This project report details the design of a bioreactor landfill for Allahabad City, India. It provides background information on bioreactor landfills, the study area of Allahabad City, and the current municipal solid waste (MSW) management scenario. The objectives are to design a bioreactor landfill and test leachate parameters. Literature review covers bioreactor landfill types, leachate pollution index parameters and their testing methods, landfill settlement mechanisms, leachate and gas quantities, liner systems, daily/final covers, groundwater monitoring, and post-closure landfill use. Results and analysis presents census and MSW data for Allahabad City and leachate pollution index parameter details.
Original Description:
CompleteDesign of Bioreactor Landfill for Allahabad City
Original Title
Project Report Design of Bioreactor Landfill for Allahabad City
This project report details the design of a bioreactor landfill for Allahabad City, India. It provides background information on bioreactor landfills, the study area of Allahabad City, and the current municipal solid waste (MSW) management scenario. The objectives are to design a bioreactor landfill and test leachate parameters. Literature review covers bioreactor landfill types, leachate pollution index parameters and their testing methods, landfill settlement mechanisms, leachate and gas quantities, liner systems, daily/final covers, groundwater monitoring, and post-closure landfill use. Results and analysis presents census and MSW data for Allahabad City and leachate pollution index parameter details.
This project report details the design of a bioreactor landfill for Allahabad City, India. It provides background information on bioreactor landfills, the study area of Allahabad City, and the current municipal solid waste (MSW) management scenario. The objectives are to design a bioreactor landfill and test leachate parameters. Literature review covers bioreactor landfill types, leachate pollution index parameters and their testing methods, landfill settlement mechanisms, leachate and gas quantities, liner systems, daily/final covers, groundwater monitoring, and post-closure landfill use. Results and analysis presents census and MSW data for Allahabad City and leachate pollution index parameter details.
CHAPTER 1: Introduction 4 1.1 General 4 1.2 Scope of Present Study 4 1.3 Study Area 5 1.4 Present Management Scenario of MSW at Allahabad city 5 1.5 Objectives 6 2: Literature Review 7 2.1 Bioreactor Landfill 7 2.2 Bioreactor Landfill Types 7 2.2.1 Anaerobic Bioreactor Landfill 7 2.2.2 Aerobic Bioreactor Landfill 7 2.2.3 Hybrid (Aerobic-Anaerobic) Bioreactor Landfill 7 2.3.1 Leachate 8 2.3.2 Leachate Pollution Index 8 2.4 Parameters Testing Methodology 9 2.4.1 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) 9 2.4.2 Chlorides 14 2.4.3Chemical Oxygen Demand 16 2.4.4 Copper 18 2.4.5 Iron 19 2.4.6 Nitrogen 21 2.4.7 Most Probable Number 24 2.4.8 ph 25 2.4.9 Sulphate 27 2.4.10 Total Dissolved Solid 29 2.4.11 Arsenic 30 2.5 Settlement of MSW 31 2.6 Mechanisms That Cause Large Settlements 31 2.6.1 Mechanical/Primary Compression 31 2.6.2 Biodegradation 32 2.6.3 Physical Creep Compression (Including Ravelling/Void Filling) 32 2.7 Mechanisms That Cause Small Settlements 32 2.7.1 Interaction 32 2.7.2 Consolidation 32 2.8 Methodology for Primary and Mechanical Compression 32 2.9 Leachate Quantity 34 2.10 Gasses in Landfill 35 2.11 Liner System 35 2.11.1 Single Liner System 35 2.11.2 Single Composite Liner System 35 2.11.3 Double Liner System 36 2.12 Design of Landfill Liners 38 2.13 Geo-Membranes 39 2.13.1 Specifications 39 3.14 Daily Cover 39 3.15 Final Cover 39 3.16 Ground Water Monitoring Wells around A Landfill 40 3.17 Surface Water Drainage System 40 3.18 Post Closure Use of Landfills 41 3: Result and Analysis 42 3.1 Census Data for Allahabad City 42 3.2 MSW Data for Allahabad City 42 3.3 LPI Parameters Details 44 3.3.1 BOD 44 3.3.2 Chloride 44 3.3.3 COD 45 3.3.4 Copper 46 3.3.5 Iron 46 3.3.6 Kjeldahl Nitrogen 47 3.3.7 MPN Value 47 3.3.8 ph 48 3.3.9 Sulphate 48 3.3.10 Total Dissolved Solids 49 3.3.11 Arsenic 49 3.4 Calculation of LPI 51 3.5 Computation of Primary and Mechanical Compression 51 3.6 Leachate Volume 55 3.7 Volume Lost Through Evaporation 56 3.8 Gasses Generation in Landfill 59 3.9 Design of Leachate Collection System 60 3.10 Design of Leachate Collection Pond 61 3.11 Leachate Recirculation System 62 3.12 Design of Gas Collection System 62 3.13 Daily Cover 64 3.14 Final Cover 65 3.15 Ground Water Monitoring Wells around A Landfill 65 3.16 Surface Water Drainage System 65 3.17 Calculation of Bioreactor Size 65 3.18 Layout of Landfill Bottom 66 4: Conclusions 67 4.1 Future Scope of the Study 68 Appendix 1 Iron Absorbance Std. Curve Appendix 2 Sample Collection Date Appendix 3 MPN Table Appendix 4 Sub-Index Value Curve Appendix 5 Typical Value for Geo Membrane
Tables Table 3.1 Census data for Allahabad City 42 Table 3.2 MSW Data for Allahabad City 43 Table 3.3 LPI Parameters Details 51 Table 3.4 LPI Calculation 51 Table 3.5 Settlement Details 53 Table 3.7 Rainfall Data for Allahabad City 55 Table 3.8 Temperature and Humidity data for Allahabad City 55 Table 3.9 Temperature vs. Saturation Vapour pressure ew 57 Table 3.10 Calculation of Evaporation 58 Table 3.11 Calculation of Leachate Quantity 58 Table 3.12 Composition of elements in waste 59
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CANDIDATES DECLARATION
We hereby submit the project entitled Design of Bioreactor Landfill for Allahabad City as approved by the project supervisor Dr. Nekram Rawal, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MNNIT Allahabad. We hereby declared that all the informations in this project work are correct. We also declare that, to the best of our knowledge and belief, this work has not been submitted earlier for the award of any other Degree and Diploma.
This is to certify that the project entitled Design of Bioreactor Landfill for Allahabad City submitted by Avaneesh Kumar Yadav , Nirbhay Narayan Singh and Akhilesh Kumar Pal in partial fulfillment of the requirements for award of the degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (CIVIL ENGINEERING) to Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad is the record of students own work and it was carried out under my supervision.
Date: (Nekram Rawal) Assistant Professor CED MNNIT Allahabad
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We would like to express our gratitude to all the people behind the screen who helped us to transform an idea into a real application. We would like to thank our internal guide Assistant Prof. Nekram Rawal for his technical guidance, constant encouragement and support in carrying out our project at college. We are very thankful to Asst. Prof. Sumedha Chakma for providing valuable suggestion and helping us to complete this project. We are thankful to Mr. Anil Shrivastav and Ms. Preeti for providing us raw data of existing landfill. We are thankful to Prof. R. C. Vaishya for helping us for testing of samples. We are also grateful to Mr. Brij Kishore and Mr. Ashish who helped us in laboratory to carry out the experiments. We would like thank all the other staff members, both teaching and non-teaching, who have extended their timely help and eased our task. Last but not the least, we are also thankful to our friends and colleagues for their support and help throughout the project. The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of the task would be great but incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible with their constant guidance and encouragement crowns all the efforts with success.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 General Looking forward to the future, managing wastes need to be improved for the betterment of environment and life. Source reduction and recycling efforts with landfill disposal would be important roles for the integrated waste management strategies for the foreseeable future. Improper management of MSW causes hazards to inhabitants. Increasing population, rapid economic growth and rise in living standard accelerates the generation rate of municipal solid waste (MSW) in Indian cities and so for the Allahabad city. The current total quantity of MSW generation is 500 ton/day, and the average generation rate of MSW estimated as 0.31 kg/capita/day for Allahabad city. There is urgent need to take proper management of solid waste at Allahabad city since most of the waste is dump in low lying areas. Bioreactor landfill is the latest technology for managing the municipal solid waste (MSW). The MSW are all the wastes arising from human and animal activities, that are normally solid and that are discarded as useless or unwanted materials. MSW includes all solid wastes generated in the community except for the industrial and agriculture wastes. Over the past decade, India has enjoyed tremendous growth in its economy. The quantity of MSW produced depends upon the living standards of its residents. The degree of commercialization, urbanization, and industrialization, in fact, has resulted in a vast increase in the amount of refuse generated per person
1.2 Scope of Present Study A bioreactor landfill thus proposed in the study so that it will enhance the rate of bio- degradation of MSW under controlled conditions as compared to a traditional landfill. Bioreactor Landfill is operated by increasing the moisture content of waste by leachate recirculation and providing additional moisture (if required) to attain optimal waste moisture content. Liquid recirculation accelerates the decomposition of MSW by distributing moisture, nutrients, enzymes, and bacteria throughout the waste mass more homogeneously than natural infiltration alone. Additionally, landfill capacity can be increased since during degradation of waste, volume decreases thereby providing additional landfill space in existing landfill sites. Also, the bioreactor process accelerates gas generation that can offer a revenue stream and decrease the contaminant concentration in the leachate.
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1.3 Study Area Allahabad is a major city of east Uttar Pradesh State, situated at 25.25_ North latitude and 81.58_ East longitude. It is about 627 km from Delhi and about 815 km from Calcutta. Allahabad is an ancient city of India, considered holy because it is built on the confluence (Sangam) of the rivers Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati.The city has a population of about 1117094 inhabitants (AMC 2011). Allahabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) is responsible for the management of the MSW generated in the city. The cities were divided into the four categories based upon the population of the city (Year 2011). The characteristics of the Cities are defined as:
Very Big City Population more than 20 lacs Big City Population in between 15 lacs and 20 lacs Medium City Population in between 10 and 15 lacs Small City Population less than 10 lacs From above considerations Allahabad comes under medium city.
1.4 Present Management Scenario of MSW at Allahabad city Solid waste management is a major concerned for Allahabad city and grave problem where every nooks and corners have some quantity of municipal solid waste .The city of Allahabad lacks planned solid waste management system. The building wastes generated by construction activity containing bricks, cement concrete, stones, tiles, wood, also food and other household wastes are dumped together on street side and roadside, thereby creating nuisance, pollution and obstruction to traffic. In Allahabad there is no segregation of waste takes place, also systematic and scientific system of primary collection of waste does not exist. In the absence of proper segregation practices at source, rag pickers pick up parts of this waste in soiled and hazardous conditions. There is no proper landfill site available and waste is dumped in a mixed form in an unscientific manner on open waste land or low lying areas even near the river Ganga and Yamuna at six different sites. Illegal dumping of the MSW is also very common in the city. This results not only causing ground water contamination but also air pollution from the improper dumping of the solid waste.
Inadequate solid waste management in Allahabad City has resulted in the accumulation of waste on open lands, in drains and in the residential areas, causing a nuisance and foul-smelling pools, environmental pollution through leachates from heaps (water and soil pollution) and
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burning of waste (air pollution), clogging of drains. This situation is believed to result in poor environmental conditions, which in turn present an alarming threat to health. There is thus a need for improved waste management system of the city. As per data available, every year Nagar Nigam Allahabad spends on an average 18% of its total budget on solid waste management. In Allahabad Nagar Nigam the entire operation of solid waste management is performed in four heads namely, cleaning, collection, transportation and disposal. In the city cleaning and collection operations are performed by Public Health Department of Nagar Nigam, while transportation and disposal of solid wastes are being performed by public health department of Nagar Nigam.
1.5 Objectives Estimation of future production of MSW in the design period of 30 years. Testing and analysis of leachate by collecting samples. Determination of settlement rate of MSW, gas production and leachate production. Selection of the bioreactor type and size from the existing study. Design of bioreactor landfill components.
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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Bioreactor Landfill A bioreactor landfill is typically thought of as sanitary landfill that uses enhanced microbiological processes to transform and stabilize the readily and moderately decomposable organic waste constituents in a short period of time (typically 5 to 10 years) in comparison to a conventional landfill (typically 30 to 50 years or more). According to the Solid Waste Association of North America (SWANA), a bioreactor landfill is a controlled landfill or landfill cell where liquid and gas conditions are actively managed in order to accelerate or enhance bio stabilization of the waste. The bioreactor landfill significantly increases the extent of organic waste decomposition, conversion rates, and process effectiveness over what would otherwise occur with the landfill.
2.2 Bioreactor Landfill Types 2.2.1 Anaerobic Bioreactor Landfill: In an anaerobic bioreactor landfill, moisture is added to the waste mass in the form of recirculated leachate and other sources to obtain optimal moisture levels.Biodegradation occurs in the absence of oxygen (anaerobically) and produces landfill gas (LFG). Landfill gas, primarily methane, and carbon-dioxide can be captured to minimize greenhouse gas emissions and for energy generation. The Anaerobic Bioreactor uses anaerobic bacteria for the degradation of waste. It is generally accepted that to optimize anaerobic degradation, moisture conditions at or near field capacity, or about 35 to 45 percent moisture is required. 2.2.2 Aerobic Bioreactor Landfill: In an aerobic bioreactor landfill, leachate is removed from the bottom layer, piped to liquids storage tanks, and recirculated into the landfill in a controlled manner. Air is injected into the waste mass, using vertical or horizontal wells, to promote aerobic activity and accelerate waste stabilization. The aerobic bioreactor uses aerobic bacteria for degradation. In landfills, aerobic activity is promoted through injection of air into the waste mass. The aerobic process does not generate methane and typically requires less than two years for full degradation. 2.2.3 Hybrid (Aerobic-Anaerobic) Bioreactor Landfill: The hybrid bioreactor landfill accelerates waste degradation by employing sequential aerobic-anaerobic treatment to rapidly
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degrade organics in the upper sections of the landfill and collect gas from lower sections. Operation as a hybrid results in the earlier onset of methanogens compared to aerobic landfills.
2.3.1 Leachate Leachate is any liquid that in passing through matter, extracts solutes, suspended solids or any other component of the material through which it has passed. Leachate from a landfill varies widely in composition depending on the age of the landfill and the type of waste that it contains. It can usually contain both dissolved and suspended material. The generation of leachate is caused principally by precipitation percolating through waste deposited in a landfill. Once in contact with decomposing solid waste, the percolating water becomes contaminated and if it then flows out of the waste material it is termed leachate. 2.3.2 Leachate Pollution Index A technique to quantify the leachate pollution potential of solid waste landfills on a comparative scale using an index known as the leachate pollution index (LPI) developed. The LPI is a quantitative tool by which the leachate pollution data of the landfill sites can be reported uniformly. It is an increasing scale index. The formulation process involved selecting variables, deriving weights for the selected pollutant variables, formulating their sub-indices curves and finally representing the pollutant variables to arrive at LPI.
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2.4 PARAMETERS TESTING METHODOLOGY 2.4.1 BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD) The biochemical oxygen demand determination is a chemical procedure for determining the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic organisms in a water body to break the organic materials present in the given water sample at certain temperature over a specific period of time. BOD of water or polluted water is the amount of oxygen required for the biological decomposition of dissolved organic matter to occur under standard condition at a standardized time and temperature. Usually, the time is taken as 5 days and the temperature is 20C.The test measures the molecular oxygen utilized during a specified incubation period for the biochemical degradation of organic material (carbonaceous demand) and the oxygen used to oxidize inorganic material such as sulfides and ferrous ion. It also may measure the amount of oxygen used to oxidize reduced forms of nitrogen (nitrogenous demand). Apparatus Required BOD Incubator Burette & Burette stand 300 mL glass stopper BOD bottles 500 mL conical flask Pipettes with elongated tips Pipette bulb 250 mL graduated cylinders Wash bottle Chemicals Required Calcium Chloride Magnesium Sulphate Ferric Chloride Di Potassium Hydrogen Phosphate Potassium Di Hydrogen Phosphate Di sodium hydrogen phosphate Ammonium Chloride Manganous sulphate Potassium hydroxide Potassium iodide
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Sodium azide Concentrated sulfuric acid Starch indicator Sodium thiosulphate Distilled or deionized Procedure For testing the given sample, first the reagents are required to be prepared. Preparation of Reagent Manganous Sulphate Solution Dissolve Manganese Sulphate 480g of (or) 400g of (or) In freshly boiled and cooled distilled water, filter the solution and make up to 1000 mL (One litre). In this experiment, we are using Manganese sulphate Mono hydrate. Take 364g of and transfer it to the beaker. To dissolve the content, place it in the magnetic stirrer Note: The solution should not give blue color by addition of acidified potassium iodide solution and starch. Alkaline Iodide Sodium Azide Solution To prepare this reagent we are going to mix three different chemicals Dissolve either 500 g of Sodium Hydroxide (or) 700 g of Potassium Hydroxide 135 g of Sodium Iodide (or) 150 g of Potassium Iodide To prepare this reagent, take 700 g of potassium hydroxide and add 150 g of potassium iodide and dissolve it in freshly boiled and cooled water, and make up to 1000 mL (One litre). Dissolve 10 g of Sodium Azide in 40 mL of distilled water and add this with constant stirring to the cool alkaline iodide solution prepared. Sodium Thiosulphate stock solution Weigh approximately 25 g of sodium
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thiosulphate and dissolve it in boiled distilled water and make up to 1000 mL. Add 1 g of sodium hydroxide to preserve it. Starch Indicator Weigh approximately 2 g of starch and dissolve in 100 mL of hot distilled water. In case if you are going to preserve the starch indicator add 0.2 g of salicylic acid as preservative. Sulphuric Acid Calcium Chloride solution Weigh accurately 27.5 g of anhydrous calcium chloride and dissolve it in distilled water. Take 100 mL standard measuring flask and place a funnel over it. Transfer it to the 100 mL standard flask and make up to 100 mL using distilled water. Magnesium Sulphate solution Weigh accurately 22.5 g of magnesium sulphate and dissolve it in distilled water. Take 100 mL standard measuring flask and place a funnel over it. Transfer it to the 100 mL standard flask and make up to 100 mL using distilled water. Ferric Chloride solution Weigh accurately 0.15 g ferric chloride and dissolve it in distilled water. Take 100 mL standard measuring flask and place a funnel over it. Transfer it to the 100 mL standard flask and make up to 100 mL using distilled water. Phosphate buffer solution Weigh accurately 8.5g of Potassium Di Hydrogen Phosphate (KH2PO4) and dissolve it in distilled water. Then add exactly 21.75 g of Di Potassium Hydrogen Phosphate (K2HPO4) and dissolve it. To the same beaker 33.4 g of Di sodium hydrogen phosphate ( Na2HPO4 7H2O), is weighed and added. Finally to the beaker containing all the salts, add accurately 1.7 g of Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl) and dissolve it. Take 1000 mL standard measuring flask and place a funnel over it. Transfer it to the 1000 mL standard flask and make up to 1000 mL using distilled water. The pH should be 7.2 without further adjustment. Dilution Water High quality organic free water must be used for dilution purposes.The required volume
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of water (five liters of organic free distilled water) is aerated with a supply of clean compressed air for at least 12 hours. Allow it to stabilize by incubating it at 20C for at least 4 hours. Add 5mL calcium chloride solution Add 5mL magnesium sulphate solution Add 5mL ferric chloride solution and Add 5mL phosphate buffer solution This is the standard dilution water. Prepare dilution water 3 to 5 days before initiating BOD test to ensure that the BOD of the dilution water is less than 0.2 mg/L. Testing Of Sample Take four 300 mL glass stoppered BOD bottles (two for the sample and two for the blank). Add 10 mL of the sample to each of the two BOD bottles and the fill the remaining quantity with the dilution water. i.e., we have diluted the sample 30 times. The remaining two BOD bottles are for blank, to these bottles add dilution water alone. After the addition immediately place the glass stopper over the BOD bottles and note down the numbers of the bottle for identification. Now preserve one blank solution bottle and one sample solution bottle in a BOD incubator at 20C for five days. The other two bottles (one blank and one sample) needs to be analysed immediately. Avoid any kind of bubbling and trapping of air bubbles. Remember no bubbles! Add 2mL of manganese sulfate to the BOD bottle by inserting the calibrated pipette just below the surface of the liquid. Add 2 mL of alkali-iodide-azide reagent in the same manner. (The pipette should be dipped inside the sample while adding the above two reagents. If the reagent is added above the sample surface, you will introduce oxygen into the sample.) Allow it to settle for sufficient time in order to react completely with oxygen. When this floc has settled to the bottom, shake the contents thoroughly by
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turning it upside down. Add 2 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid via a pipette held just above the surface of the sample. Carefully stopper and invert several times to dissolve the floc.Titration needs to be started immediately after the transfer of the contents to Erlenmeyer flask. Rinse the burette with sodium thiosulphate and then fill it with sodium thiosulphate. Fix the burette to the stand. Measure out 203 mL of the solution from the bottle and transfer to an Erlenmeyer flask. Titrate the solution with standard sodium thiosulphate solution until the yellow color of liberated Iodine is almost faded out. (Pale yellow color) Add 1 mL of starch solution. and continue the titration until the blue color disappears to colourless. Note down the volume of sodium thiosulphate solution added , which gives the D.O. in mg/L. Repeat the titration for concordant values. After five days, take out the bottles from the BOD incubator and analyse the sample and the blank for DO. Add 2mL of manganese sulfate to the BOD bottle by inserting the calibrated pipette just below the surface of the liquid. Add 2 mL of alkali-iodide-azide reagent in the same manner. If oxygen is present, a brownish-orange cloud of precipitate or floc will appear. Allow it to settle for sufficient time in order to react completely with oxygen. When this floc has settled to the bottom, shake the contents thoroughly by turning it upside down. Add 2 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid via a pipette held just above the surface of the sample. Carefully stopper and invert several times to dissolve the floc. Titration needs to be started immediately after the transfer of the contents to Erlenmeyer flask. Rinse the burette with sodium thiosulphate and then fill it with sodium thiosulphate. Fix the burette to the stand. Measure out 203 mL of the solution from the bottle and transfer to an Erlenmeyer flask.Titrate the solution with standard sodium thiosulphate solution until the
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yellow color of liberated Iodine is almost faded out. (Pale yellow color) Add 1 mL of starch solution and continue the titration until the blue color disappears to colourless. Note down the volume of sodium thiosulphate solution added, which gives the D.O. in mg/L. Repeat the titration for concordant values.
2.4.2 CHLORIDES Chlorides are widely distributed as salts of calcium, sodium and potassium in water and wastewater. In potable water, the salty taste produced by chloride concentrations is variable and dependent on the chemical composition of water. The major taste producing salts in water are sodium chloride and calcium chloride. The salty taste is due to chloride anions and associated cations in water. In some water which is having only 250 mg /L of chloride may have a detectable salty taste if the cat-ion present in the water is sodium. On the other hand, a typical salty taste may be absent even if the water is having very high chloride concentration for example 1000 mg /L. Apparatus Required Burette with Burette stand and porcelain tile Pipettes with elongated tips Conical flask (Erlenmeyer Flask) Standard flask Beaker Wash bottle Chemicals Required Silver nitrate Phenolphthalein Indicator Sodium chloride Potassium chromate Procedure Preparation of Reagents Standard Sodium Chloride Solution Switch on the Electronic balance, keep the weighing pan, and set the reading to zero. Weigh 1.648g of Sodium chloride
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Transfer the contents to the beaker containing distilled water. Using glass rod, dissolve the contents thoroughly. Transfer the contents in the beaker to a 100 mL standard flask; fill distilled water up to 100 mL mark. Transfer it to 100mL standard flask using funnel Standard Silver Nitrate (0.0282 N) Weigh 4.791g of Silver nitrate and transfer it to the beaker with distilled water. Transfer the contents in the beaker to a 100 mL standard flask, fill distilled water up to 100 mL mark.Standardize it against 0.0282 N NaCl solution. Store it in an amber bottle Potassium Chromate Indicator Weigh 25 g of Potassium Chromate. Transfer it to the beaker contains distilled water. Add few drops of Silver Nitrate solution until slight red precipitate is formed. Allow it to stand for 12 hours. After 12 hours filter the solution using filter paper and dilute the filtrate to 1000 mL using distilled water. Testing Of Water Sample Before starting the titration rinse the burette with silver nitrate solution. Fill the burette with silver nitrate solution of 0.0282 N. Adjust to zero and fix the burette in stand. Take 20 mL of the sample in a clean 250mL conical flask Add 1 mL of Potassium Chromate indicator to get light yellow color Titrate the sample against silver nitrate solution until the color changes from yellow to brick red. i.e., the end point. Note the volume of Silver nitrate added. Repeat the procedure for concordant values.
Blank Titration Take 20 mL of the distilled water in a clean 250mL conical flask Add 1 mL of Potassium Chromate indicator to get light yellow color Titrate the sample against silver nitrate solution until the color changes from yellow to brick red. i.e., the end point. Note the volume of silver nitrate added for distilled water.
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2.4.3 CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND The chemical oxygen demand (COD) test is commonly used to indirectly measure the amount of organic compounds in water. Most applications of COD determine the amount of organic pollutants found in surface water (e.g. lakes and rivers), making COD a useful measure of water quality. It is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L), which indicates the mass of oxygen consumed per liter of solution. COD is the measurement of the amount of oxygen in water consumed for chemical oxidation of pollutants. COD determines the quantity of oxygen required to oxidize the organic matter in water or waste water sample, under specific conditions of oxidizing agent, temperature, and time. This method covers the determination of COD in ground and surface waters, domestic and industrial wastewaters. The applicable range is 3-900 mg/L. Apparatus Required COD Digester Burette & Burette stand COD Vials with stand 250 mL conical flask (Erlenmeyer Flask) Pipettes Pipette bulb Tissue papers Wash Bottle Chemicals Required Potassium dichromate Sulfuric acid Ferrous ammonium sulphate Silver sulphate Mercury sulphate Ferroin indicator Organic free distilled water Procedure For testing the given sample, first the reagents are required to be prepared. Standard Potassium Dichromate Reagent - Digestion Solution Weigh accurately 4.913 g of potassium dichromate, previously dried at 103C for 2 - 4 hours and transfer it to a beaker.
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Weigh exactly 33.3g of mercuric sulphate and add to the same beaker. Measure accurately 167 mL of concentrated sulphuric acid using clean dry measuring cylinder and transfer it to the beaker. Dissolve the contents and cool to room temperature. (If not dissolved keep it over night). Take 1000 mL standard measuring flask and place a funnel over it. Carefully transfer the contents to the 1000 mL standard flask and make up to 1000 mL using distilled water.This is the standard potassium dichromate solution to be used for digestion. Sulphuric Acid Reagent - Catalyst Solution Weigh accurately 5.5g silver sulphate crystals to a dry clean 1000 mL beaker. To this carefully add about 500 mL of concentrated sulphuric acid, allow to stand for 24 hr. Standard Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate solution Weigh accurately 39.2g of ferrous ammonium sulphate crystals and dissolve it in distilled water. Take 1000 mL standard measuring flask and place a funnel over it. Carefully transfer the contents to the 1000 mL standard flask and make up to 1000 mL mark using distilled water. Testing Of Sample Take three COD vials with stopper (two for the sample and one for the blank). Add 2.5 mL of the sample to each of the two COD vials and the remaining COD vial is for blank; to this COD vial add distilled water. Add 1.5 mL of potassium dichromate reagent - digestion solution to each of the three COD vials. Add 3.5 mL of sulphuric acid reagent - catalyst solution in the same manner. CAUTION: COD vials are hot now. Cap tubes tightly. Switch on the COD Digester and fix the temperature at 150 C and set the time at 2 hours. Place the COD vials into a block digester at 150C and heat for two hours. The digester automatically switches off. Then remove the vials and allow it to cool to the room temperature. Fill the burette with the ferrous ammonium sulphate solution, adjust to zero and fix the burette to the stand.
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Add few drops of ferroin indicator. The solution becomes bluish green in colour. Titrate it with the ferrous ammonium sulphate taken in the burette. End point of the titration is the appearance of the reddish brown colour. Note down the volume of ferrous ammonium sulphate solution added for the blank (A) is 14.1 mL. Transfer the contents of the sample vial to conical flask. Add few drops of ferroin indicator. The solution becomes green in colour. Titrate it with the ferrous ammonium sulphate taken in the burette. End point of the titration is the appearance of the reddish brown colour. Note down the volume of ferrous ammonium sulphate solution added for the sample.
2.4.4 COPPER Copper is an essential element, however, this heavy metal is an inhibitor of microbial activity at relatively low concentrations. The objective of this study was to evaluate the inhibitory effect of copper (II) towards various microbial trophic groups responsible for the removal of organic constituents and nutrients in wastewater treatment processes. Materials Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) membrane 4, 7-dipheny1-2, 9-dimethy1-1, 10-phenanthroline (bathocuproine) o-nitrophenyloctylether (-NPOE). Colorimeter Volumetric pipets with bulbs Test tubes Test tube rack. Procedure Calibrate the colorimeter with standard solution. A 5 cm 3 of aqueous sample containing copper ions was placed in a glass sample tube (30cm 3 volume) 0.5cm 3 of 6.510 -2 mol dm -3 hydroxyl ammonium sulfate, 0.13mol dm - 3 potassium chloride and acetic acid-sodium acetate buffer (pH 5.9) was added. A sheet of PVC membrane consisting of 0.7wt% bathocuproine and 65.0wt%
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-NPOE was put into the solution Solution was stirred with a magnetic stirrer for a definite time at 60C. The membrane removed from the solution was rinsed with small amount of water, and wiped to remove the water droplets. The absorbance of the colored membrane was measured at 480nm by spectrophotometer. The copper ion concentration in the sample solution was determined using a calibration curve.
2.4.5 IRON Any solution which is colored or can be made colored by adding a complexing agent can be analyzed using a visible spectrophotometer, such as the Spec 20. Solutions containing iron ions are colorless, but upon addition of ortho-phenanthroline, the iron (II) ions in the sample react immediately to produce a complex ion, which is orange in color. The more iron (II) ions in a sample will result in a deeper orange color while less iron (II) ions result in a fainter orange color. This follows the Beer-Lambert Law of spectroscopy. From data obtained from a series of iron (II) standards, it is possible to be able to determine the amount of iron in an unknown sample. Equipment Spectrophotometer Cuvettes and rack
Procedure Part I: Preparation of standards Dissolve 0.7022 grams of ferrous ammonium sulfate, hexa hydrate into deionized water. Dilute to 1.00 L. This solution is 100 mg/L of Fe 2+ (same as 100 ppm). Prepare standard solutions of the following concentrations: 0.0, 0.2, 0.6, 1.2, and 1.6 ppm. Use a pipet to transfer 0.0, 0.2, 0.6, 1.2, and 1.6 mLs of the 100 ppm stock solution into five separate 100 mL volumetric flasks. To each of the flasks, add 5 mL of a 0.25% ortho-phenanthroline solution with a graduated cylinder. Carefully dilute to the 100 mL mark by adding deionized water. Clean a set of six cuvettes and dry the outside. Label the cuvettes: 0 ppm, 0.2 ppm, 0.6 ppm, 1.2 ppm, 1.6 ppm.
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Rinse each cuvette with a SMALL amount of the appropriate solution and fill to about the half-way point.
Part II: Forming the standard curve.
Turn the spectrophotometer on and allow it to warm up for 20 minutes. Adjust the wavelength to 510 nm. With the sample compartment empty and the lid closed, set the instrument to 0%T using the Zero Control Knob. (left front) Using a Kimwipe, wipe any finger prints from the cuvette containing the Blank (0ppm) and place this cuvette into the sample compartment being sure to align the index marks. Close the cover. Set the instrument to 100%Transmittance using the 100%T/0A knob (right front). Press the MODE button one time to change the mode from transmittance to absorbance. Record the absorbance of the 0 ppm solution (it should be 0.000 A). Insert each of the cuvettes containing standards into the sample holder, reading the absorbance values for each one. Record the values in your data table. Construct a graph of solution concentration (x-axis) vs. absorbance (y-axis). Draw a least squares or best fit straight line through the data points.(See Apendix 1)
Part III: Determination of unknown sample.
Obtain an unknown sample from the instructor or prepare your own unknown sample using a collected water sample. If using a collected water sample, add 5 mL of the 0.25% ortho-phenanthroline solution to a 100 mL volumetric flask. Dilute to the line with the collected water. If using a collected water sample, use collected water without the 0.25% ortho- phenanthroline solution as the blank. Re-zero the spectrophotometer with this new blank. Obtain an absorbance reading for the unknown sample.
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From the standard curve, determine the concentration of iron in this unknown sample.
2.4.6 NITROGEN Nitrogen compounds are of interest to wastewater treatment plant operators because of the importance of nitrogen in the life cycles of plants and animals. Nitrogen is a nutrient and occurs in many forms including ammonia, organic, nitrate and nitrite each of which may be tested for in a variety of ways. Raw wastewater nitrogen is normally present in the organic nitrogen and ammonia forms, with small quantities of the nitrite and nitrate forms. Depending on the amount of nitrification which occurs within the plant, the effluent may contain either ammonia or nitrate nitrogen. Under normal circumstances, the nitrite form of nitrogen will not be present in large quantities due to its rapid oxidation or conversion to nitrate. Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) is an analysis to determine both the organic nitrogen and the ammonia nitrogen.The analysis involves a preliminary digestion to convert the organic nitrogen to ammonia, then distillation of the total ammonia into an acid absorbing solution and determination of the ammonia by an appropriate method. Equipment Kjeldahl digestion apparatus Heating unit capable of heating a 250 mL sample from 25C to boiling within 5 minutes Fume hood or exhaust fume ejector Equipment for distillation and measurement of ammonia nitrogen REAGENTS Kjeldahl digestion reagent consisting of: Concentrated Sulfuric acid Potassium Sulfate Mercuric Oxide Phenolphthalein indicator Sodium hydroxide - Sodium thiosulfate reagent
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Borate buffer solution Sodium hydroxide 6 N Kjeldahl Digestion Procedure Select an appropriate volume of sample to be placed in the 500 to 800 mL Kjeldahl digestion flask.
Expected TKN mL of sample Concentration (mg/L) to use
Dilute if necessary to 300 mL with ammonia free distilled water.
CAREFULLY add 50 mL of digestion reagent. If large amounts of organic matter are present, an additional 50 mL of reagent must be added per gram of organic matter. (This may be estimated from volatile solids information).
Mix thoroughly. (Incomplete mixing can cause bumping during the digestion and may result in glassware breaking or loss of sample).
Add several glass beads of boiling chips to the flask.
Place flask on digestion apparatus and heat to boiling and continue boiling until you see the formation of dense white fumes (SO 2 ).
Continue to digest the sample for 30 minutes more. As the digestion continues, colored or turbid samples will turn clear or straw colored.
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Cool the flask and dilute the sample with 300 mL of ammonia free distilled water. Mix.
Add 0.5 mL phenolphthalein indicator.
Tilt the digestion flask and CAREFULLY add a sufficient amount of sodium hydroxide - thiosulfate reagent to form an alkaline layer (pink zone) in the bottom of the flask. Usually 50 mL of reagent is needed for every 50 mL of digestion reagent used.
Connect the flask to the distillation apparatus, mix thoroughly and distill 200 mL of distillate into a boric acid absorbing solution.
Pipette 50 mL of distillate or a suitable aliquot diluted to 50 mL with ammonia free distilled water into a 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask.
Neutralize the boric acid absorbing solution by:
Adding 2 mL Nessler reagent.
Adding Sodium hydroxide to pH near 7 followed by the addition of 1 mL of Nessler reagent
Cap the Erlenmeyer flask with a clean rubber stopper and mix thoroughly.
Allow 10 minutes for color development. (Sample, blank, and standards must be maintained at the same temperature and color development time.)
NOTE: If ammonia nitrogen is extremely low, allow 30 minute development.
Measure percent transmittance of the sample using a distilled water blank as reference (%T = 100) at the selected wavelength. (Since the wavelength used is dependent on the ammonia concentration, the wavelength must be determined experimentally and then remain constant for standards and samples.)
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Concentration (mg/L) Wavelength (nm)
0.4 to 5.0 mg/L 400 to 425 approaching 10 mg/L 450 to 500
Read the nitrogen concentration in ug from the calibration curve and calculate the ammonia nitrogen.
2.4.7 MOST PROBABLE NUMBER Human fecal pathogens vary in kind (viruses, bacteria, protozoa) and in number, it would be impossible to test each water sample for each pathogen. Instead, it is much easier to test for the presence of nonpathogenic intestinal organisms such as E. coli. E. coli is a normal inhabitant of the intestinal tract and is not normally found in fresh water. Therefore, if it is detected in water, it can be assumed that there has been fecal contamination of the water. The presence of this organism in a water supply is evidence of recent fecal contamination and is sufficient to order the water supply closed until tests no longer detect E. coli. Material Measuring Flask Test Tube Durham Tubes Autoclave Incubator Cotton Beef Extract Lactose Peptone
Procedure Prepare lactose broth by dissolving 3g. Beef extract, 5g. Lactose, and 5g. Peptone in I L of distilled water. Add 1o ml of prepared broth in each of the 9 test tubes. Insert one fermentation tube
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in inverted position in each of these tubes. Plug each tube with cotton and sterilize in auto clave. Inoculate the water sample 10 ml. each in 3 of the above tubes, 1 ml each in next 3 tubes and 0.1 ml each in remaining 3 tubes. Incubate these tubes at 35C 0.5C.At the end of 24 hr. take out the tubes from incubator. Shake each gently and examine for any gas formation Note the no. of positive tubes. Find out 24 hr. presumptive MPN rom statistical table given in appendix 3.
2.4.8 pH Determination of pH is one of the important objectives in biological treatment of the wastewater. In anaerobic treatment, if the pH goes below 5 due to excess accumulation of acids, the process is severely affected. Shifting of pH beyond 5 to 10 upsets the aerobic treatment of the wastewater. In these circumstances, the pH is generally adjusted by addition of suitable acid or alkali to optimize the treatment of the wastewater. pH value or range is of immense importance for any chemical reaction. A chemical shall be highly effective at a particular pH. Chemical coagulation, disinfection, water softening and corrosion control are governed by pH adjustment. Dewatering of sludges, oxidation of cyanides and reduction of hexavalent chromium into trivalent chromium also need a avorable pH range. It is used in the calculation of carbonate, bicarbonate, CO2 corrosion, stability index and acid base equilibrium. Lower value of pH below 4 will produce sour taste and higher value above 8.5 a bitter taste. Higher values of pH hasten the scale formation in water heating apparatus and also reduce the germicidal potential of chlorine. High pH induces the formation of trihalomethanes, which are causing cancer in human beings. Apparatus Required pH meter Standard flasks Magnetic Stirrer Funnel Beaker Wash Bottle
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Tissue Paper Chemicals Required Buffers Solutions of pH 4.01, 7.0 and 9.2 Potassium Chloride Distilled Water Procedure Calibrating The Instrument Using the buffer solutions calibrate the instrument. Step 1 In a 100 mL beaker take pH 9.2 buffer solution and place it in a magnetic stirrer, insert the teflon coated stirring bar and stir well. Now place the electrode in the beaker containing the stirred buffer and check for the reading in the pH meter. If the instrument is not showing pH value of 9.2, using the calibration knob adjust the reading to 9.2. Take the electrode from the buffer, wash it with distilled water and then wipe gently with soft tissue. Step 2 In a 100 mL beaker take pH 7.0 buffer solution and place it in a magnetic stirrer, insert the teflon coated stirring bar and stir well. Now place the electrode in the beaker containing the stirred buffer and check for the reading in the pH meter. If the instrument is not showing pH value of 7.0, using the calibration knob adjust the reading to 7.0Take the electrode from the buffer, wash it with distilled water and then wipe gently with soft tissue.
Step 3 In a 100 mL beaker take pH 4.0 buffer solution and place it in a magnetic stirrer, insert the teflon coated stirring bar and stir well. Now place the electrode in the beaker containing the stirred buffer and check for the reading in the pH meter. If the instrument is not showing pH value of 4.0, using the calibration knob adjust the reading to 4.0.
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Take the electrode from the buffer, wash it with distilled water and then wipe gently with soft tissue. Now the instrument is calibrated. Testing Of Sample In a clean dry 100 mL beaker take the water sample and place it in a magnetic stirrer, insert the Teflon coated stirring bar and stir well. Now place the electrode in the beaker containing the water sample and check for the reading in the pH meter. Wait until you get a stable reading. The pH of the given water sample is __ Take the electrode from the water sample, wash it with distilled water and then wipe gently with soft tissue.
2.4.9 SULPHATE Sulphates is widely distributed in nature and may be present in natural waters in concentration ranging from few hundred to several thousand mg/L.Sulphates occur naturally in numerous minerals, including barite, epsomite and gypsum.These dissolved minerals contribute to the mineral content of drinking-waters.Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) may contribute large amounts of sulphates through pyrite oxidation. Sulfate is the second most abundant anion in seawater. Its high concentration owes to the high to moderate solubility of the salts that it forms with the major cations in seawater, namely, Na, Mg 2+ , and Ca 2+ . Apparatus Required UV-Visible Spectrometer Sample tubes Standard flask Beaker Spatula Measuring Cylinder Wash Bottle Tissue Paper Chemicals Required Isopropyl Alcohol
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Glycerol Concentrated Hydrochloric acid Sodium Chloride Barium chloride Sodium sulphate Distilled water Procedure Preparation of Reagents Conditioning reagent Measure exactly 25 ml glycerol and pour it to a dry clean beaker. Then, measure 15 mL of concentrated hydrochloric acid and add it to the same beaker. To the same beaker, add exactly 50 mL of 95 % isopropyl alcohol and mix well. Accurate weigh 37.5 g sodium chloride and dissolve it in distilled water. Then mix all the contents and make up the final volume to 250 mL using distilled water. Standard sulphate solution Weigh accurately 1.479 g anhydrous sodium sulphate and dissolve it in distilled water. Take 1000 mL standard measuring flask and place a funnel over it. Transfer it to the 1000 mL standard flask and make up to 1000 mL using distilled water. Preparation of Blank, Standards and sample for Testing Take six 50 mL glass stoppered standard flask (four for standards, one for the sample and one for the blank). Add 10 mL of the standard sulphate solution to the first standard flask, 20 mL to the second, 30 mL to the third and 40 mL to the fourth. To the fifth standard flask add 20 mL of the sample water. The sixth standard flask is for the blank, to this standard flask add distilled water alone. To measure the sulphate content select the fixed wavelength measurement method. Double click fixed wavelength measurements, the system information are transferred and then the following window will appear. Click parameter option and select absorbance, fast response and enter starting value of the wave length in nanometers. For this experiment
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load 420 nm as the starting value. Click add and enter the sample number, here it is 100.Then load the number of cycles the analysis has to be made. Enter 1 for this case. Click ok. The details of the entries will be displayed as shown. Note that the absorbance is not zero so to reset the reading to zero, take distilled water in the two sample tubes and place them in the chambers of the spectrometer. Now click the button auto zero the instrument resets and shows 0.0000 as reading.
2.4.10 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLID The term total dissolved solids refer to materials that are completely dissolved in water. These solids are filterable in nature. It is defined as residue upon evaporation of filterable sample. The term total suspended solids can be referred to materials which are not dissolved in water and are non-filterable in nature. It is defined as residue upon evaporation of non-filterable sample on a filter paper. Apparatus Required Evaporating Dish Water Bath Oven Desiccators Analytical Balance Graduated Cylinders Dish Tongs Procedure To measure total dissolved solids, take a clean porcelain dish which has been washed and dried in a hot air oven at 180C for one hour. Now weigh the empty evaporating dish in analytical balance Mix sample well and pour into a funnel with filter paper. Filter approximately 80 -100 mL of sample. Using pipette transfer 75mL of unfiltered sample in the porcelain dish. Switch on the oven and allowed to reach 105C. Check and regulate oven and furnace temperatures frequently to maintain the desired temperature range.
Place it in the hot air oven and care should be taken to prevent splattering of sample during evaporation or boiling.
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Dry the sample to get constant mass. Drying for long duration usually 1 to 2 hours is done to eliminate necessity of checking for constant mass.
Cool the container in a desiccator. Desiccators are designed to provide an environment of standard dryness. This is maintained by the desiccant found inside. Don't leave the lid off for prolonged periods or the desiccant will soon be exhausted. Keep desiccator cover greased with the appropriate type of lubricant in order to seal the desiccator and prevent moisture from entering the desiccator as the test glassware cools. We should weigh the dish as soon as it has cooled to avoid absorption of moisture due to its hygroscopic nature. Samples need to be measured accurately, weighed carefully, and dried and cooled completely. Note the weight with residue.
2.4.11 ARSENIC Chronic arsenic poisoning results from drinking contaminated well water over a long period of time. Many aquifers contain high concentration of arsenic salts. The World Health Organization recommends a limit of 0.01 mg/L (10ppb) of arsenic in drinking water. This recommendation was established based on the limit of detection of available testing equipment at the time of publication of the WHO water quality guidelines. More recent findings show that consumption of water with levels as low as 0.00017 mg/L (0.17ppb) over long periods of time can lead to arsenicosis. From a 1988 study in China, the US protection agency quantified the lifetime exposure of arsenic in drinking water at concentrations of 0.0017 mg/L, 0.00017 mg/L, and 0.000017 mg/L are associated with a lifetime skin cancer risk of 1 in 10,000, 1 in 100,000, and 1 in 1,000,000 respectively. The World Health Organization asserts that a level of 0.01 mg/L poses a risk of 6 in 10000 chance of lifetime skin cancer risk and contends that this level of risk is acceptable. Apparatus As-1 Reagent (11 ml) As-2 Reagent (145 grams) Test Strips (100) Reaction Bottles Measuring Spoons
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Color Matching Card Carrying Case
Procedure Take 25 ml sample in the bottle given with the kit. Add Arsenic Reagent 1 (one Pouch) & 2 spoons of powdered reagent. Shake the mixture for 1 minute, now add one pouch of Arsenic Reagent 2 and put the bottle's cap fitted with a strip having mercuric bromide indicator at its tip immediately. Strip should neither touch the bottle nor the solution. Shake the bottle gently & put for 15 minutes for comletion of the reaction. Now remove the strip and match its colour with the scale given with the kit. Note down the corresponding reading.
2.5 Settlement of MSW MSW settles under its own weight and as external loads are placed on the landfill. External loads include daily soil cover, additional waste layers, final cover, and facilities such as buildings and roads. MSW settlement is mainly attributed to- (1) physical and mechanical processes that include the reorientation of particles, movement of the fine materials into larger voids, and collapse of void spaces; (2) chemical processes that include corrosion, combustion and oxidation; (3) dissolution processes that consist of dissolving soluble substances by percolating liquids and then forming leachate; and (4) Biological decomposition of organics with time depending on humidity and the amount of organics present in the waste.
2.6 MECHANISMS THAT CAUSE LARGE SETTLEMENTS 2.6.1 Mechanical/Primary Compression Mechanical/primary compression is due to distortion, Bending, crushing and reorientation of materials caused by the weight of overburden and compaction. This settlement occurs rapidly and is typically complete within approximately one month from the time the filling is complete. At the Landfill, mechanical and primary compression due to fills was estimated to range from 10 to 20 percent of new fill thicknesses based on empirical data collected during a soil fill placement. The actual primary compression depends on fill geometry, density of landfill and overburden, and landfill composition.
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2.6.2 Biodegradation: Aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic material by bacteria is theprocess known as biodegradation. For anaerobic decomposition of cellulose, which is the primarymechanism of biodegradation, bacteria convert carbon-based solid material and water intoprimarily carbon dioxide and methane. This conversion results in a loss of solid mass. Most settlement after landfill construction is due to this mechanism.
2.6.3 Physical Creep Compression (Including Ravelling/Void Filling): This mechanism is caused by: (1) Erosion and sifting of finer materials into voids between larger particles; (2) Material moving into voids as a result of biodegradation; and (3) Continued elastic compression. Void filling is partly related to a weakening of the support of the solids due to such things as Biodegradation and corrosion, which causes a reduction of the rigidity of landfill materials This form of settlement equals about2 percent of the fill height per log cycle of time. For the landfill, physical creep compression was estimated to contribute from 0 to 7 feet of additional settlement over the next 90 years.
2.7 MECHANISMS THAT CAUSE SMALL SETTLEMENTS 2.7.1 Interaction: Examples of interaction include methane supporting combustion, spontaneous Combustion and organic acids causing corrosion. This mechanism is closelyassociated with the occurrence of the other mechanisms. By itself, interaction is not expected torepresent a significant amount of settlement over a large areal extent. It could result in largelocalized settlements; although with a properly maintained and operated LFG collection systemand cover in place, the source of oxygen to support combustion will be significantly reduced.
2.7.2 Consolidation: Consolidation settlement is caused by excess water squeezing from pore spaces in low permeable soil formations. If landfill is not saturated then settlement due to consolidation is not expected.
2.8 Methodology for Primary and Mechanical Compression The waste mass consists of layers of refuse of finite thickness. Addition of a new waste layer causes settlement, attributable theweight of the overlaying layers, and stress increases
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instantaneouslybecause of construction of a new layer.The strain [(t)] resulting from an instantaneous response to surcharge loading can be expressed by (t) = C log((0 + )/0 ) (1)
where C = compression ratio (coefficient of compressibility); 0 = initial vertical stress; and = change in vertical stress Because the unit weight of a solid waste deposit in a landfillincreases with depth, the overburden pressure at different heightsHi is computed by (2) Thus, the strain in each lift of the multilayer fill can be expressed bythe equation (3) where C = coefficient of compressibility; Hi = initial thickness ofthe compacted lift (assumed initially same for all the lifts); i= unit weight of lift i; and j = increment of unit weight imposed by lift j on lift i; and pi and mi stand for primary and mechanical strain, respectively. The primary compression (S(t)pi) can be obtained by S(t)pi = Hj pi(t) (4) Similarly, the mechanical compression (S(t)mi ) attributable to creep, is obtained by S(t)m = H mi(t) (5) where H = initial height of the landfill after primary compression. Eqs. (4) and (5) give the temporal change of primary andmechanical compressions attributable to overlaying layers. Theseequations can be used to compute primary and mechanical settlementwhile assuming constant density, or spatial and temporal variation of density. Model Parameters: Coefficient of Compressibilityand DensityIn Eq. 3, the coefficient of compressibility (C) is used for bothprimary and mechanical strain. The value C is found from the relationship
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(6)
where C = compressive index; eo = initial void ratio of the solidwaste; and t = time after landfill closure (years).The compressive index C is primarily dependent on the voidratio and is obtained from the slope of the void ratio versus log-timecurve. The following range is provided for estimating the compressiveindex: C= (0.15 to 0.55)eo for primary compression; (0.03 to 0.09)eo for secondary compression The value of C is different for primary and mechanical compression. The coefficient of compressibility for primarycompression lies in the range 0.10.5, whereas secondary compressionlies in the range 0.0120.08. The variation of refuse density with depth (z) is computed by the method of Manna et al. using Eq. (7) Pz = Pm+(Pm P0) ((z/z + )) (7) where Po = starting value of the density; Pm= maximum density value corresponding to infinite load; and = numerical coefficient. Once the density is known by Eq. (7), the unit weight of thesolid waste is calculated by multiplying the acceleration due togravity (g) with density. The temporal variation of the unit weightis then obtained by (8) Where (t) = required unit weight at time t (days) and i = initial unit weight of the refuse. Density varies from 600694 kg/m 3 during activefilling, whereas the maximum density observed is in the range11861653 kg/m 3 . 2.9 Leachate Quantity The quantity of leachate generated in a landfill is strongly dependent on the quantity of infiltrating water. This, in turn, is dependent on weather and operational practices. The amount of rain falling on a landfill to a large extent controls the leachate quality generated. Precipitation depends on geographical location.Significant quantity of leachate is produced from the active
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phases of a landfill under operation during the monsoon season. The leachate quantity from those portions of a landfill which have received a final cover is minimal. The leachate generation during the operational phase from an active area of a landfill may be estimated in a simplified manner as follows: Leachate volume = (volume of precipitation) + (volume of pore squeeze liquid) (Volume lost through evaporation) (volume of water absorbed by the waste). 2.10 Gases in Landfill Gases found in landfills include air, ammonia, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide, methane, nitrogen, and oxygen. Carbon dioxide and methane are the principal gasses produced from the anaerobic decomposition of the organic solid waste.
2.11 Liner System Liner systems comprise of a combination of leachate drainage and collection layer(s) and barrier layer(s). A competent liner system should have low permeability, should be robust and durable and should be resistant to chemical attack, puncture and rupture. A liner system may comprise of a combination of barrier materials such as natural clays, amended soils and flexible geo-membranes.
Three types of liner systems are usually adopted and these are described hereafter: 2.11.1 Single Liner System: Such a system comprises of a single primary barrier overlain by a leachate collection system with an appropriate separation/protection layer. A system of this type is used for a low vulnerability landfill. It is suitable for LPI less than 7. 2.11.2 Single Composite Liner System: A composite liner comprises of two barriers, made of different materials, placed in intimate contact with each other to provide a beneficial
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combined effect of both the barriers. Usually a flexible geo-membrane is placed over a clay or amended soil barrier. A leachate collection system is placed over the composite barrier. Single composite liner system are often the minimum specified liner system for non-hazardous wastes such as MSW. For LPI between 7and 25 it is best suited liner type.
2.11.3 Double Liner System: In a double liner system a single liner system is placed twice, one beneath the other. The top barrier (called the primary barrier) is overlaid by a leachate collection system. Beneath the primary barrier, another leachate collection system (often called the leak detection layer) is placed followed by a second barrier (the secondary barrier). This type of system offers double safety and is often used beneath industrial waste landfills. It allows the monitoring of any seepage which may escape the primary barrier layer. For LPI greater than 25, it is taken into consideration.
Since LPI for the MSW waste for Allahabad is 19.86.Hence we will go for composite type liner. The advantages of a composite liner system are immense and often not widely recognised. The way that a composite liner works is sketched in figure and iscontrasted with individual geo-membranes and soil liners. To achieve goodcomposite action, the geo- membrane must be placed against the clay with good hydraulic contact. To achieve intimate contact, the surface of a compacted soilliner on which the geo-membrane is placed should be smooth-rolled with a steel drum roller. All oversize stones in the soils should be removed prior
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to rolling.Also, the geo-membrane should be placed and backfilled in a way that minimizes wrinkles.
On a basis of review of liner systems adopted in different countries , it is recommended that for all MSW landfills the following single composite liner system be adopted (waste downwards) as the minimum requirement : (a) A leachate drainage layer 30 cm thick made of granular soil having permeability (K) greater than 10 -2 cm/sec. (b) A protection layer (of silty soil) 30 cm thick. (c) A geo-membrane of thickness 2.0 mm. (d) A compacted clay barrier or amended soil barrier of 1 m thickness having permeability (K) of less than 10 -7 cm/sec.
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2.12 DESIGN OF LANDFILL LINERS The selection of material to be used a soil barrier layer will usually be governed by the availability of materials, either at site or locally in nearby areas. The hierarchy of options will usually be as follows: (a) Natural clay will generally be used as a mineral component of a liner system where suitable clay is available on site or nearby. (b) If clay is not available, but there are deposits of silts (or sands), then formation of good quality bentonite enhanced soil/amended soil, may be economical.
Compacted Clays: Wherever suitable low permeability natural clay materials are available, they provide the most economical lining material and are commonly used. The basic requirements of a compacted clay liner is that it should have permeability below a pre-specified limit (10 -7 cm/sec) and that this should be maintained during the design life. Natural clay available in-situ is usually excavated and re-compacted in an engineered manner. If clay is brought from nearby areas, it is spread in thin layers and compacted over the existing soil. The quality of the in-situ clay may be good enough to preclude the requirement of acompacted clay liner, only if it has no desiccation cracks and is homogeneous aswell as uniformly dense in nature. Amended Soils: When low-permeability clay is not available locally, in-situ soilsmay be mixed with medium to high plasticity imported clay, or commercial clayssuch as bentonite, to achieve the required low hydraulic conductivity. Soil bentonite admixtures are commonly used as low permeability amended soil liners.Generally, well-graded soils require 5 to 10 percent by dry weight of bentonite,while uniformlygraded soils (such as fine sand), may typically require 10 to 15percent bentonite. The most commonly used bentonite admixture is sodium bentonite. Calcium bentonite may also be used, but more bentonite may be neededto achieve the required permeability, because it is more permeable than sodiumbentonite. A competent barrier made of compacted soils - clays or amended soils is normally expected to fulfil the following requirements: (a) Hydraulic conductivity of 10-7 cm/sec or less; (b) Thickness of 100 cm or more; (c) Absence of shrinkage cracks due to desiccation; (d) Absence of clods in the compacted clay layer; (e) Adequate strength for stability of liner under compressive loads as well as alongside slopes; and
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(f) Minimal influence of leachate on hydraulic conductivity. Clays of high plasticity with very low values of permeability (usually well below the prescribed limit), exhibit extensive shrinkage on drying, as well as tend to form large clods during compaction in the relatively dry state. Their permeability can also increase on ingress of certain organic leachates. Well compacted inorganic clays of medium plasticity, either natural or amended, appear to be most suitable for liner construction. 2.13 Geo-membranes A High Density Poly ethylene (HDPE) geo-membrane of minimum thickness of 1.5 mm is to be laid over the compacted clay/amended soil with no gaps along the surface of contact. 2.13.1 Specifications The geo-membrane is normally expected to meet the following requirements: (a) It should be impervious. (b) It should have adequate strength to withstand subgrade deformations and construction loads. (c) It should have adequate durability and longevity to withstand environmental loads. (d) The joints/seams must perform as well as the original material. 3.14 Daily Cover The advantages of using daily cover are primarily in preventing windblown litter and odors, deterrence to scavengers, birds and vermin and in improving the sites visual appearance. It is also advocated as a means of shedding surface water during the filling sequence, thereby assisting in leachate management by reducing infiltration. 3.15 Final Cover A landfill cover is usually composed of several layers, each with a specific function. The final cover system must enhance surface drainage, minimize infiltration, vegetation and control the release the landfill gases. The landfill cover system to be adopted will depend on the gas management plan i.e. (a) controlled passive venting; (b) uncontrolled release; or (c) controlled collection and treatment/reuse.
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3.16 Ground Water Monitoring Wells around a Landfill Groundwater samplers are used for groundwater monitoring through a certain set of wells around a landfill. A minimum of 4 sets of ground water monitoring wells (one up-gradient and three down gradient) for sampling in each acquifer are considered desirable at each landfill site as per recommendations of Manual on MSW Management by MoOD, Govt. of India.
3.17 Surface Water Drainage System Surface water management is required to ensure that rainwater run-off does not drain into the waste from surrounding areas and that there is no water logging/ ponding on covers of landfills. The final cover should be provided a slope of 3 to 5% for proper surface water drainage.
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3.18 Post Closure Use of Landfills After the closure of landfill site, it can be used in a number of ways some of which are mentioned as following- Parks Golf Courses Residential buildings (after proper geotechnical investigations) Recreational Areas Retail sites
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CHAPTER 3 Result and Analysis
3.1 Census Data for Allahabad city We have collected the census data from websites of Census data and forecast the population for Allahabad in 2021.For forecasting we have used Arithmetic Increase Method as it is best suitable method for an old city. Following are the data and calculation: Table 3.1 Census data for Allahabad City Year Population Increase in population (x) 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 513036 650070 844546 975393 1117094 137034 194476 130847 141701 Total 604058 Average Increase Per Decade X=604058/4 =151014.5
Using Incremental Increase Method Population in 2045 using Incremental Increase Method P2045 = 1594871 P2035 = 1460899 P2025 = 1321244 3.2 MSW Data for Allahabad City: We went to Allahabad Waste Processing Co. Pvt. Ltd. To collect the monthly MSW data for a year to estimate the per capita per day waste generation for present year and after a decade. Following are the data and calculation showing estimation of waste generation:
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Table 3.2 MSW Data for Allahabad City Month MSW(Mt.) April 7763.900 May 8494.650 June 10136.870 July 9724.055 August 9763.550 September 10250.220 October 10993.108 November 9753.600 December 12196.640 January 12084.520 February 12892.430 March 13163.718
From this data, Total year MSW production = 127217.261 Mt. Total avg./Month = 10601.43842 Mt. Total avg./Day = 353.3812806 Mt. Total avg./capita/day = 353.3812806*1000/1117094 = 0.316 kg Total MSW/day production after a decade = 0.316*1594871 = 503.979 Mt. 3.3 LPI parameters details 3.3.1 BOD Sample 1 = 203.2 mg/l Sample 2 = 294.3 mg/l Sample 3 = 467 mg/l Sample 4 = 480.5 mg/l
Table 3.4 LPI Calculation Number Parameter Weight(Wi) Pollution Level Sub Index Value (Pi) WiPi 1 Arsenic (mg/l) 0.061 0.015 5 0.305 2 BOD (mg/l) 0.061 361.25 7 0.427 3 Chloride (mg/l) 0.048 2609.255 15 0.72 4 COD (mg/l) 0.062 568.915 10 0.62 5 Copper (mg/l) 0.05 0.888475 5.2 0.26 6 Iron (mg/l) 0.045 1.3322 5 0.225 7 Kjeldahl Nitrogen (mg/l) 0.053 34.505 5 0.265 8 MPN per 100 ml 0.052 461.25 50 2.6 9 pH 0.055 8.45 4.5 0.2475 10 TDS (mg/l) 0.05 167.9 100 5 Sum 0.537 10.6695
Hence LPI = 10.6695/0.537 = 19.86 3.5 Computation of Primary and Mechanical Compression Primary and mechanical compression were computed considering two cases: assuming (1) constant density throughout the landfill and (2) spatial and temporal variation in landfill density. In the first scenario, primary compression, density is assumed to be the same throughout the cell and taken as the starting value of 600 kg=m 3 ; the coefficient of compressibility (C) is
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taken as 0.2. For mechanical compression, considering t = 15 years,spatial variation of density is computed using and assumed not to vary temporally throughout computation; the coefficient of compressibility (C) is taken as 0.02.The starting value of the density Po is taken as 600 kg/m 3 ; the maximum density Pm is taken as 1; 350 kg/m 3 ; and a numeric coefficient is taken as 12.4. These values were taken after thorough sensitivity analysis and are used by many researchers, as shown in following tables.
In the second scenario, primary compression, Eq. 2.8 is used to calculate temporal variation of density. Furthermore, for mechanical compression, spatial and temporal variation of density is calculated using Eqs. 2.7 and 2.8. primary compression, the values C, Po, Pm, are the same as in mechanical compression, as previously described.
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Starting value of density P0 = 600 kg/m 3
Maximum density Pm =1350 kg/m 3
Coefficient of compressibility (C) = 0.2 For mechanical compression, considering t = 15 years =12.4 We calculated settlement considering variable and constant density. Results are shown in following table Table 3.5 Settlement Details Year Settlement (m) variable density Settlement (m) constant density Difference 2 0.104 0.104 0 5 0.6275 0.6035 0.024 10 1.8423 1.7269 0.1154 15 3.291 3.0466 0.2444 19 4.5604 4.1958 0.3646 23 5.904 5.4087 0.4953 27 7.3078 6.6741 0.6337 30 8.3945 7.6527 0.7418 Settlement (%) 27.98 25.51 Total MSW at the end of 30 yrs. =30*365*717.691*1000 =7858716450 kg Total amount of primary settlement in 30 years with max landfill depth of 15 m considering the variable density= 15*27.98/100 = 4.2 m Total amount of mechanical compression in the same period =1.5 m Hence, total settlement = 5.7 m By using Park & Lee Equation for settlement due to biodegradation (S(t)): S(t)= H*E*{1-e (-kt) } Where, H = Initial height of the waste=15 m E = Total expected strain=0.159 k = First order decay constant= 1.14*10 -3 per day t =Time since the start of the decay (day) Hence, S(t) = 15*0.159*{1-e (-1.14*10^-3*30*365) }
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= 2.38m
Therefore, adopting total settlement = 4.2+1.5+2.38 m =8.08m
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3.6 Leachate volume = (volume of precipitation) + (volume of pore squeeze liquid) (Volume lost through evaporation) (volume of water absorbed by the waste). Volume of pore squeeze liquid = 45% of weight of MSW Volume of water absorbed by the waste = 45% of weight of MSW Table 3.7 Rainfall Data for Allahabad City Rainfall(mm) in year Month 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 January 0.6 0.0 3.6 0.9 43.7 February 10.0 0.5 19.2 4.5 0.0 March 0.0 14.4 0.0 0.0 0.8 April 3.1 3.2 0.5 9.3 9.2 May 38.5 26.8 7.5 12.2 0.1 June 322.4 3.1 8.5 237.3 23.1 July 446.9 172.7 201.7 171.0 385.4 August 326.1 64.8 160.6 282.3 246.1 September 67.5 177.8 126.4 266.4 363.5 October 20.3 33.6 45.5 0.0 2.7 November 1.7 15.9 5.3 0.0 0.0 December 0.0 6.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Table 3.8 Temperature and Humidity data for Allahabad City Month Avg. Ppt. (mm) Avg. Temp (C) Humidity January 9.58 15.9 68
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February 6.84 18.4 59 March 3.04 24.5 40 April 5.06 20.7 29 May 17.02 34.0 32 June 118.88 33.6 45 July 275.54 29.9 78 August 215.98 29.7 80 September 200.32 29.7 79 October 20.42 26.4 68 November 4.58 21.7 60 December 1.2 17.3 64
3.7 Volume Lost through evaporation To calculate losses through evaporation, we will use following equation(Meyer Formula), E =0.36(1+(u9/16))(ew - ea) Where E = evaporation u9 = mean wind speed at 9m above ground = u* (9) (1/7)
ew = saturation vapour pressure at mean air temperature in mm of mercury ea = actual vapour pressure = Relative Humidity * ew
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Table 3.9 Temperature vs. Saturation Vapour pressure ew Temperature C Saturation Vapour pressure ew (mm of Hg) A(mm/C) 0 4.58 0.30 5 6.54 0.45 7.5 7.78 0.54 10 9.21 0.60 12.5 10.87 0.71 15 12.79 0.80 17.5 15.00 0.95 20 17.54 1.05 22.5 20.44 1.24 25 23.76 1.40 27.5 27.54 1.61 30 31.82 1.85 32.5 36.68 2.07 35 42.81 2.35 37.5 48.36 2.62 40 55.32 2.95 45 71.20 3.66
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Table 3.10 Calculation of Evaporation
Month ew ea u (kmph) u9 (kmph) E(mm) January 12.85 8.738 4.32 5.9184 2.0278 February 16.2 9.558 4.32 5.9184 3.2755 March 23.0 13.728 4.32 5.9184 4.5726 April 34.32 9.953 8.23 11.2751 14.9537 May 41.1 13.152 8.23 11.2751 17.1514 June 40.93 18.419 8.23 11.2751 13.8147 July 31.61 24.656 8.23 11.2751 4.2675 August 31.4 25.12 8.23 11.2751 3.8539 September 31.4 24.806 4.32 5.9184 3.4548 October 26.4 17.952 4.32 5.9184 4.1662 November 19.2 11.52 0.72 0.9864 2.9352 December 14.83 9.491 4.32 5.9184 2.6330
Table 3.11 Calculation of Leachate Quantity
Month Avg. Ppt. (P)(mm) MSW (Mt.) E(mm) Leachate Quantity per Cell(m 3 ) January 9.58 12084.520 30.417 -312.555 (0) February 6.84 12892.430 49.1325 -634.3875 (0) March 3.04 13163.718 68.589 -983.235 (0)
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April 5.06 7763.900 224.3055 -3288.68 (0) May 17.02 8494.650 257.271 -3603.765(0) June 118.88 10136.870 207.2205 -1325.1075 (0) July 275.54 9724.055 64.0125 3172.9125 August 215.98 9763.550 57.8085 2372.5725 September 200.32 10250.220 51.822 2227.47 October 20.42 10993.108 62.493 -631.095 (0) November 4.58 9753.600 44.028 -591.72 (0) December 1.2 12196.640 39.495 -574.425 (0)
3.8 Gasses generation in Landfill CaHbOcNd + pH2O qCH4 + rCO2 + dNH3 Where, p = (4a - b 2c + 3d)/4 q = (4a + b 2c + 3d)/8 r = (4a - b + 2c + 3d)/8 Table 3.12 Composition of elements in waste Element Min (%) Max (%) Avg. (%) Proximate Analysis C 5.2 21.21 11.1 3.01+0.562VM-0.044Ash H 0.64 2.66 1.2 0.468+0.057VM-0.005 Ash O 17.22 28.84 23.03 96.11-0.6453VM-0.948 Ash N 0.30 1.10 0.57 0.282+0.0216VM-0.002 Ash S 0.10 0.367 0.21 0.125+0.0003VM+0.0005 Ash
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Volatile Mat. 9.3 35.5 18.2 Ash 18.58 69.87 48.72
Hence, a = 11.1/12 =0.925 b = 1.2/1 = 1.2 c = 17.22/16 = 1.07625 d = 0.57/14 = 0.0407 Quantity of CH4 = 0.3281*16 = 5.24 g per 100 g of MSW Quantity of CO2 = 0.5968*44 = 26.25 g per 100 g of MSW 3.9 Design of Leachate Collection System: Maximum monthly amount of leachate generated (in July) = 3172.9125 m 3
Corresponding average daily amount of leachate = 3172.9125/30 = 105.7638 m 3
Average discharge of leachate = 105.7638/ (24*3600) = 0.001224 m 3 /sec Assuming velocity of flow of leachate in the landfill = 0.2 m/sec Hence, Diameter of main drain pipe to be used is calculated as- Q = A*V .001224 = 3.14*D 2 *0.2/4 D = 8.83 cm
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Since we are providing perforated pipes (PVC or HDPE) having perforations at 120 degrees
Hence, actual diameter of main drain pipe required = 8.83*3 =26.49 cm = 27 cm. The collecting manhole is provided in the form of a trench of 15 cm width & 10 cm depth having cross sectional area =150 cm 2 which is greater than required area of (.001224*10000/0.2) = 61.2 cm 2 which is all right.
3.10 Design of Leachate Collection Pond Accounting natural moisture content of MSW, precipitation and evaporation, it is calculated that leachate would be produced only in the months of July, August and September. Hence, the minimum capacity of leachate collection system = 3173+2373+2227 = 7773 m 3 Providing 40m* 40m * 5mdimension of leachate collection pond having leachate storage capacity of 8000 m 3. This pond will be dug below the level of landfill bottom so that leachate may drain into it under gravity and energy required in pumping the leachate could be saved. At the bottom of the pond, Double Liner System will be installed to ensure no percolation of leachate into the ground water table.
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3.11 Leachate Recirculation System In the months other than July, August and September, leachate needs to be recirculated to maintain the optimum moisture content of MSW for its enhanced biodegradation. The leachate is sprayed over the MSW using suitable techniques like sprinkler system, etc. Optimum moisture content of MSW =45% by weight The design of recirculation system should be in accordance with the maximum deficiency in moisture content which is found to be in the month of May. If the leachate stored in the leachate collection pond is not sufficient, moisture supply from other external sources such as nonhazardous sewer lines is recommended.
3.12 Design of Gas Collection System From previous calculations- Weight of methane = 52.4 kg per ton of MSW Volume of methane can be calculated using ideal gas equation as- P*V = n*R*T Where, P = 1 atm (Pressure inside gas collecting vertical wells) R = Gas constant = 0.0821 ltr-atm/K/mole T = 40 0 C (Average Temperature inside the landfill) Hence, 1*V 1= (52400/16) * 0.0821 * 313 V1 = 84158.6575 ltr V1 = 84.159 m 3 per ton of MSW Similarly,
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Volume of CO2 can be calculated as- V2 = (262500/44) * 0.0821 * 313 = 153307.7557 ltr = 153.308 m 3 per ton of MSW Therefore, total volume of gas = 84.159 + 153.308 = 237.467 m 3 of MSW Assuming 75 % of removal efficiency of LFG. Total design volume of LFG = 0.75 * 237.467 = 178.1 m 3 per ton of MSW Time required to fill one cell of landfill = Design Period/ total no. of cells = 30/8 = 3.75 years But, in a bioreactor landfill, significant volume of LFG is obtained between 3 to 15 years as shown in the graph-
Therefore, as per recommendations of Manual on Municipal Solid Waste by MoUD, controlled passive gas collection system should be used for collection and removal of LFG.
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For LFG volume ranging from 200 to 300 m 3 per ton of MSW, 15 to 20 cm diameter wells are recommended to be drilled at a spacing between 30 to 75 m. For 1 MW energy output from a landfill site, 15 to 20 such wells are required. The cover system and placing of passive vents are shown as follows
3.13 Daily Cover: Soils used as daily cover will give a pleasing uniform appearance from the site boundary. To achieve this a thickness of about 150 mm is usually adequate and should be adopted. About 300 mm needs to be used to avoid paper, etc. being seen from close proximity.
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3.14 Final Cover: A landfill cover is usually composed of several layers, each with a specific function. The final cover system must enhance surface drainage, minimize infiltration, vegetation and control the release the landfill gases. The landfill cover system to be adopted will depend on the gas management plan i.e. (a) controlled passive venting; (b) uncontrolled release; or (c) controlled collection and treatment/reuse.
3.15 Ground Water Monitoring Wells around a Landfill A minimum of 4 sets of ground water monitoring wells (one up-gradient and three down gradient) for sampling in each aquifer are considered desirable at each landfill site as per recommendations of Manual on MSW Management by MoUD, Govt. of India.
3.16 Surface Water Drainage System The final cover should be provided a slope of 3 to 5% for proper surface water drainage. 3.17 Calculation of Bioreactor Size: Area required considering depth of the waste 15m with 8.08m settlement and density as 1350 kg/m 3
= 7858716450/1350*(15+8.08)
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= 252122.4664 m 2
= 25.21 hectares Since organic waste = 45% approx. Hence corrected area = 25.21*0.45 = 11.34 hectares From the consideration of safe design, rounding off the calculated area to 120000 m 2 (i.e.12 hectares). Corresponding size of the bioreactor landfill to accommodate the entire MSW generated in the design period= 400m * 300m* 15m 3.18 Layout of Landfill Bottom: Slope of cross drains for leachate collection=1.5% Slope of Longitudinal main drains=2.5% No of cells in the landfill=6 Dimension of each cell= 400*50 m
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CHAPTER 4 Conclusions A Bioreactor Landfill is an effective engineering solution for MSW disposal which minimizes the environmental hazards involved in operation of conventional Dry Tomb Landfills. The major results of this project are as follows- (1) The population of Allahabad city for next 30 years (2015-2045) is calculated by incremental increase method using census data of last four decades (1971-2011) and it is found to be 1594871 at the end of the year 2045. (2) Using monthly and annual data (from AWP) of MSW production for Allahabad City, Average MSW production per day (in 2011) = 353.38 Mt Average MSW production per day (in 2045) = 503.979 Mt (3) Average Moisture content of the MSW = 45 % Design period of Landfill = 30 Years (4) By analysis of leachate samples at 15 days intervals, various parameters such as BOD, COD, MPN pH, Sulphate etc. were calculated and LPI value came to be equal to 19.86 which is greater than 7.378 up to which leachate need not to be treated before disposal. It clearly indicates that the leachate from existing landfill site is potentially hazardous to soil as well as ground water near landfill area. Hence, we have provided Composite Liner System for prevention of leachate percolation into ground water. Also, instead of treating the leachate for purification, we shall recirculate it which would increase the rate of biodegradation of the MSW. (5) Total settlement of MSW due to Primary Settlement, Mechanical Compression and Biodegradation is calculated and it is equal to 8.08 m. Area of 15 m height landfill required to accommodate the MSW in entire design period=12 hectares Hence, Size of the bioreactor landfill = 400m x 300mx 15 m The entire landfill is divided in 8 cells of each 300m x 50m x 15 m. Once the first cell is filled completely (in about 3.75 years), another cell is used to accommodate the further quantity of MSW. (6) Leachate will be generated only in the months of July, August and September and total quantity of leachate generated in these months = 7773 m 3
Hence, the size of Leachate Collection Pond = 40m x 40m x 5m
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Double Liner System is provided at the bottom of the leachate collection pond. (7) Volume of Methane = 84.159 m 3 /ton of MSW Volume of Carbon dioxide = 153.308 m 3 /ton of MSW Assuming 75 % efficiency of Gas collection, total quantity of gases for which gas collection system is designed = 178.1 m 3 /ton of MSW (8) Daily cover is provided in form of 150 mm impervious clay layer. (9) Final cover is provided as per Manual on MSW management by MoUD. (10) Four sets of Ground water monitoring wells are provided in a cluster of 3 wells each and shown at respective place. (11) Design of various components of bioreactor landfill such as leachate collection system, leachate recirculation system, LFG collection system etc. have been done at respective places. (12) Post closure use of bioreactor landfills includes parks, golf courses, recreational areas, residential buildings, retail sites etc. Thus, it may be concluded that a Bioreactor landfill not only reduces the risk of ground water contamination due to leachate percolation and reduces Green House Effect by trapping Methane and Carbon Dioxide, but also reduces the operational costs of landfill by generating revenue from Landfill Gas. 4.1 Future Scope of the Study A lot of work still needs to be done for exact prediction of LFG movement inside the landfill, estimation of Settlement rate and study of leachate characteristics with time variation. Design of various components of landfill have been done in respective places.
y = 0.0884x + 0.0428 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 S a m p l e
C o n c .
( m g / l ) Absorbance Iron Absorbance Std. Curve
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Apendix 3
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Appendix 4 Subindex Value Curve
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Appendix 5 Typical value for geo membrane
References 1. Allahabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) 2003, Allahabad Nagar Nigam, Uttar Pradesh, India, unpublished data. 2. Mathur S. and Chakma S. (2002), MSW Management through Bioreactor Landfill, National Seminar on Advances in Civil Engineering: Perspectives of Developing Countries, HBTI, Kanpur, vol. 2, pp.546-552. 3. Timothy G., Kumar D. and Jae Hac KO, 2008, BIOREACTOR LANDFILL OPERATION A Guide for Development, Implementation and Monitoring, Version 1.0. 4. Characterization, Design, Construction and Monitoring of Bioreactor Landfills February 2006,ITRC 444 North Capitol Street, NW, Suite 445, Washington, DC 20001 5. Shaw, P. and Knight A., Landfill: Bioreactor Landfills: But Does It Save Money, Waste Age, Jul. 1 2000.(www.wasteage.com) 6. Municipal Solid Waste Rules, 2000 7. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) 8. AWP Naini, Allahanad 9. Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management( Minisrty of Urban Development India(moud.gov.in)) 10. Rakesh Chandra Vaishya,S. Chakma 2014 Modeling Chemical Compositions of Municipal Solid Waste 11. Allahabad Meteorological Department (www.imd.gov.in) 12. Internet