirements for the Bachelor of Design degree. The traditional course included lectures, practical class activities and discussions, personal assignments, class critiques of practical assignments, a final project and a peer-evaluation activity of the final project. The new revised course consists of two parallel layers that are performed simultaneously (Table 1): the on-campus part followed a traditional black and white photography Table 1. Course activities and assignments. Practical (writing skills) on campus Theoretical (reading skills) online 1. Practise manual camera exposure 2. Practise use of depth of field 3. Development of black and white films 4. Printing black and white photographs 5. Portrait photography 6. Quality of light 7. Still life 8. Street/on location photography 9. Self-portrait as 10. Primary colours slides film photography 11. Model in the studio artificial lighting 12. Final project 1. My personal choice of a photograph 2. Focal points 3. Observe a portrait 4. Peer evaluation of portrait assignment 5. The editors choice 6. Analysis of a photograph Peer evaluation of the nal project 6 S.L. Abrahmov and M. Ronen introductory course structure, where the students perform various practical assignments in order to gain elementary camera and photographic skills; and the web-based activities aimed at offering the introduction to critical study and discussion that are necessary in order to develop the basic skills of visual literacy. The online assignments The instructional approach we adopted can be described as pragmatic constructivism (Perkins 1999) allowing students to be active, social and creative learners in various contexts, while the web-based layer was based on the combination of different modalities of learning for different purposes (Carman 2002). All web-based assignments were individual. Part of the online assignments were openly submitted in the course website allowing students to learn from peer examples (Ronen and Langley 2004) while others were performed using a post before viewing approach (Duffy, Dueber and Hawley 1998). A group discussion board was available for continuous peerpeer and teacherstudents communication and was used to support the theoretical as well as the practical (on-campus) layer of the course. We shall focus here on the theoretical, web-based activities. Following is a description of the assignments (Table 1), their implementation format and the rationale underlying their instruc- tional design. 1. My personal choice The students were asked to choose a favourite photograph (from a recommended site or a site of their choice) and to explain their selections. Implementation format: open submission in a designated discussion group board. Scaffolding: none. This first online activity aimed to elicit intuitive reflection on a photograph in writing and to familiarise students with the online submission procedures. Students were encouraged, but not requested, to examine and respond to peers selections. 2. Focal points The students were asked to choose a classical painting (from a recommended website), to mark the main and the secondary focal points and their relation to each other, then to explain how this arrangement affects and enhances the content of the work. Implementation format: open submission as a file attached to a message in a designated discussion group board. Scaffolding: explanation and examples of the concept of focal points was hyperlinked to the task page, as well as the opportunity to view peer examples. The activitys intent was to introduce the concept of focal points, to develop the ability to iden- tify the main and secondary focal points in an image, to promote awareness of the major role of the focal points in forming an effective composition, and to realise the possible connection between factual and interpretive elements in a work of art. 3. Observe a portrait (Figure 1) The students were asked to choose a portrait (from the Masters of Photography site), then to: Innovations in Education and Teaching International 7 (1) Analyse the factual content according to the following criteria: (a) Quality and direction of light. (b) Composition. (c) Depth of field. (d) Relationship between figure and background. (2) Express their personal response to the portrait (associations and feelings it elicits). (3) Explain why they chose this particular portrait. Implementation format: open submission in a designated discussion group board. Scaffolding: submission using a template. Explanation and examples of each term are hyperlinked to the task and template page. The opportunity to view peer examples. Figure 1. Assignment 3, the template and a sample student response. 8 S.L. Abrahmov and M. Ronen Figure 1. Assignment 3, the template and a sample student response. This activity introduces the basic factual terms and concepts which are directly related to practice. It aimed to develop students ability to analyse (read) a photograph using these terms as common criteria and to promote the awareness of the close connection between factual elements and inter- pretive aspects of a picture. The use of the specific resource (Masters of Photography) was meant to ensure exposure to photographs with a developed second level of meaning. This online activity was performed in parallel with the practical portrait photography assignment. 4. Peer evaluation of portrait assignment The students were asked to examine two peer submissions of the portrait assignment and to: (1) Evaluate the factual analysis and add details, if necessary. (2) Offer their personal response to the portrait. (3) Observe and describe the development of a second level of meaning in this portrait. Implementation format: each student examined the two peer submissions following his own (in the group discussion board of assignment 3) and sent his evaluations as responses threaded to each of the original messages. Scaffolding: explanation and a reference to the second level of meaning in photographs were hyperlinked to the instructions. The intention of this activity was for the students to learn from their peer examples, to evaluate an analysis of a photograph and to personally reflect and describe the second level of meaning in a photograph. 5. The editors choice (Figure 2) The students were presented with five photographs taken in the same time and place and were asked to respond to the following question: As an editor of a newspaper, which of the photographs would you publish? Explain your selection. Figure 2. Assignment 5, the distribution of students responses (a class) and sample explanations. Implementation format: post before viewing. Students selections and their explanations were exposed only after all students completed the assignments. The results were used to discuss the concept of framing and the functioning of images in different contexts as well as the development of a second level of meaning in a particular photograph. The aim of this activity was to explore the concept of framing and its effect on the content of a photograph. When a photographer lifts a camera and looks through its viewfinder, the first thing he has to be aware of is how the photograph is to be framed and how it would influence the creation of the image with regard to its composition, elimination of certain details, and rela- tionship between the subject and the background. These factual considerations can have a criti- cal influence on the creation of a second connotative level of meaning that transcends the particularity of the photographs referent. The example used to demonstrate this issue is the sequence of five frames Dorothea Lange photographed while creating her famous Migrant Mother in 1936 (Levine 1988, 1617). In Langes sequence we can observe that the frame which was published as Migrant Mother removes all references to the environment where this photograph was taken, leaving only the mothers gaze with the children on her shoulders. Such cropping creates a photograph which is detached from the time and place of its creation and can thus gain a universal significance and meaning. In addition, this assignment demonstrated how our attitude towards photographs can be influenced by the contexts in which they are to function. Innovations in Education and Teaching International 9 6. Analysis of a photograph (Figure 3) Each student was assigned a specific photograph from a selection of five different photographs and was asked to analyse its factual and interpretive levels, and to express a personal response to the photograph. Implementation format: post before viewing. Students analyses and responses were exposed only after all students completed the assignments. Figure 2. Assignment 5, the distribution of students responses (a class) and sample explanations. 10 S.L. Abrahmov and M. Ronen Figure 3. Assignment 6, a sample student response (the factual terms used are highlighted). This activity was aimed at summarising all aspects of the theoretical layer of the course: the implementation of critical approach to observing photographs, the use of terms and common criteria in analysing photographs without specific scaffolding, and identifying the connection between the factual and the interpretive levels of meaning. A content analysis was carried out in order to examine the use of terms and the ability to refer them to the interpretive level of meaning in a photograph. Peer evaluation of the practical work For the final project the students had to create a series of four to six printed photographs on a common underlying theme. The choice of subject for the series was left open for the students to Figure 3. Assignment 6, a sample student response (the factual terms used are highlighted). Innovations in Education and Teaching International 11 choose according to their personal preference, but it was explained to them that the main goal of their project was to create photographs with a developed second level of meaning. A peer evaluation was carried out during the last on-campus session of the course. Each student was asked to evaluate two peer projects and submit his evaluation in writing. The students were not specifically directed how to organise their evaluations. A content analysis of the students responses was carried out in order to examine the use of factual terms and their ability to relate to two levels of meaning in a photograph. Implementation and evaluation The instructional model was implemented with three courses during the academic years 2004 2005 (second year Interior Design, first year Industrial Design), with 2224 students in each course. The courses were held on campus and were accompanied by a course website organised within the HighLearn management system. 1 The evaluation study focused on examining: The efficiency of the web-based component and the instructional design of the online activities. The impact of the theoretical web-based layer of the course on the students practical work. Data sources This evaluation study was based on the analysis of the data extracted from the following sources: Students online activity and their performance in the theoretical tasks (content analysis). Students performance in the practical final project. The peer evaluation records of the final project (content analysis). Students reflections as expressed in a questionnaire administered at the end of the course. Interviews with a sample of students from each class. In the following sections we shall present a brief summary of the main findings. The use of factual terms A detailed content analysis was performed on all students written responses in order to identify the use of factual concepts before, during and at the end of the course. At the beginning of the course (assignment 1) about 30% of the students used the term composition in their intuitive photo analysis and few students mentioned light direction and framing. During the course (assignments 25) the students became familiar with professional terms used to characterise the factual elements of a photograph. These assignments were structured and scaffolded by templates and additional explanatory materials. As can be seen from Figure 4, most students were able to use and apply these concepts in a non-scaffolded task (assignment 6). The awareness of the role of the factual aspects and the abil- ity to apply them was evaluated again, in the written peer evaluations of the final project, and by the reflective questionnaire administered at the end of the course. Figure 4. Use of terms in the course of various activities. It is interesting to note that the term focal points was the concept most frequently mentioned by students in the reflective questionnaire, when asked to list the most important aspects of photography that they had learned. This can be explained by the fact that the concept of focal points was revelatory to the students and that they found it most relevant to their design studies and work. Indeed, many students specifically mentioned this concept when asked about the trans- ferability of the theoretical knowledge to other areas or situations. 12 S.L. Abrahmov and M. Ronen The contribution of the reading skills to the development of writing skills In introductory practical courses students tend to focus mainly on factual factors (such as composition, depth of field), as these elements are directly related to their practical work. Our major challenge was to promote the awareness of the connotative level of meaning, and its rela- tion to the factual aspects, in order to foster the understanding and creation of photographs that express additional levels of meanings. Students awareness to the connotative level was tested by examining their responses in their open reflection questionnaire; about 60% of the students in each of the classes mentioned the importance of the second level of meaning in a photograph. Furthermore, in the peer evaluation activity, about 60% of the students were looking for a second (connotative) level of meaning in peers work and managed to relate it to the factual elements of the photographs. The final project emphasis was on the students creating work that has a second level of mean- ing. It is typical for beginning students to initially approach their projects from a documentary perspective. A personal consultation was carried out during the creation of the final projects. In these consultations the students were advised how to approach their projects with a specific intent beforehand. For example, a student who wanted to create a project which captured the interaction between her divorced parents was advised to try to observe and capture the space between them and in doing so reflect on the psychological space between her parents. Most of the projects achieved the desired result of photographs that go beyond simple docu- mentary photographs, that is, photographs with a developed interpretive level of meaning. Was the quality of the practical work related to the parallel online study of the theoretical aspects? All students reported that the study of theoretical aspects of reading photographs had contributed to the development of their practical skills, while most (70%) stated that it had a significant impact on the photographs they have produced. Following are two sample comments: I could see the difference and the process I went through from the first lesson to the final project, with the contribution of the analysis I improved my work. Photography is not only technical. It is based on theoretical aspects that without them it would have been impossible to reach a satisfactory level. Figure 4. Use of terms in the course of various activities. Innovations in Education and Teaching International 13 Furthermore, the detailed analysis revealed that achieving a developed interpretive level in the practical work was significantly correlated (R = 0.43, p = 0.02) with students awareness and knowledge of the theoretical concepts as reflected in their replies to the questionnaire. These findings demonstrate the beneficial contribution of the theoretical aspects when they are integrated with practice. Web-based learning aspects At the end of the courses students were asked to reflect on various aspects related to the online asynchronous activities conducted via the course site. All students reported that the online activ- ities were effective and contributed to their ability to read photographs. Students were specifically asked to reflect on the open submission approach and their use of peer examples. Most students (60%) reported that they had examined peers work before submitting their own; 50% reported that they had changed and improved their work as a result of examining peer examples; about 25% of the students mentioned events in which they had prepared their work but postponed submission in order to view more peer examples. These find- ings confirm that ability to view peers work provides useful scaffolding to the students who may need additional help. Summary and concluding remarks We have introduced a model in which the blending of face-to-face with online instruction enabled an effective integration of theoretical aspects in the context of a traditional practical course. This instructional model seems to address successfully two concerns. The first is how to include a theoretical layer in the context of a practical course. The second is what would be a simple and relevant theoretical content both to the practice of photography and to the introduction of basic skills of visual literacy. The web-based component enabled us to engage the students in individual activity, where each student, in his own time, can develop his visual reading skills through a guided and focused set of activities, while learning from peer examples. We suggest that this double blending approach of online theory with on-campus practice could be used to cope with similar instructional challenges of integrating theoretical aspects in practical courses in other subject matter domains. Note 1. HighLearn, Britannica Knowledge Systems (http://www.britannica-ks.com). Notes on contributors Dr. Shlomo Lee Abrahmov is an artist and lecturer on photography, visual literacy and visual culture in the School of Design and the Instructional Systems Technologies Department, Holon Institute of Technology. His research includes theory and practice in photography, and the development of teaching strategies in visual literacy and visual culture. Prof. Miky Ronen is the chair of the Instructional Systems Technologies Department at the Holon Institute of Technology. Her research focuses on the instructional design of interactive learning environments and on the incorporation of technology in the teaching and learning process. 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