Documentatie Placi

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Chapter 1 : Introduction

New technologies and incurring globalization are making new media related skills
essential. Industry required a workforce that is more self-sufficient .Students are in need of
more diverse and interesting instruction. The need for further education tools to convey
theoretical and practical principles will motivate the student to learn more. They are of
electrical and electronic engineering .Courses are widely taught and all relevant experiments
to those courses can be performed by the student independently and demonstrate how the
theory really works in practice multimedia. Graphics animation not only simulate but also
help in carrying real measurement value.
In this project, experiment associates with electronic and digital course were carried
out through the use of the interactive multimedia desktop sufficient "Com3Lab". Com3Lab
act, as the interface between theory and practice. This program not only conveys theoretical
aspect of the subject material, but at the same time this knowledge using practical-relevant
experiments. Com3Lab consists of a master units and various individual experiments board
and CD-ROM.
With this information the idea of this project come about in which an implementation
of experiment s in the area of electronic and digital electronic were done through the merge
of theory and practice into one soft and hardware package "Com3Lab". All the experiments
were chosen according to what students learn theoretically in the course with the course
instructor. And apply practically in the lab. Also, in this project, we have clarified
(clarifying) problems and obstacles, which may occur for a student, during the
implementation of the experiment.
And at the beginning of this project we have explained the most important
components of the COM3LAB as in Chapter 1, application of a special experiments for (
Digital Technology I ) experiment board as in Chapter 2, application of a special
experiments for ( Digital Technology II ) experiment board as in Chapter 3, introduction to
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electronic theory as in Chapter 4, application of a special experiments for ( Electronic
Components I ) experiment board as in Chapter 5 and application of a special experiments
for ( Electronic Components II ) experiment board as in Chapter 6.

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Chapter 2 : Introduction To Com3Lab

It motivates the students to move the theory by own experiments directly into practice, it
encourages their independence and let them learn faster by their own experience. The compactness
and the integrated instruments of COM3LAB (oscilloscope, multimeter etc.) guarantee a fast
construction so that it is no problem at all to carry out an experiment just now.

2-1 Basic Equipment Of Com3Lab

2-1-1 PC :

Fig 2-1 : PC

Personal Computer installed with COM3LAB Digital Technology. The minimum system
requirements you need for the COM3LAB are: PC Windows 95 or higher, CD-ROM drive, 16 bit
sound card, Graphics card with 256 colors.

2-1-2 The master unit :

Fig 2- 2: The master unit

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The master unit is linked via the serial interface with the PC and the power supply is connected to
the master unit. After this, you switch on the master unit, put the desired experimentation board into
it, switch on the PC, start the software; and the COM3LAB with the desired experiments is directly
ready for operation.

The easy operation of the COM3LAB takes the inhibitions itself from pupils who never before
worked with the PC and guarantees an immediate entrance into the learning courses.

It consists of :

1. Function Generator.
2. Two multimeters.
3. Osciloscope.
4. Digital Analyser.

These parts are indicate in the figure below:

Fig 2- 3: Detail 2 Multimeters and F.G

Fig 2-4 : Detail Osciloscope and Digital Analyser
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Fig 2-5 : ON / OFF switch

To start using the Master Unit switch ON the Unit by pressing the ON / OFF switch

1- Function Generator :

There are two buttons in the power supply part:

The Function Key Use to choose between:

1. Square wave.
2. Sinusoidal wave.
3. Triangular wave.
4. DC signal.

The Mode Key:

Fig 2-6 : Function Generator
It is used to control the parameters for the selected function.
In the case of :

a. Sinusoidal wave Mode key choose between frequency in kHz, Peak to Peak voltage
and DC level superimposed on the signal.

b. Square wave the Mode key choose between frequency in kHz, Peak to Peak
voltage and DC level superimposed on the signal.

ON / OFF
switch
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c. Square wave choose between frequency in kHz, Peak to Peak voltage and DC level
superimposed on the signal.

d. DC the Mode key have no use.

2- Multimeters :

Fig 2-7 : Multimeter 2
The multimeters could be used to measure voltage or current or resistance just set the
mode to the required quantity and then connect it in the proper way and get reading from
the display.

These are part that will be of great use in the DC electric lab for the AC experiments you
will use Osiclloscope which is explained in later sessions.

2-1-3 The COM3LAB CD-ROM :

Fig 2-8 : The COM3LAB CD-ROM
A course consists of an experimentation board and a CD-ROM. The CDROM includes
the theory and experimentation instruction of the respective course. With many
animations, pictures, applications etc., theory is represented vividly. The experiments
carried out are valued via software. Circuits and units on the experimentation board are
course specific experiments. Courses are available for the following topics:

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DC technology
AC technology
Electronic components
Digital technology
Operational amplifier
Microcomputer technology
Automation Control technology
Power Electronics
Transmitting and receiving technology

- Some Advantages Of The COM3LAB CD-ROM:
Can be performed by the student independently and demonstrate how the theory really
works in practice.

Multimedia graphics, animations, videos and voice commentary not only simulate
but also help to graphically convey the material.

For the recording of real measurement values. Function

Supervisor : displaying the progress of all the individual students at the instructor!s PC.

Error recognition recognising when the wrong information is entered or errors are
made in setting up a circuit etc.

2-1-4 The COM3LAB Experiment Board :

Fig 2-9 : The COM3LAB Experiment Board
There Are Many Type Of The COM3LAB Experiment Board :

- Digital Technology 1 experiment board
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- Digital Technology 2 experiment board
- Electronic Components I
- Electronic Components II etc

More Detail About Experiment Board

taking theory and putting it into practice

containing more than 8 experiments on one board

real experiments devoted to individual topics

topics can be changed quickly and easily

strong and robust

2-1-5 COM3LAB jumper wire :

Fig 2-10 : COM3LAB jumper wire
2-2 Basic Procedure Before Start Any Experiment :

1- Ensure That Personal Computer installed with COM3LAB CD-ROM.
2- Connect serial cable between Master Unit and PC.
3- Slot The COM3LAB Experiment Board to Master Unit.
4- Connect adapter and power cord between Master Unit and power plug.
5- Turn on Master Unit.
6- Click COM3LAB -> Type Of The COM3LAB Experiment Board.
7- Key in your name and click continue button.

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2-2-1 Example - Starting The Procedure To Deal with Digital
Technology I :

1. Slot in the Digital Technology 1 experiment board to the master unit. Make
sure you slot it firmly to avoid connection error.
2. Connect the serial cable to PC.
3. Connect power code to power supply and then turn on the master unit.
4. Turn on PC .
5. click COM3LAB and then DT1. AS figure below :

Fig 2-11 : software of com3lab
6. Key in your name and continue. You will see the following interface below :
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Fig 2-12: enter the name in 1st step
7- After press continuo , the first interface will be open as figure below. It contains
massage to the user about welcome to com3lab.

Fig 2-13: 1st interface

2-3 Common mistakes in COM3LAB :

There are common mistakes in the COM3LAB, we will be explain in the following
points :
1- Write
the name
here
2-
3-
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1- If the master unit not connected to the power supply , or the master unit connected
with the power supply but the switch is OFF. You will see message as figure
below.

Fig 2-14: common mistake # 1

2- If the desired experiment board is not slotting. You will see message as figure below.


3- If the experiment board separated during the experiment. You will see message as
figure below.


4- If the connection of the circuit is not correct or not configured correctly. You will see
message as figure below.

Chapter 3 : Digital Technology I
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3-1 Introduction To Digital Technology I

Fig 3-1: Digital Technology I
Digital Technology I is kind of many kinds of the COM3LAB experiment board , by this
experiment board , we will be able to knew the fundamentals and laws of Boolean
algebra using logical operations.

3-2 More Detail About Digital Technology I :
Digital Technology I contains many type of Modules such as Logic gates: (4 x AND 3x
OR, 2x XOR, 2x NOR, 3 x NAND) and Full-adder and 7-segment display and
Multiplexer and Demultiplexer and 4 input switches and 2 pushbuttons and 4 LEDs.
3-3 Starting The Procedure To Deal with Digital Technology I :

5- Slot in the Digital Technology 1 experiment board to the master unit.
Make sure you slot it firmly to avoid connection error.
6- Connect the serial cable to PC.
7- Connect power code to power supply and then turn on the master unit.
8- Turn on PC .
9- click COM3LAB and then DT1.
10- After press continuo , the first interface will be open . It contains massage
to the user about welcome to com3lab.

3-4 The Experiments :
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3-4-1 TTL-AND :
8- After press continue , the new window is talking about the transistor that is used in the
Digital Technology 1 experiment board , that is called TTL (transistor-transistor logic ,
which allows the creation of logical operators by connecting transistors accordingly .

Fig 3-3: transistor-transistor logic
9- After press continue , the new window is talking about TTL-AND as figure below, the
output Q is true if input A AND input B are both 1: Q = A AND B An AND gate can
have two or more inputs, its output is 1 if all inputs are 1.

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Fig 3-4: TTL-AND
10- After press continue , the new window is talking about only when s1 and s2 closed
the circuit is on , as figure below.

Fig 3-5 : switches logic
11- After press continue :
the new window is talking about logic gates process signals which represent 1 or 0.
Normally the positive supply voltage +5Vs represents 1 and 0V represents 0, as figure
below.

Fig 3-6 : logic level
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12- After press continue , the new window is talking about traditional symbol and IEC
symbol as figure below.

Fig 3-7 : logic symbols

13- After press continue , the new window is to verify the operation for AND gate by
connecting the circuit diagram as showing , as figure below.

Fig 3-8 : the circuit diagram of AND gate

13- After press continue , the new window is to describe how to use the switches to
verifying the truth table of AND gate using switches s1 and s2 and led H0, as figure
below.

After connected the circuit, the results that we obtained:

S0 S1 H0
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
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Fig 3-9 : continue the circuit diagram
13- After press continue , the new window is talking about small test by marking the
correct answering, as figure below.

Fig 3-10 : test
14- After press continue , after answering the test, as figure below.

Fig 3-11 : answering the test
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15- After press continue , we can showing summary of TTL-AND , as figure below.

Fig 3-12 :summary and gate
3-4-2 TTL-OR :
16- After press continue , showing the output Q is 1 if input A OR input B is 1 (or both of them
are 1): Q = A OR B , An OR gate can have two or more inputs, its output is 1 if at least one input
is 1., as figure below.

Fig 3-13 : TTL-OR
17- After press continue , the new window is talking about when at lest one of s1 or s2
closed the led is light , as figure below.

Fig 3-14 : switching logic
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Fig 3-15 : logic symbols
19- After press continue , the new window is to verify the operation for OR gate by

Fig 3-16 : circuit diagram of or gate
verifying the truth table of OR gate using switches s1 and s2 and led H0, as figure
below.After connected the circuit, the results that we obtained:

S0 S1 H0
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
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Fig 3-17: continue the circuit diagram
correct answering , as figure below.

Fig 3-18 small test


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23- After press continue , we can showing summary of TTL-OR , as figure below.

Fig 3-20: summary of or gate
3-4-3 TTL-NOT :
24- After press continue , The output Q is 1 when the input A is NOT 1, the output is the
inverse of the input: Q = NOT A , A NOT gate can only have one input. A NOT gate is
also called an inverter, as figure below.

Fig 3-21 : TTL-NOT

Fig 3-22: logic symbols
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26- After press continue , the new window is to verify the operation for OR gate by

Fig 3-23 : circuit diagram of NOT gate

verifying the truth table of NOT gate using switches s1 and led H0, as figure below.



S0 H0
0 1
1 0
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Fig 3-25 :small test



30- After press continue , we can showing summary of TTL-NOT , as figure below.

Fig 3-27 : summary of NOT gate

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3-4-4 TTL-XOR :

31- After press continue , The output Q is " if either input A is " OR input B is ", but not when
both of them are ": Q = (A AND NOT B) OR (B AND NOT A) ,The output is " if inputs A and
B are DIFFERENT. XOR gates can only have 2 inputs., as figure below.

Fig 3-28 : TTL-XOR gate

32- After press continue , the new window is talking about only when (s1= 1 and s2 =0 )
or when (s1= 0 and s2 = 1 ) the led is light , as figure below.

Fig 3-29 : switching logic

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Fig 3-30 : logic symbol

34- After press continue , the new window is to verify the operation for XOR gate by

Fig 3-31 : the circuit diagram of XOR
verifying the truth table of XOR gate using switches s1 and s2 and led H0, as figure
below.


S0 S1 H0
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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Fig 3-33 : small test


Fig 3-34 : answering the small test

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38- After press continue , we can showing summary of TTL-NOT , as figure below.

Fig 3-35 : summary of XOR

, by connecting the circuit EXERCISE FIRST After press continue , we can showing - 9 3
diagram as showing in the interface and verifying the result of this circuit , as figure below.

Fig 3-36 : 1st exercise

Now we showing the circuit after we applied in the experiment board :

Fig 3-37 : the circuit after connection
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onnecting the circuit , by c EXERCISE SECOND After press continue , we can showing - 40
diagram as showing in the interface and verifying the result of this circuit , as figure below.

Fig 3-38 : 2nd Exercise

Fig 3-39 : continue the Exercise

Now we are showing the circuit after we applied in the experiment board :
S0 S1 H0
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
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3-4-5 Seven-segment display :
41- After press continue , we can showing interface about Seven-Segment display, as figure
below. And is talking about introduction of Seven-Segment display , that are used for visual
indication of numbers common applications include displays on alarm clocks and TV etc

Fig 3-41 : Seven-Segment
41- After press continue , this interface is talking about Seven-Segment, as figure below. About
a To g Segment by pressing buttons the 7 f o 0 To 9 the numbers display how to
S0 S1 H0
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 1
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Fig 3-42 : continue Seven-Segment

42- After press continue , here we are showing the number 3 after displaying in 7 segment display
below. figure as , a ,b,c,d,g and h ) pressing buttons ( after

Fig 3-43 : the number 3 after displaying

42- After press continue , now we are showing the circuit diagram of Seven-Segment displays , as
) which receive decimal signals. The outputs D1,D2and D3 ( D0, It has 4 inputs below. figure
a,b,c,d,e,f and g consist of drivers which directly control the LEDs in the seven-segment display.

Fig 3-44 : Seven-Segment BCD
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Now we are showing the circuit after we applied in the experiment board :

Display
S3 S2 S1 S0
0000 0
0001 1
0010 2
0011 3
0100 4
0101 5
0110 6
0111 7
1000 8
1001 9
Table 4-: 7 ! segment displays

43- After press continue , we can showing summary of 7 segment displays , as figure below.

Fig 3-46 : summary of 7 ! segment displays
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3-4-6 Multiplexer :
44- After press continue , we can showing MUX, as figure below. A multiplexer can be used to
assign different input signals to one output.

Fig 3-47 : MUX
45- After press continue , we can showing principle of a MUX, as figure below. A decoder inside
the multiplexer selects an input and connects it to the output. In the case of 4 to 1 multiplexer,
data lines D0,D1,D2 and D3 are selected via decoder inputs A and B, and assigned to output Q.

Fig 3-48 : Principle of a MUX

46- After press continue , we can showing the circuit diagram of MUX, and we are using the S0
and S1 to verified the results. as figure below.

Fig 3-49 : Experiment
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3-4-7 Half-adder :
47- After press continue , we can showing Half-adder as figure below. The basic
arithmetic function is addition. All other functions such as subtraction, multiplication etc.
can be derived from the addition function. The fundamental circuit for binary addition
consists of a half-adder. Its input receives two signal-digit binary values while its output
supplies a binary value with maximum of two digits : sum and carryover.

Fig 3-50 : Half-adder
S0 S1 H0
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
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48- After press continue , we can showing sum and carryover of half-adder as figure
below. When adding two binary digits provides one of the following results :
0 + 0 = 00
0 + 1 = 01
1 + 0 = 01
1 + 1 = 10
The right hand place of the result is the binary sum (S), while the left hand place is the
carryover (C).

Fig 3-52 : sum and carryover
49- After press continue , we can showing the circuit diagram of half-adder as figure
below. Where its combining of an XOR operator and an AND operator results in a half-
adder.

Fig 3-53 : the circuit of HA
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After connection the circuit as figure below :


3-4-8 Full-adder :
50- After press continue , we can showing full -adder as figure below. If two multi-digit
binary values need to be added, the half-adder can only be used for the least significant
digit. A full-adder needs to be used for the other digits, as they are dependent on three
input values: A,B and the carryover C.

Fig 3-55 : full-adder
S0 S1 C(carry) S(sum)
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
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51- After press continue , we can showing circuit diagram of full-adder as figure below.

Fig 3-56 : the circuit of FA

After connection the circuit as figure below :


A B C C(carry) S(sum)
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
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Chapter 4 : Digital Technology II

4-1 Introduction To Digital Technology II

Fig 4-1 : Digital Technology 1
Digital Technology II is anther kind of many kinds of the COM3LAB experiment board ,
by this experiment board , we will be able to knew different applications of flip-flops,
e.g. shift registers , parallel-serial converters and serial data transmission.

4-2 More Detail About Digital Technology 1 :
Digital Technology II contains many type of Modules such as Logic gates : ( 2 x AND,
2x NOR, 4 x NAND, 2 x inverters ) and 1 x Schmitt trigger and 7-segment display with
BCD inputs and 4 x JK flip-flops and Universal shift register and 4 input switches and
2 pushbuttons and 4 LEDs

4-3 Starting The Procedure To Deal with Digital Technology II:

As previously
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1. Slot in the Digital Technology II experiment board to the master unit. Make
sure you slot it firmly to avoid connection error.
2. Connect the serial cable to PC
4. Turn on PC .
5. Click COM3LAB and then DT II.
6. Key in your name and continue.
7. After press continue , the first interface will be open as figure below. It
contains massage (welcome to com3lab).
4-3-1 D FlipFlop :

Fig 4-2 : D FlipFlop

- Functions of D FlipFlop :

Fig 4-3 : Functions of D FlipFlop
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The d flipflop has a data input D. This input determines the state of the flipflop. A D
fkipflop is designed like an RS flipflop, except that the SET input S is replaced by a data
input D. This input is connected internally via an inverter with the RESET input R.
This prevents the occurrence of an irregular state when S=R=1, which would result in an
indefinite output state.

Table 4-1 : Functions of D FlipFlop
A D flipflop only has two functions :
D= 1: SET
D= 0: RESET

- Timing diagram of D FlipFlop :

Fig 4-4 : Timing diagram of D FlipFlop
A D flipflop has two stable states which can be controlled with the clock signal. As long as the
clock signal is 1, the flipflop remains transparent, i.e. the output signal follows the input signal.
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When the clock signal assumes a value of 0, the present state of the data line is stored regardless
of any further changes to D.
- Experiment

A D flipflop with a clocked input is configured using 4 NAND gates and an inverter. Connect the
individual components as shown in the circuit diagram and try out all the various switching
combinations shown in the table. Observe the response of the circuit outputs to the level at clock
input C. All the inputs of the TTL components are set to 1 by means of internal pull-up resistors.

Fig 4-6 : The circuit after connection

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4-3-2 RS FlipFlop :

Fig 4-7 : RS FlipFlop
An SR flipflop is to be configured using two NOR gates. The various possible switching
combinations are to be ascertained with the help of switches and LEDs.

- EXPERIMENT :
To connect the circuit as showing .

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Table 4-2 : Functions of RS FlipFlop
4-3-3 JK flipflop :

Fig 4-10 : JK FlipFlop
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Most JK flipflops have three inputs designated J,K and C. The J input corresponds to the
S input to the S input of the RS flipflop. Again, C is the clock input. In some cases, a
fourth input R is included as a RESET input which has priority over all other inputs.
- Function OF JK flipflop :
The JK flipflop is a clocked RS flipflop with pre-connected ANS gates. The JK flipflop
cannot assume an irregular state like the one resulting when R=S=1. Setting J=K=1 in a
state termed CHANGEOVER. A JK flipflop is thus very suitable for dividing the clock
signal by 2. This results in an output signal of half the clock frequency.

Fig 4-11 : Function OF JK flipflop
- Edge triggering :

Fig 4-12 : Edge triggering
The JK flipflop is controlled by pulse edges. Inputs J and K are enabled with one of the
two edges of the clock pulse, i.e. with the negative or positive edge. Pulse-edge control is
indicated by a corresponding dynamic input in the logic symbol. If an inverter is
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connected upstream from the clock input, then active positive edges are converted into
negative edges.
- pulse diagram :

Fig 4-13 : pulse diagram
the pulse diagram indicates the essential difference to other flipflops. The output is set
and reset by input signals only when the clock signal has a negative edge. The diagram
also shows that the output is set when the C and J inputs are 1, and reset when the C and
K inputs are 1. The right half of the diagram displays the JK flipflop as a frequency
divider.
- Experiment :
To connect the circuit as showing .

44

Fig 4-15 : JK FlipFlop

Table 4-3 : Functions of JK FlipFlop
4-3-4 Shift register :

Fig 4-16 : Shift register

45

A shift register consists of flipflops which are connect in series such that on the arrival of
each clock pulse, every stage assumes the state which its predecessor had prior to that
pulse. In other words, the clock pulse shifts the data in a shift register forward by one
position. Shift registers only operate synchronously.
As figure below , the operating principle of a shift register is shown in the adjacent
diagram. On the first pulse , the D1 signal present at the input is read into the first
flipflop, while a new signal D2 is read into the first flipflop. This procedure is continued
across all the remaining flipflop stages.

Fig 4-17 : Shift register

That means :
Q
0
(t+1) = SI
Q
1
(t+1) = Q
0
(t)
Q
2
(t+1) = Q
1
(t)
Q
3
(t+1) = Q
2
(t)

The results as example :

# SI is an input that supplies a new bit to shift $into% the register.
# For example, if on some positive clock edge we have:
SI = 1
Q
0
-Q
3
= 0110
then the next state will be:
Q
0
-Q
3
= 1011
# The current Q
3
(0 in this example) will be lost on the next cycle.
46

Fig 4-18 : pulse diagram Shift register

The pulse diagram shows how a pulse at input J of a JK flipflop is transmitted to
the next flipflop as a function of the clock signal.

Now as figure below , we showing EXPERIMENT , a four-stage shift register is
to be configured from the JK flipflops provided, The function generator supplies
the square-wave signal for the clock input, while button S4 is used to generate the
pulse to be transmitted. LEDs H0 to H3 indicate the current position of the pulse.

Fig 4-19 : EXPERIMENT


47


The results as example :

# SI is an input that supplies a new bit to shift $into% the register.
# For example, if on some positive clock edge we have:

SI = 1
Q
0
-Q
3
= 0110

then the next state will be:

Q
0
-Q
3
= 1011

# The current Q
3
(0 in this example) will be lost on the next cycle.

4-3-5 Parallel-serial converter :

Fig 4-21 : Parallel-serial converter

48

A Parallel-serial converter is a shift register whose flipflops can be set similar to a
D flipflop. It receives occurring in parallel and outputs these signals
consecutively. For this reason, it is used for the serial transmission of data.

- OPERATION

Fig 4-22 : OPERATION
The ENABLE input is a special of a Parallel-serial converter with flipflops . This input
decides whether new signals present at the data input should be accepted or whether the
existing signals should be shifted further down the line.
If the ENABLE input is HIGH, the signals present at the data inputs are accepted. If the
ENABLE input is LOW, the data input are disabled and the existing contents of the
flipflops are synchronously with the clock signal.
- EXERCISE :

Fig 4-23 : exercise
49

Exercise to connect the circuit as showing .

- The result :
o cycle 1 : load D , output D
0

o cycle i : output D
i

D0 D1 D2 D3 0 1 0 1
cycle 1 : load 0 , output 0

4-3-6 Counter :

Fig 4-25 : Counter

50

In the case of a frequency divider, only the clock input of the first flipflop and the
Q output of the last flipflop are evaluated. In contrast. Every signal flipflop stage
of a counter circuit is evaluated, the nth stage begin assigned the corresponding
binary position:
Qn=2

- Asynchronous counter :

Fig 4-26 : Asynchronous counter
To set the number 0 to 9 on 7-segment display using an asynchronous forward counter,
the outputs of the four flipflops are connected with an evaluation logic circuit.
- Experiment with a BCD counter :

Fig 4-27 : Experiment with a BCD counter
n
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The counter setting allows the counter to be reset at any given value. In this case, the
counter is to enumerate up to a value of 9 and then be reset to 0. For this purpose, outputs
Q2 and Q4 (corresponding to decimal values of 2 and 8) are combined with an AND
gate. When both inputs of the AND gate are 1 , the RESET inputs of all flipflops are set
to 0. This resets all the flipflops.

The results :
BCD inputs segment outputs display
D C B A a b c d e f g
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1

0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1

0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1

0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1

0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1

Table 4-4 : The results

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Chapter 5 : Introduction To Electronic Circuit Theory
5-1 Ohm's Law :
Ohms Law states that the current I through a piece of conductor depends linearly on the
potential difference V between the two ends of the conductor- For objects that obey
Ohms Law we may define a constant quantity - electrical resistance R - which is simply
the ratio of the potential difference and the current :

We measure resistance in units of :

For elements that don!t obey Ohms Law the resistance is not a constant quantity, thus it
does not play a useful rule. Elements which obey Ohms Law are called resistors, What
happens if we combine two such resistors together in series?

Fig 5-1 : Ohms Law

The current through them has to be the same, even if the resistors are different, because
the current cannot be lost along its path. The total voltage drop across the two resistors
will be the sum of the voltage drops across each of them :

From 1 :

Therefore, we have the series rule for the effective resistance Reff :

which can be easily generalized to an arbitrary number of resistors

This rule simply says that n resistors connected in series are equivalent to a single resistor
53

with the resistance Reff .
If we connect resistors in parallel with the battery,

Fig 5-2 : Ohms Law

then the voltage drop across them will be the same_ and equal to the voltage of the
battery,
while the total current will be the sum of the two currents _owing through each of them:

Therefore, we have the parallel rule:

5-2 Kirchoff's Laws:
Two of the most widely used laws in circuit analysis are Kirchhoff's laws :

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)
The sum of all voltages around a closed loop is zero.

Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)
The sum of all currents for any node is zero.

In both KVL and KCL, it is important to attach an appropriate algebraic sign to each
voltage or current that reflects its direction with respect to the reference direction. The
concepts of voltage and current division are derived from KVL and KCL, respectively.
They are convenient tools in analyzing electronic circuits.

54

Fig 5-3 : KVL

Fig 5-4 : KCL

55

5-3 Node Analysis :
Node Voltage Method
To apply the node voltage method to a circuit with n nodes (with m voltage sources),
perform the following steps .
1. Selective a reference node (usually ground).
2. Name the remaining n-1 nodes and label a current through each passive element
and each current source.
3. Apply Kirchoff's current law to each node not connected to a voltage source.
4. Solve the system of n-1-m unknown voltages.

Example 1
Consider the circuit shown below

Fig 5-5 : Example 1

Steps 1 and 2 have already been applied. To apply step 3:
56

In this case there is only one unknown, v
b
. Plugging in numbers and solving the circuit
we get

5-4 Mesh Analysis :
Loop Current Method
The loop current (or mesh current) method is, not surprisingly, similar to the node voltage
method.
To apply the loop current method to a circuit with n loops (and with m current sources),
perform the following steps.
1. Define each loop current. This is easiest with a consistent method, e.g. all
unknown currents are clockwise, all know currents follow direction on current
source.
2. Apply Kirchoff's voltage law to each loop not containing a current source.
3. Solve the system of n-m unknown voltages.

Example 2
Consider the circuit from Example 1, with mesh currents defined.
57

Fig 5-6 : Example 2

We can apply KVL to both loops

Since there are two equations and two unknowns we can solve by substitution or by
matrix methods. To solve by matrix methods we rewrite the equations

Solving for the two unknown currents we get

58

5-5 Superposition :

Fig 5-7 : Superposition

Superposition of voltage sources:

where ( short circuit) and ( short circuit).
However, note that superposition principle does not apply to power:

Superposition of current sources:

where ( open circuit) and ( open circuit). Again,
superposition principle does not apply to power:

59

5-6 Thevenin and Norton Circuits :

Fig 5-8 : Thevenin and Norton Circuits

A Thevenin circuit has a voltage source in series with a resistance, while a Norton circuit
has a current source in parallel with a resistance. The key point is that both circuits will
deliver the same voltage and current to the connected nodes. We can switch between
Thevenin and Norton via a simple conversion. When converting from a Thevenin circuit
to a Norton circuit, the resistor value stays constant.

The voltage source and current source are found with Ohm!s Law, V=IR and I = V/R.

60

Chapter 6 : Electronic Components I

6-1 Introduction To Electronic Components I

Fig 6-1 : Electronic Components I
Electronic Components I is anther kind of many kinds of the COM3LAB experiment board , by
this experiment board , we will be able to knew The most important diode types are introduced
and their conducting-state and non-conducting blocking-state voltage-current characteristics are
recorded and evaluated using a dual channel storage oscilloscope. The npn and pnp transistors
are also investigated in terms of their functions, circuitry and characteristics.

6-2 More Detail About Electronic Components I :
Digital Technology II contains many type of Modules such as :
Diode characteristics
Characteristic of a Zener diode
Characteristic of an LED Diode
Junctions in a transistor
Input characteristic of the transistor
Output characteristics of the transistor
Control characteristic of the transistor
Characteristic of a phototransistor
Transistor in a common emitter circuit
Transistor in a common collector circuit
61

Transistor in a common base circuit etc

6-3 Starting The Procedure To Deal with Electronic Components I :

As previously
1. Slot in the Electronic Components I experiment board to the master unit. Make sure
you slot it firmly to avoid connection error.
4. Turn on PC .
5. Click COM3LAB and then Electronic Components I.
7. After press continue , the first interface will be open as figure below. It contains
massage (welcome to com3lab).
6-4 The Diodes :

Fig 6-2 : The symbol for a diode

The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor material. The
lead connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the lead connected to the n-type
material is the cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode is marked by a solid line on the diode.
Diodes are different and useful electrical components. Diodes are used in many applications like
the following.
Converting AC power from the 60Hz line into DC power for radios, televisions,
telephone answering machines, computers, and many other electronic devices.
Converting radio frequency signals into audible signals in radios.
62

Given a circuit with a diode,
o Be able to use a simplified model of a diode to predict when current flows
through the diode, and when it does not.
o Be able to use information about current flowing to predict other behavior in a
circuit.
- Diode Properties
Diodes have the following characteristics.
Diodes are two terminal devices like resistors and capacitors. They don't have many
terminals like transistors or integrated circuits.
In diodes current is directly related to voltage, like in a resistor. They're not like
capacitors where current is related to the time derivative of voltage or inductors where
the derivative of current is related to voltage.
In diodes the current is not linearly related to voltage, like in a resistor.
Diodes only consume power. They don't produce power like a battery. They are said to
be passive devices.
Diodes are nonlinear, two terminal, passive electrical devices.
In general, diodes tend to permit current flow in one direction, but tend to inhibit current
flow in the opposite direction. The graph below shows how current can depend upon voltage for
a diode.

Fig 6-3: Diode Properties
Note the following.
When the voltage across the diode is positive, a lot of current can flow once the voltage
becomes large enough.
When the voltage across the diode is negative, virtually no current flows.
63

The circuit symbol for a diode is designed to remind you that current flows easily through a
diode in one direction. The circuit symbol for a diode is shown below together with common
conventions for current through the diode and voltage across the diode.

Fig 6-4: The symbol for a diode
The primary function of the diode is the rectification. When it is forward biased (the higher
potential is connected to the anode lead), it will pass current. When it is reverse biased (the
higher potential is connected to the cathode lead), the current is blocked. The characteristic
curves of an ideal diode and a real diode are seen in Figure 6-5.

Fig 6-4: Diode Properties

Figure 6-5 Equivalent Circuit of Diode
64

When analyzing circuits, the real diode is usually replaced with a simpler model. The simplest
form , the diode is modeled by a switch (Figure 6-5 ). The switch is closed when the diode is
forward biased and open when the diode is reverse biased.

- Using of Diodes
Now, let's examine a simple diode circuit. Remember what we know about ideal diodes.
We will assume that the diode is ideal for the sake of argument.
When the diode is ON, it has no voltage across it so it acts like a short circuit!
When the diode is OFF, current is zero, so it acts like an open circuit!
Now, let's look at a simple diode circuit.

Figure 6-6 :Using of Diodes
It's just a diode and a resistor operating on an input voltage. We would like to determine how the
output voltage depends upon the input voltage. We know something about the circuit.
When the diode is ON, the voltage across it is zero because it acts like a short circuit.
When the diode is OFF, the current through it is zero because it acts like an open circuit.
We have one or the other of these two situations. It can't be both ways, and it has to be
one or the other. That gives us a strategy that will let use figure out what happens in
circuits with diodes.
We can start to figure out what happens in this circuit by examining what happens in the
circuit in the two situations.
We can assume that the diode is ON and check whether that assumption is consistent
with what else we know - KCL, KVL and the diode.
We can assume that the diode is OFF and check whether that assumption is consistent
with what else we know - KCL, KVL and the diode.
We are using the method of contradiction to solve this problem. Click here for a short
note on the method of contradiction.
65

Let's assume that the diode is ON. If the diode is ON, then, we can consider it so be a short
circuit. Here is the circuit with the diode and symbols for the diode voltage and current.

We've replaced the diode with a short circuit below.

Since it's now a short circuit, Vd has to be zero. Let's think this through.
The diode is ON and the voltage across it is zero.
The current through the diode, Id, must be postive. It can't be negative. Current through
a diode can never be negative.
The current through the diode, Id, is V
in
/R, (use Ohm's Law) so you cannot have a
negative input voltage.
That means that our assumption that the diode is ON has to be false for negative input
voltages.
o The diode is ON for V
in
> 0.
o The diode is OFF for V
in
< 0.
Let's assume the diode is OFF. Then, the diode can be replaced by an open circuit. Here's
the equivalent circuit.
66

The diode is OFF and the current through it is zero.
The voltage across the diode, V
d
, must be negative. It can't be positive.
The voltage across the diode, V
d
, is just V
in
, (use KVL) so you cannot have a positive
input voltage.
A positive input voltage is inconsistent with the assumption the diode is OFF.
o The diode is OFF for V
in
< 0.
o The diode is ON for V
in
> 0.
6-4-1 Experiment 1 - Diode Characteristics :

Figure 6-10 : The diode characteristic

The diode characteristic indicates the dependence of the current flowing through the diode on the
voltage applied across it.
Two types of characteristic are considered here:
67

- Forward characteristic
- Reverse characteristic
The characteristic of a various diodes are measures in the following .

Figure 6-11 : The diode characteristic

1- Set a direct voltage of 10 V on the function generator.

Figure 6-12 : step 2
2- Connect multimeter 2 in series with the diode and set it the direct current
measurement.

68

3- Connect multimeter 1 in parallel with the diode and set it the direct voltage
measurement.

4- Press next page.

Where the diode characteristic is obtained by plotting the measured current values as a function
of the voltage across the diode.
69

5- Increase the output voltage of the function generator in steps from 0 V to
10V.

6- After increasing the output voltage we measured the forward characteristic ,
now reset the output voltage of th function generator to 0 V.

7- decrease the output voltage of the function generator in steps from 0 V to
-10V.
70

8- we are showing the reverse characteristic. Now press next page.

9- To obtain the diode characteristic using an oscilloscope, close the electrical
circuit by in inserting a bridge between the voltage source and the
corresponding diode.

10- Connect channel Y1 of the oscilloscope in parallel with the diode.
71

11- Connect channel Y2 of the oscilloscope in parallel with the current sensing
resistor R1.

Figure 6-22: step 12
12- Set the function generator to output a triangular signal with vpp= 20 V and
f= 50 Hz.

72

13- Open the oscilloscope screen and control panel.


14- Set the oscilloscope with a specific value in the screen.


15- Set the function generator to output a triangular signal with vpp= 20 V and
f= 50 Hz.
73

16- Summary of The diode characteristic.
We Note the following :
When the voltage across the diode is positive, a lot of current can flow once the
voltage becomes large enough.
When the voltage across the diode is negative, virtually no current flows.

- Germanium diode :

17- We are measuring the characteristic of a germanium diode. Close the electrical
circuit by inserting a bridge between the voltage source and the corresponding
diode.
resistor R1.

74



Figure 6-29 : the summary
- We Note the following :
in the case of a silicon diode, the current rises sharply when the threshold voltage is
attained. And in the case of a germanium diode, the current starts rising more slowly at an
earlier stage.

75


22- We are measuring the characteristic of a schottky diode. Close the electrical
circuit by inserting a bridge between the voltage source and the corresponding
diode.
resistor R1.



76


27- Press next page.

- We Note the following :
like a silicon diode, the schottky diode also exhibits a sharp rise in the current, although the
threshold voltage is lower. For this reason, the schottky diode generates a lower power loss
in the forward state.

77

6-4-2 Experiment 2 Characteristics of zener diode :
- I ntroduction :

Figure 6-34 : z diode

The zener diode uses a p-n junction in reverse bias to make use of the zener effect,
which is a breakdown phenomenon which holds the voltage close to a constant value
called the zener voltage. It is useful in zener regulators to provide a more constant
voltage, for improvement of regulated power supplies, and for limiter applications.

- Procedure :


1- Press next page.

78

3- Connect channel Y2 of the oscilloscope in parallel with the current sensing resistor
R1.

4- Open the oscilloscope screen and control panel and Set the oscilloscope with a
specific value in the screen.

79

5- Now , from the diagram read the breakdown voltage of zener diode, and enter the
value in the filed.

6- the breakdown voltage = 5 voltage.

Figure 6-41 : The summary

- We note the following :

In the forward state, a Z diode responds like a standard silicon diode. In the reverse
state, i.e. the negative voltage range, the Z diode exhibits a voltage threshold at which
the current tarts rising again. This threshold is termed voltage breakdown point.

80

6-4-3 Experiment 3 Characteristics of LED ( Light Emitting Diodes ) :

- I ntroduction :

Figure 6-42 : The LED symbol

The circuit symbol for an LED (Light Emitting Diodes) is pretty much the same as for a
regular diode - since it is, in fact, a diode. In many ways, you can treat an LED as though it
is a diode, but you do need to remember one way that it differs from a typical silicon diode.
In a typical silicon diode, the forward voltage drop will be about .6 or .7 volts. In
other words, when current is flowing forward through the diode, there will be .6 or
.7 volts across the diode.

In an LED the forward drop is more like 1.7 or 1.8 volts. The drop may also depend
upon the color of the LED, but this value is typical for a red LED.

The circuit symbol for an LED looks much like the symbol for a regular diode.
There's usually an additional little arrow to indicate the light that comes from the diode.
Here's the symbol.

- Using Light Emitting Diodes
LEDs have many uses.
Specialized LEDs can be used in various kinds of displays.
You can use LEDs as indicators with logic circuits.

81

- Procedure :

1- press next.

2- insert a bridge between the voltage source and the red LED

82


4- Connect channel Y2 of the oscilloscope in parallel with the current-sensing
resistor R1.


The characteristic of both LEDs is to be recorded. The measurement procedure is to be
performed twice. Once you have finished performing the first measurement for the red
LED and repeat the measurement procedure.


83


6- Connect the green LED with the multiplier.


7- Press the continue button to proceed to the next page.

84

The characteristic of the LED is similar to that of a silicon diode, although its threshold
voltage is notably higher. The threshold voltage of an LED is termed gate voltage. This
voltage depends on the energy of the emitted light.
8- press next.

9- Answer the question.

10- Summary of The z diode.
85

The threshold voltage of an led is also termed gate voltage. It is higher than the
threshold voltage of a silicon diode. Light is mitted on attainment of this threshold. The
value of the gate voltage depends on the colour of the light.

6-5 The Transistor :
- I ntroduction :

A transistor is a device with three separate layers of semiconductor material stacked
together, the layers are made of n!type or p!type material in the order pnp or npn,
the layers change abruptly to form the pn or np junctions, a terminal is attached to
each layer.
# A transistor operates (or turns on) when:

Figure 6-53 : Biasing the PN junctions in an NPN transistor.
- The base!emitter junction is forward biased and, the base!collector junction is
reversed biased ("biasing#).

86

Figure 6-54 : NPN and PNP

- Two PN junctions joined together
- Two types available ! NPN and PNP
- The regions (from top to bottom) are called the collector (C), the base (B), and the
emitter (E)

- Current Flow I nside a Transistor :

Figure 6-55 : Current flow for an npn transistor
Current flow for an npn transistor (reverse for pnp):
From conservation of current (I
E
=I
B
+I
C
) we can obtain the following
expressions relating the currents:
(and thus I
C
$ I
E
)
where % $ 20 ! 200 (depends on emitter current)
- % increases as I
E
increases (for very small I
E
) since there is less chance that
recombination will occur in the base
- % decreases slightly (10!20%) as I
E
increases beyond several mA due to increased
base conductivity resulting from larger number of charge carriers in the base
- Thus % is not a constant for a given transistor.
- An average value of 100 is typically used.
B C
I I = ( )
B E
I I 1 + =
87

- 6-5-1 Experiment 1 input Characteristics of a transistor :

-I ntroduction :
The input characteristic of a transistor indicates the ratio between the base- emitter
current and the base-emitter voltage.

-The Procedure :

1- press next.

The first measurement is performed with an open collector, i.e. no voltage is applied to the
collector. Consequently, only the current flow from the base to the emitter is investigated.
88

Note that the base-emitter diode of the npn transistor is in the forward state when the base
voltage is positive.
2- Turn the potentiometer to its right limit.

3- Set multimeter 1 to direct-voltage measurement and connect it between the
base and the potentiometer tap.

base and the emitter.

89


5- Tum the potentiometer slowly from one limit to the other and observe the
plotter.


plotter.

90

The second measurement is performed with an closed collector, i.e. a potential is applied to
the collector. Check whether the collector-emitter voltage influences the input
characteristic.

7- Turn the potentiometer to its right limit.

8- Connect the collector with the voltage source.
91

plotter.

10- Press next.

I nput resistance
Input resistance can be divided into two different categories:
- static input resistance.
- differential input resistance.

92

11- Calculate the dynamic input resistance at the specified points and enter the
results in the table.
Dynamic resistanceis calculated from the solid-state equation for p-n junctions as:

where i is the diode current. For the given operating point (i = 1 mA), r
d
is 26 W for small
changes around the operating point. This diode dynamic resistance is much smaller than
the static resistance. Then :
rd= 26 mV / 0.05 mA = 520 &

11- Press the Continue button
93

Evaluation
The input characteristics with an open and closed collector do not differ from each other
considerably, if at all. The scaling is dependent on the value of the resistor at the emitter
terminal.
The input characteristic strongly resembles the diode characteristic. This can be explained
by the fact that the base-emitter branch consists of a diode.

12- press next.

94

The input characteristic of a transistor indicates the ratio between the base-emitter
current and base-emitter voltage. The input characteristic with an open and closed
collector are identical. The differential input resistance is of importance in practice :

- 6-5-2 Experiment 2 output Characteristics of a transistor :

-I ntroduction :

The output Characteristics indicates the dependence of the collector current on the
collector-emitter voltage. The base current influences the Characteristics. For this
reason, a separate Characteristics is obtained for each base current. A family of
these Characteristics in a diagram is termed output Characteristics family.

95

-The Procedure :

12- Press continue.

13- Connect channel Y1 of the oscilloscope in parallel with the collector-emitter
of the transistor.

resistor R1.
96

15- Set the function generator to output a triangular signal with vpp= 10 V,
Ofset = 5 V and f= 50 Hz.


97

18- The base current is now 100 A. Now clicking on next page to increases the
base current.

19- The base current is now 150 A. Now clicking on next page to increases the
base current.

20- The base current is now 200 A.
98

21- The measurement is repeated at various base currents. In each case, the base
current is indicated on the experiment panel.


22- Output resistance, the differential output resistance the ratio between the
changes in the collector voltage and current:

and are determined by means of a tangent applied to the output
characteristic corresponding to the operating point.

99

23- Now, calculate the output resistance at the specified point. And transfer the
result to the filed.

= 3 ! 1.35 = 1.65 V
= 18.9 - 17.5 = 1.4 mA
ra = 1.65 V / 0.0014 mA = 1123 &

24- After calculation.

- 6-5-3 Experiment 3 Control Characteristics of a transistor :
100

-I ntroduction :

The control Characteristics indicates the ratio between the base current and the
collector current.

-The Procedure :



26- Turn the potentiometer to its right limits.

101


base and the potentiometer tap.


28- Set multimeter 2 to direct-current measurement and connect it between the
base and the collector and the voltage source.

Where :

- multimeter 1 used to indirectly measure the base current.
- multimeter 2 used to measure the collecter current.

102


29- Turn the potentiometer slowly from one limit to the other and observe the
plotter.


30- The ratio between the collector current and the base current is nearly
constant. This ratio is also termed static current gain. The dynamic current
gain indicates the ratio between the change in the collector current and the
change in base current. The difference between the static and dynamic
current gain factors is very small.
103

31- Calculate the dynamic current gain and enter the result in the field.

The dynamic current gain % = IC / IB = 5.2 mA / 0.052 mA = 100

32- After Calculation.

104


34- Summary of Characteristics of a transistor

The control characteristic indicates the ratio between the base current and the collector
current. The collector-emitter voltage remains constant here. This ratio is termed gain.
The gain is of importance in practice :
B = Ic /Ib.

- 6-5-4 Experiment 4 Operating point of a transistor :

-I ntroduction :
A transistor intended for use in a signal amplification circuit needs to be biased.
This prevents the AC signal from lowering the base-emitter voltage beyond the gate
threshold. The amplified signal is decoupled from the amplifier in order to offset the
AC component required for biasing.

105

-The Procedure :

1- Press continuo.

2- Configure the circuit as showing in the circuit diagram.

3- Turn the potentiometer to its right limits.
106

4- Turn the potentiometer slowly from one limit to the other and observe
the plotter.

5- Changing R2 also changes IcE and VcE , thus shifting the operating
point. The operating point moves along a slope representing resistors
R3 and R4 in the output Characteristics quadrant.

107

6- Press next.

- We note that :
At the operating point, the alternating current is prevented from the lowering the base-
emitter voltage beyond the forward threshold. The operating point is located on the slope
of the collector and/or emitter resistance in the output Characteristic quadrant.

Figure 6-100 : Operating point

6-5-5 Experiment 5 Characteristic of a phototransistor:
-I ntroduction :
A phototransistor is a special type of transistor equipped with a photosensitive element
instead of a base. Phototransistor have many different applications. A brief overview of
these applications is provided in the adjacent window below.
-The Procedure :

108

1- press next.
- Measurement configuration and procedure :
The dynamic measurement technique is used to determine the current through the
phototransistor and the voltage drop across it. Ensure that no direct light impinges on the
phototransistor. If necessary, perform the measurement in a dark room. Repeat the
measurement at different degrees of luminance.

3- Connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope in parallel with the collector-emitter branch of
the transistor.

109

4- Connect channel 2 of the oscilloscope in parallel with current-sensing resistor R1

5- Open the oscilloscope screen and control panel


7- The luminance is now approx. 7.8w/m2.
110

8- The luminance is now approx. 16.9w/m2.

9- The luminance is now approx. 25w/m2.

10- The luminance is now approx. 33w/m2.
111


- Evaluation
The characteristic family of the phototransistor resembles that of the transistor. In fact, the
characteristics of these two components are identical, except that in the case of the
phototransistor, the base current is replaced by the impinging light. The luminance is the
decisive factor here.

112



The characteristic of phototransistor is similar to the output characteristic family of a
transistor.

6-5-6 Experiment 6 Transistor in a common emitter circuit :

- I ntroduction :

Basic transistor circuits can be divided into three different Categories :

- Emitter amplifier
- Base amplifier
- Collector amplifier

113

These basic circuits differ in terms of the transistor terminal which is grounded with
respect to the AC signal. In the case of the emitter amplifier, the emitter is
grounded.

-The Procedure :

1- Press next page.


The collector-emitter voltage is tapped directly at the corresponding transistor
terminals. The voltage is set to +7.5 V with potentiometer R2. The potentiometer
setting must NOT be altered during the following experiments.

2- Configure the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
114


3- Change the setting of potentiometer R2 until the multimeter indicates 7.5 V.
after that, the potentiometer setting must no longer be changed.

The alternating voltage is coupled via C1 and decoupled via C2. The input voltage is
measured before C1, the output voltage is measured after C2.

5- Set the function generator to output a sinusoidal signal with Vpp= 2.5 V and
f = 1 kHz.
115

6- Calculate the voltage gain from the measured input and output voltage.

The calculation :
V out = 2.14 V
V in = 0.879 V
Vu = 2.14 / 0.879 = 2.14 ( as showing below )

7- After calculation.

- Phase shift and Ac power dissipation :

The input ad output voltages are displayed on the oscilloscope. The output voltage is
phase-displaced by 180' with respect to the input voltage. As a result, the AC power
dissipation is negative and reduce the DC power dissipation.
116


8- Disconnect the multimeter and connect the oscilloscope as shown in
the circuit diagram.

9- Open the oscilloscope and the control panel.


10- Set the oscilloscope with the specific value.
117

11- The summary.

- We note that :
The output voltage is phase-displaced by 180' with respect to the input voltage.
- Negative AC feedback
The gain is determined for various emitter capacitors. The higher the value of the
capacitor, the higher the gain and the smaller the influence on the negative current
feedback because the alternating current is able to flow off via the capacitor.

12- Set the multimeter to alternating-voltage measurement.

13- Set the function generator to output a sinusoidal signal with Vpp= 0.1
and f = 1 kHz

118

14- Assemble the circuit as shown in the diagram and determine the
voltage gain.

- The calculation :
Vu = V out / V in = 0.06 / 0.03 = 2


15- Now, insert a bridge between R4 and C3, and determine the voltage
gain.

- The calculation :
Vu = V out / V in = 0.199 / 0.03 = 0.2
119


16- Connect C4insted of C3. Determine the voltage gain and enter the
result in the table.

- The calculation :
Vu = V out / V in = 1.29 / 0.03 = 1.29

120

18- The summary.


19- Configure the circuit as showing in the circuit diagram.
20- Open the oscilloscope screen and the control panel.

121

21- Set the oscilloscope with specific value.

22- Vary the output frequency of the function generator from 1 kHz to 20
kHz and observe the plotter in the process.

- The observation :
The low-frequency response here is predominantly linear.
6-5-7 Experiment 7 Transistor in a common base circuit :

-The Procedure :
In the case of the base amplifier, the base is grounded with respect to the alternating
current.

1-Press the continue button to proceed onward.
122

2-Answer the question.

3-Configure the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
4-Set multimeter 1 to direct current voltage measurements and Change the setting of
potentiometer R2 until the multimeter indicates 7.5V. After that, the potentiometer setting
no longer be changed.
Voltage gain
The alternating voltage is coupled via C3 and decoupled via C2.
The input voltage is measured before C3, the output voltage is measured after C2.

123

6- Set the function generator to output a sinusoidal signal with Vpp =0.1V and f =1 kHz.Set
the multimeters to alternating-voltage measurement.
7- Calculate the voltage gain from the measured input and output voltages.

MM2 = 4.21 V
MM1= 0.03 V
V out / V in = 4.21 / 0.03 = 140.33
124

9-Modify the circuit as shown in the diagram.
- The input current is measured before C3. The output current corresponds to the
collector current. This current is determined using R3 as a current-sensing resistor.
The AC resistance of C2 is negligibly low with respect to R3.

As P = U * I , the power amplification is calculated as follows:

10- Set multimeter 1 to alternating-voltage measurement and multimeter 2 to alternating-
current measurement.
11-Calculate the current gain from the measured input and output

Figure 6-139 : mm1 & mm2
125

Figure 6-140 : the calculation
Mm1 = 3.84V / 300 & = 0.0128 A
Mm2 = 14.7mA = 0 .0147 A
Vi = 0.8707 V

- We note that :
A base amplifier has a current gain of less than 1.

- Phase shift and AC power dissipation
The input and output voltages are displayed on the oscilloscope. There is no phase
displacement in this case. As a result, the Ac power dissipation. Even at high signal
frequencies, there is no evidence of any distortion or change in the phase position or gain.

126

12-Disconnect the multimeter and connect the oscilloscope as shown in the circuit diagram.
13-Open the oscilloscope screen and control panel.



- We note that :
The phase shift between the input and the output is 0'.

127

- I nput and output resistances

The input resistance is calculated as follows:

The output resistance is calculated as follows:

The output current is measured using R3 as a current-sensing resistor.
15-Set the function generator to output a sinusoidal signal with Vpp = 0.1V and f = 1kHz

128

17-Using Ohms law. Calculate the input resistance from the measured current and voltage
values.

19-Set the multimeters to alternating-voltage measurement.

20-Using Ohms law. Calculate the output resistance from the measured current and
voltage values.
129

I out = 3.49 V / 300 & = 0.0116A
Vout = 3.7 V
R out = 3.7 / 0.0116 = 318.9655 &
- We note that :

Due to the low input resistance, the coupling capacitor needs to have a very large
value. The feedback from the output to the input is very small, as the base connected
between them acts as a ground reference. This results in a very favorable high-
frequency response.

Figure 6-148 : Evaluation

130

Evaluation
The voltage gain of the base amplifier is less than 1. Phase shift between input and (output is
0 Due to the low input resistance, the coupling capacitor needs to have a very high value.
The feedback from the output to the input is minimal, as the base located between them
acts as a ground reference. This results in very a good high-frequency response.


6-5-8 Experiment 8 Transistor in a common collector circuit :

-The Procedure :
In the case of the collector amplifier, the collector is grounded with respect to the
alternating current, because the DC source constitutes a direct link in terms of the
alternating current.

131

1-Press the continue button to proceed onward.



- Setting the operating point
The collector-emitter voltage cannot be tapped directly here, so it needs to be determined
indirectly. As a voltage of +15V must be present across the collector, +7.5V must be applied
to the emitter in order to obtain a collector-emitter voltage of 7.5V. The operating point is
set with the potentiometer and must NOT be altered during the following experiments.

4-Set multimeter 1 to direct current voltage measurements.
132

5-Change the setting of potentiometer R2 until the multimeter indicates 7.5V. After that,
the potentiometer setting no longer be changed.

- Voltage gain
The alternating voltage is coupled via C1 and decoupled via C2.The input voltage is
measured before C1, the output voltage is measured after C2.

7-Set the function generator to output a sinusoidal signal with Vpp =10Vand f =1 kHz.

133

8-Now, Calculate the voltage gain from the measured input and output voltages.


- The calculation :
V u = V out / V in

V out = 3.44 V
V in = 3.51 V

Vu = 3.44 / 3.51 = 0.95

- We Note that :
A collector amplifier has a voltage gain of less than 1.

9-Press next

134

- Current gain :
The input current is measured before C1. The output current corresponds to the emitter
current. This current is determined using R3 as a current-sensing resistor. The AC
resistance of C2 is negligibly low with respect to R3.

As P = U * I , the power amplification is calculated as follows:

11-Calculate the current gain from the measured input and output currents.
- The calculation :
Mm1 = 3.44V
mm2 = 2mA
I out = 3.44 V/ 470 & = 0.00729 A
I in = 0.002A
Vi = 3.648V.
135



- Phase shift and AC power dissipation
The input and output voltages are displayed on the oscilloscope. There is no phase
displacement in this case. As a result, the Ac power dissipation is added to the DC power
dissipation.

12-Disconnect the multimeter and connect the oscilloscope as shown in the circuit diagram.

136

13-Set the oscilloscope to DUAL operation and adjust the parameters to obtain a clear
picture of your results. The best display is normally obtained with the following setting:
Y1div = 2V, Y2div = 2V, Xdiv =200 mic s and Tigger = Y1.

- We note that :
The phase shift between the input and output is 0', i.e. the input and output signal are not
phase-displaced with respect to each other.

137

Chapter 7 : Electronic Components II

7-1 Introduction To Electronic Components II

Fig 7-1 : Electronic Components II
In the electronic components II course special types of transistors and semiconductors from
the area of power electronics are employed. One of their main areas of application is phase
control which is investigated using the thyristor and the triac, as an example.

7-2 More Detail About Electronic Components II :
Electronic Components II contains many type of Modules such as :
Design of the field effect transistor (FET)
Transfer characteristic of the JFET
Output characteristic family of a JFET
JFET as a switch
Characteristics of the IGBT
IGBT as a switch
Characteristic of the DIAC
Characteristic of the thyristor
Thyristor in the DC circuit
Characteristic of the TRIAC etc
138

7-3 Starting The Procedure To Deal with Electronic Components II :

As previously
1. Slot in the Electronic Components II experiment board to the master unit. Make sure
you slot it firmly to avoid connection error.
4. Turn on PC .
5. Click COM3LAB and then Electronic Components II.
7. After press continue , the first interface will be open as figure below. It contains
massage (welcome to com3lab).
7-4 The experiments :
7-4-1 Experiment-1-Design of an FET:
- Introduction :

Fig 7-2 : FET
FET stands for 'Field Effect Transistor' A three terminal semiconductor device that depends
on the action of an electric field to control its conductivity. In a "FET" the current is from
source to drain because a conducting channel is formed by a voltage field between the gate
and the source.. The function of this type of transistor is the same as the NPN type except
that the way it provides this function is slightly different. The terminals in this device are
labeled as Gate (g), Source (s), and Drain (d) .

- Procedure :
139

Fig 7-3 : step1
1- Press next page.

Fig 7-4 : step2
2- More information about FET.

- Physical design of an FET :

An n-channel FET consist of a negatively doped channel between the drain (D) and the source (S), as
well positively doped gate (G). A p-channel FET is doped in the reverse order.
The voltage applied to the gate influences the depletion layer at the p-n junction, changing the cross-
section of the drain-source channel and, consequently, the gain factor.

140

Fig 7-5 : step3
3- Now, to set the gate-source voltage.

Fig 7-6 : the summary
- We observe :
the lode current is controlled via a depletion layer between the gate and the drain-source channel.

Fig 7-7 : step4
4- Bridge resistor R1 in the circuit.
141

Fig 7-8 : step5
5- Assemble the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

Fig 7-9 : step6
6- Open multimeter 1 on the screen and set it to direct-current measurement.

7- Set the function generator to output a direct voltage of 10 V.

8- Observe the current.

Fig 7-10 : step 9
9- Connect the gate to the ground terminal.

142

Fig 7-11 : step 10
10- Observe the current.

- We observe :
If the gate is connected to ground, the drain-source channel is conductive. The depletion layer at the p-n
junction is not large enough to the block the drain-source channel. This effect is called inherent
conduction. If the gate is open, the FET is non-conductive. The resulting shift of charge carriers makes
the depletion layer large enough to block the drain-source channel.

Fig 7-12 : step 11

11- Answer the question .

Fig 7-13 : the summary
12- The summary of FET.
143

Fig 7-14 : step 13
- Operating range :
The operating range of an FET is primarily negative. In this case, the negative gate-source voltage
increase the gain factor via the depletion layer. This allows the cross-section of the drain-source channel
to be controlled.
Above a gate-source voltage of 0.7 V, the p-n junction between the gate and the channel becomes
conductive ,allowing a gate current to flow. As a result , the depletion layer and the gain factor can no
longer be controlled.



15- Set the function generator to output a direct voltage of 10 V.

Fig 7-15 : step 16
16- Open the oscilloscope and its panel, and set the specific value.
144

Fig 7-16 : step 17
17- Using the control elements on the screen, vary the voltage output of the voltage source G2 and
observe the instruments.

Fig 7-17 : step 18
18- Determine the minimum and maximum gate-source voltages with which the drain current can be
controlled, and enter the results in the filed provided for this purpose.

- We observe that :

the minimum gate-source voltages : >= -3 V
the maximum gate-source voltages : > 0.7 V

145

Fig 7-18 : step 19
19- After determination the result.

ransfer characteristic of a J FET : T - 2 - 2 Experiment - 4 - 7
- Introduction :

Fig 7-19 : JFET
The junction gate field-effect transistor (JFET ) is the simplest type of field effect transistor.
Like other transistors, it can be used as an electronically-controlled switch. The transfer
characteristic indicates the relationship between the gate-source voltage UGS and drain current
ID.
- Procedure :

Fig 7-20 : step1
1- Press next .
146

- Recording the characteristic :
The drain current is measured with R1 which is used as a current-sensing resistor in this case. The gate-
source voltage is measured between the gate and the source. The voltage supply is obtained from the
adjustable voltage source G2 at the botton edge of the experiment board.

Fig 7-21 : step 2
3-Open the oscilloscope screen and the control panel.
4-Set the function generator as follows:
DC offset = 2V, Vpp = 16V, square-wave signal, f = 50 Hz.

Fig 7-22 : step 4

147

Fig 7-23 : step 5
5-Set the oscilloscope to the XY mode, the trigger to +Y2 and Y2Att to -1. the best results are obtained
with Y1/div = 1V, Y2/div = 1V and X/div = 1 ms.
6-Clicking on copies a screen shot of the oscilloscope display to the clipboard.

Fig 7-24 : step 7

148

7-Using the control element on the screen, vary the voltage output of the voltage source G2 and observe
the instruments.

- The Slope :

The slope is the differential ratio between the drain current and the gate-source voltage:

The slope indicates the gain factor of the JFET.

Fig 7-25 : step 8

8-Calculate the slope at the specified point and enter the result in the field provided for this purpose.

Fig 7-26 : the calculation

149

- The calculation :
S = ' ID / ' Vgs = 2-1 / 0.8 0.5 = 3.33
9-Press next.
- We observe :

Fig 7-27 : The control characteristic

The control characteristic indicates the ratio between the gate-source voltage and the drain
current. The slope is the differential ratio between the drain current and the gate-source voltage.
It can be used to indicate the gain factor of the JFET.

Fig 7-28 : Evaluation

Evaluation
JFET has a family of transfer characteristics. The parameter characteristics is the drain-source
voltage. However, the variations in the characteristics are so small that only the average
characteristic is specified in practice.
150

characteristic family of a J FET : - Output - 3 - 3 Experiment - 4 - 7
- Introduction :

Fig 7-29 : JFET
The Output-characteristic family of a JFET indicates the relationship between the drain current
ID and the drain-source voltage VDS. The parameter related to the output characteristics the
gate-source voltage VGS.
- Procedure

Fig 7-30 : step 1
1- Press next page.

Fig 7-31 : step 2
- Recording the characteristic :
As in the case of the transfer characteristic, the drain current here is measured using R3 as a
current-sensing resistor. The drain-source voltage is measured directly between the drain and
151

source. The gate-source voltage parameter is supplied by the programmable voltage source
G2.
2- Bridge resistor R1 in the circuit.

Fig 7-32 : step 3
3- Connect the circuit as showing in the circuit diagram, then open the oscilloscope screen and the
control panel.

Fig 7-33 : step 4
4- Set the function generator with a specific value in the screen.

Fig 7-34 : step 5

152

Fig 7-35 : step 4
6- The gate voltage now is : -2.5 V. press next to increase this voltage.

Fig 7-36 : step 7
7- The gate voltage now is : - 0.4 V. press next to increase this voltage.

Fig 7-37 : step 8
8- The gate voltage now is : 0 V. press next to increase this voltage.

153

- We observe :

Fig 7-38 : The Output-characteristic of JFET

The Output-characteristic family of JFET indicates the ratio between the drain current and the drain-
source voltage. The gate-source voltage serves as the parameter here.

J FET as a switch - 4 - 4 Experiment - 4 - 7
- Introduction
As opposed to a bipolar transistor, a JFET only needs a control voltage and no control current.
For this reason, no power output is required from the control components, which can thus be
made very small. A disadvantage of the JFET is the negative voltage required for blocking it.

- Procedure :

Fig 7-39 : step 1
1- Press next.
154

- JFET with a low-impedance load
The JFET is to control the lamp, which has a very low resistance of approx. 16 ohm. The drain
current and drain-source voltage across the JFET are measured in the conductive and blocking
states. These correspond to the operating points.

Fig 7-40 : step 2
2- Open the switch (move the lever to the right).

Fig 7-41 : step 3

4- Close the switch.
155

Fig 7-42 : step 5
5- Open both the multimeters.

Fig 7-43 : multimeters
6- Using Ohm's law, calculate the output resistance from the measured current and voltage.

R = V /I = 9.88 v / .006 A = 1705 (

156

Fig 7-44 : step 6
7- Plot the operating point in the diagram of the output characteristic.

Fig 7-45 : step 7

Fig 7-46 : step 9
157

9- Evaluation of observations:
As no current can flow if the bridge has been removed, the current (I) must be 0 mA.
Consequently, the output resistance (R) of the circuit is infinity.

Fig 7-47 : step 10

- We observe :
The elements controlling a JFET do not need to output any power, as the JFET only requires a
control voltage and no control current. A disadvantage here is the negative gate-source voltage
required for the JFET to enter the blocking state.
- JFET with a high-impedance load
The lamp is replaced by a resistor R2, which has a very high value of 10 k ohm. Determine the
operating points, as in the case of the low-impedance load.

Fig 7-48 : step 11
158


Fig 7-49 : step 12
13- Set multimeter 1 to direct-current measurement and multimeter 2 to direct-voltage
measurement.

Fig 7-50 : multimeters.
14- Close the switch.

Fig 7-51 : step 15
159

15- Open both the multimeters.

R = V /I =.195 v / .001 A = 195 (


Fig 7-53 : Evaluation.
17- Evaluation of observations:

Fig 7-54 : step 18
160

Evaluation
In the case of field-effect transistors, the output resistance rises sharply at high output currents,
thus resulting in a large voltage drop between the drain and the source. Consequently, such
transistors generate high power losses when connected to low-impedance loads.
For this reason, field-effect transistor are not always suitable for controlling low-impedance
loads.

Fig 7-55 : the output characteristic
- We observe :

The elements controlling a JFET do not need to output any power, as the JFET only requires a
control voltage and no control current. A disadvantage here is the negative gate-source voltage
required for the JFET to enter the blocking state.
In the case of a JFET, the output resistance rises sharply at high load currents. This results in a
high power loss.

MOSFET as a switch - 5 - 5 Experiment - 4 - 7
- Introduction :

Fig 7-56 : the MOSFET
161

MOSFET stands for 'Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor'. This is the most
common type of FET found in many electronic devices today. It works just like the FET but has
more capacitance due to the extra MOS insulation.As a MOSFET does not have inherent
conductivity so that its control characteristic lies in the positive range, it is easier to control than
a JFET.
- Procedure :

Fig 7-57 : step1
- MOSFET as a time switch :
After capacitor C1 has become fully charged, it discharges very slowly via the high input
resistance of the MOSFET. The drop in the gate-source voltage during the process of discharge
causes the MOSFET to enter the blocking state. Due to the high input resistance, small
capacitances are sufficient for long switching periods.

Fig 7-58 : step1

162

Fig 7-59 : step 2
2- Connect a bridge between the voltage source and the capacitor.

Fig 7-60 : step3
3- Remove the bridge.

Fig 7-61 : step4

4- Connect a bridge between the ground terminal and the capacitor.
163

Fig 7-62 : step5

5- Remove the bridge and then link the sockets of the capacitor and the voltage
source using your finger.

6- Remove your finger from the sockets.

- We observe :
A capacitance discharges very slowly via the gate, due to the high input resistance.
- MOSFET with a low impedance load :
The MOSFET is to control a lamp which has a very low resistance of approx. 16ohm. The drain
current and drain-source voltage across the MOSFET are measured in the conductive and
blocking states. These values correspond to the operating points.

Fig 7-63 : step 7
164


Fig 7-64 : step 8
8- Remove the bridge.

Fig 7-65 : step 9


Fig 7-66 : step 10
165


Fig 7-67 : output resistance.

11- Remove the bridge between the voltage source and the capacitor, and insert it
between the capacitor and the ground terminal.

Fig 7-68 : step 12

12- As no current can flow if the bridge has been removed, the current (I) must be 0
mA. Consequently, the output resistance (R) of the circuit is infinity.

Fig 7-69 : step 13
166


- We observe :
A MOSFET is more suitable than an FET for low-impedance loads. For this reason, it is also
used in IC technology.

characteristic of a I GBT : - 6 - 6 Experiment - 4 - 7
- Introduction :

Fig 7-70 : IGBT
IGBT stands for 'Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor'. This type of device combines the properties
of the MOSFET with those of the bipolar transistor. This allows it to have the advantage of the
simple MOSFET gate whilst being able to handle large currents bipolar types.
- Procedure :

Fig 7-71 : step 1
1- Press next page.

167

- Control Characteristic :
The emitter current is measured using R1 as a current-sensing resistor. The gate-emitter voltage is
measured between the gate and emitter. The voltage supply is obtained from the adjustable voltage
source G2 at the bottom edge of the experiment board.

Fig 7-72 : step 2

2- Connect the circuit as showing in the circuit diagram.

Fig 7-73 : step 3

3- Connect the SYNC output of the function generator with the TRIG input of the oscilloscope
and set the Trigger function on the control panel to +EXT.

Fig 7-74 : step 4
168

4- Press next.

- We observe :

Fig 7-75 : IGBT Characteristic

IGBT transfer Characteristic is identical to that of the MOSFET.
- The slope :
now, we calculate the slope, where the slope is measure of the gain factor and indicates the differential
ratio between the collector current and the gate-emitter voltage.
S = 'Ic / ' Vge

Fig 7-76 : step 5

5- Calculate the slope at the specific point, and enter the result in the field.

- The calculation :

169

S = 'Ic / ' Vge
'Ic = 1 0.5 = 0.5 mA
' Vge = 5.5 5.2 = 0.3 V
The slope (S) = 'Ic / ' Vge = 0.5 / 0.3 = 1.67
6- Press next.

- Output Characteristic :
The emitter current is measured using R1 as a current-sensing resistor. The collector-emitter voltage
is measured directly between the collector and the emitter. The gate-emitter voltage parameter is
measured with the multimeter and obtained from the adjustable voltage source G2 at the bottom edge
of the experiment board.

Fig 7-78 : step 7


Fig 7-79 : step 8

8- Set the function generator with specific value.
170

Fig 7-80 : step 9

9- The gate voltage now is 4 V. press next.

Fig 7-81 : step 10


Fig 7-82 : step 11

11- The gate voltage now is 6.5 V. press next.
171

Fig 7-83 : step 12

- We observe :

Fig 7-84 : the output characteristic of IGBT

The output characteristic of IGBT is similar to that of bipolar transistor. Because exhibit the highest
control current ( As figure below ).

Fig 7-85 : Summary of output characteristic

172

: I GBT as a switch - 7 - 7 Experiment - 4 - 7
- Introduction :
Due to its high input resistance, an IGBT does not require high-power control. Like a bipolar
transistor, the IGBT can control high currents. Due to its relatively low output resistance, the
IGBT generates low power losses.
- Procedure :

- I GBT as a time switch
After capacitor C1 has become fully charged, it discharges very slowly via the high input
resistance of the IGBT. The drop in the gate-emitter voltage during the process of discharge
causes the IGBT to enter the blocking state.
Due to the high input resistance, small capacitances are sufficient for long switching times.

Fig 7-86 : step 1

Fig 7-87 : step 2
173


Fig 7-88 : step 3
3-Remove the bridge.

Fig 7-89 : step 4

Fig 7-90 : step 5

174

5- Remove the bridge and then link the sockets of the capacitor and the voltage source using
your finger.

6-Remove your finger from the sockets.
7-Using your finger, bridge the capacitor socket and the ground.

- We observe :
Due to its high input resistance, an IGBT does not require high-power control. The input
response of the IGBT is similar to that of the MOSFET.

I GBT with a low impedance load
The IGBT is to control a lamp which has a very low resistance of approx. 16ohm. The collector
current and collector-emitter voltage across the IGBT are measured in the conductive and
blocking states. These values correspond to the operating points.

Fig 7-91 : step 8

175

Fig 7-92 : step 9

9-Connect a bridge between the voltage source and the capacitor

Fig 7-93 : step 10
10-Using Ohm's law, calculate the output resistance from the measured current and voltage.

Fig 7-94 : the clculation
- The calculation :
R = V / I = 0.999 V / .063 A = 15.66
176


Fig 7-95 : step 11

12-Connect a bridge between the ground terminal and the capacitor.

Fig 7-96 : step 13
13-Evaluation of observations:

Fig 7-97 : step 13

13-Plot the operating point in the diagram of the output characteristic.

177

Fig 7-98 : Evaluation
Evaluation

An IGBT has applications similar to those of a bipolar transistor. It is used mainly to control
low-impedance loads. Due to its low power consumption, however, the IGBT has much more
favorable control properties then a bipolar transistor.
14-Answer the question:

Fig 7-99 : step 14
- We observe :
GBTs are used mainly for controlling high load currents.

7-4-8 Experiment-8- Characteristic of a diac :
- Introduction :

Fig 7-100 : DIAC

178

The diac belongs to the category of thuristor diode and consists of three layers doped in the following
sequence : ( positive-negative-positive ). If a sufficiently high current flows in either direction, the holes
in layer-n are filled and the p-n depletion layer is broken down. As in the case of a diode the p-n junction
is conductive in the direction of current flow.
- Procedure :

Fig 7-101 : step 1
1- Using the slide on the right-hand side, you can adjust the flow of electrons.

Fig 7-102 : step 2
2- After moving the slide.

Fig 7-103 : step 3

179

Where : the current flowing through the diac is measured with current-sensing resistor R2. The
voltage drop across the diac is measured directly.

4- open the oscilloscope screen and the control panel.

Fig 7-104 : step 5
5- press next.

- Ignition angle :
If an alternating voltage is applied to the diac, the current only starts flowing through it once the voltage
has exceeded the gate trigger threshold. A delayed current arises after the zero crossing. The ignition
angle is the angle is the angle between of the sinusoidal oscillation and the gate trigger pulse. The current-
flow angle is the angle between the gate trigger pulse and the next zero crossing of the sinusoidal
oscillation.

Fig 7-105 : step 6

7- open the oscilloscope screen and the control panel.

180

Fig 7-106 : step 8
8- read off the ignition angle and enter the result in the field.

Fig 7-107 : step 9
9- after reading value :
ignition angle = 9 )
current flow ignition = 111.

- We observe :

Fig 7-108 : characteristic of the diac
The characteristic of the diac depends on the direction of the current flow. A diac enters the forward state
when the gate current is exceeded, and the reverse state when the holding current is fallen short off.

181

Characteristic of a thyristor - 9 - 9 Experiment - 4 - 7
Introduction
A thyritor consists of four semiconducting layers:
Negative-positive-negative-positive
The external n-layer is the cathode (C), the external p-layer is the anode (A). Depending on
whether the gate (G) is situated on the central n-layer or p-layer, the thyristor is designated n-
gate or p-gate.p-gate thyristors are used more commonly.
- Procedure :
Note on how to proceed:
The two-way switch on the anode opens and closes the electrical circuit. The button at the gate
produces an gate trigger pulse. The slide on the right-hand can be used to set the gate voltage.

Fig 7-109 : step 1
1- Press next.
Recording the characteristic
The characteristic is recorded dynamically. The voltage drop across the thyristor is measured
directly. The current flowing through the thyristor is measured using R1 as a current-sensing
resistor. The gate-current parameter is sampled from the feed line from the voltage source G2
using the multimeter.
182

Fig 7-110 : step 2
4- Open the oscilloscope screen and the control panel.
5- Set the function generator as following : DC offset = 0V, Vpp = 20V,
triangular signal, f = 50Hz.

Fig 7-111 : step 6
6- Set the oscilloscope to the XY mode and Y1Att to -1. the best results are
obtained with Y1/div = 2V, Y2/div =5V and X/div =2ms.

183

Fig 7-112 : step 7
7- Increase the gate current unit the thyristor becomes conductive.

Fig 7-113 : after step 7

- We observe :
The thyristor triggers when the gate current reaches approximately 2-4 mA. The on-state voltage
is a function of temperature and thyristor current.
184

Fig 7-114 : the thyristor characteristic
- We observe :
A thyristor consists of four differently doped semiconductor layers. In the reverse state, a
thyristor acts as a diode. In the forward state, the thyristor characteristic is a function of the gate
current.

: stic of a triac Characteri - 10 - 10 Experiment - 4 - 7
- Introduction :

Fig 7-115 : the thyristor characteristic

185

A triac can be considered as consisting of two complementary thyristors. The two gates are
combined to form a single gate. The expression triac is derived from the terms triode (a
component with three terminals) and alternating current.

- Recording the characteristic
The characteristic is recorded dynamically. The voltage drop across the traic is measured
directly. The current flowing through the triac is measured using R1 as a current-sensing resistor.
The gate-current parameter is sampled from the feed line from the voltage source G2 using the
multimeter.

Fig 7-116 : step 1
1- Assemble the circuit as a shown in the circuit diagram.
2-Open multimeter 1 on the screen and set it to direct-current measurement.

Fig 7-117 : multimeter 1
3-Open the oscilloscope screen and the control panel.
186

Fig 7-118 : step 4
4-Set the function generator as follows:DC offset = 0V, Vpp = 20V, sinusoidal oscillation, f =
50Hz.

Fig 7-119 : step 5
5-Increase the gate current unit the thyristor becomes conductive.

187

Fig 7-120 : step 5
- We observe :

Fig 7-121 : characteristic of tric
A triac does not have a specific forward or reverse state, as it is conductive in both directions.
The latching current is a function of the gate current. A triac consists of two complementary
thyristors .A Triac does not have a specific forward or reverse, i.e. it can be triggered in both
directions. ( As Finger 7-121 ).


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