Applied Energy 102 (2013) 962970

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Applied Energy
"o# r n a l $o% ep ag e& '''( el sevi er (co% )l ocate ) a p e n er g y
Asp$alt solar collectors& A literat#re revie'
anesa *obes+,es#s- .ablo .asc#al+/#0o1- !aniel Castro+2resno

- ,orge 3odrig#e1+4ernande1
!ept( o5 6ransport and 6ec$nology o5 .ro"ects and .rocesses- E6S7CC.- 8niversity o5
Cantabria- 39009 Santander- Spain
$ i g $ l i g $ t s
: Solar energy can be $arnessed by asp$alt pave%ents(
: 3esearc$ on asp$alt t$er%al be$avior and asp$alt solar collectors is revie'ed(
: Asp$alt te%perat#re is very sensitive to t$e variation o5 absortivity(
: Asp$alt solar collector e5;ciency depends on ;o' rate and geo%etrical para%eters(
a r t i c l e i n 5 o
Article $istory&
3eceived 20 April
2012
3eceived in revised
5or% 19 ,#ly 2012
Accepted 27
A#g#st 2012
Available online 6
<ctober 2012
=ey'ords&
Asp$alt solar
collector
4eat trans5er
Asp$alt
te%perat#
re St#dy
%et$odol
ogy
Sensitivit
y analysis
a b s t r a c t
Asp$alt pave%ents s#b"ect to solar radiation can reac$ $ig$
te%perat#res ca#sing not only environ%en+ tal proble%s
s#c$ as t$e $eat island e55ect on cities b#t also str#ct#ral
da%age d#e to r#tting or $arden+ ing as a res#lt o5 t$er%al
cycles( Asp$alt solar collectors are do#bly e55ective active
syste%s& as t$ey solve t$e previo#sly %entioned proble%s
and- %oreover- t$ey can $arness energy to be #sed in di55erent
appli+ cations( 6$e %ain ;ndings o5 t$e e>isting researc$ on
asp$alt solar collectors are gat$ered toget$er in t$is revie'
paper( 2irstly- t$e %ain $eat trans5er %ec$anis%s involved in
t$e solar energy collection process are identi;ed and t$e
%ost i%portant para%eters and variables are presented( A5ter
analy1ing t$e t$eo+ retical 5o#ndations o5 t$e $eat trans5er
process- t$is revie' 5oc#ses on t$e types o5 st#dies carried
o#t so 5ar on asp$alt?s t$er%al be$avior- di55erent
%et$odologies e%ployed by ot$er a#t$ors to st#dy asp$alt
solar collectors and
in;#ence o5 t$e
variables involved in t$er%al energy $arvesting(
2012 Elsevier @td( All
rig$ts reserved(
Contents
1( 7ntrod#ction
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 963
2( Energy balance in asp$alt solar collectors ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 963
2(1( Cond#ction(
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 963
2(2( Convection ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 963
2(2(1( Collector+at%osp$ere ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 963
2(2(2( .ipes+$eat e>c$ange 5l#id
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (
( 96A
2(3( 3adiation
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 96A
2(3(1( Solar radiation ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 96A
2(3(2( 6$er%al radiation ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 96A
3( Eval#ation o5 t$e e>isting researc$
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (
969
3(1( 7ntrod#ction to asp$alt?s t$er%al be$avior
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 969
3(1(1( /et$ods 5or te%perat#re prediction ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 969
3(1(2( /et$ods 5or deter%ining asp$alt?s t$er%al properties
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 969
3(1(3( Sensitivity analysis o5 asp$alt te%perat#re
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 966
3(2( St#dy %et$odology o5 asp$alt solar collectors ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 966
3(2(1( E>peri%ental st#dies ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 966
3(2(2( 6$eoretical approac$es& n#%erical %odeling and si%#lation ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 966

Corresponding a#t$or( 6el(& B3A 9A2202093C 5a>& B3A 9A2201703(
E+%ail addresses&
vanesa(bobesDal#%nos(#nican(es ((
*obes+,es#s)- pab lo( pasc#al%D#nican(es
(.( .asc#al+/#0o1)-
daniel(castroD#nican(es (!( Castro+
2resno)- "orge(rodrig#e1D#nican(es (,(
3odrig#e1+4ernande1)(
0306+2619)E + see 5ront %atter
2012 Elsevier @td( All rig$ts
reserved(
$ttp&))d>(doi(org)10(1016)"(apenergy(
2012(0F(090
( *obes+,es#s et al( ) Applied Energy 102 (2013) 962970
A
A
( *obes+,es#s et al( ) Applied Energy 102 (2013) 962970
3(3( ariables involved in t$er%al energy collection
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 966
3(3(1( /aterials ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 966
3(3(2( Geo%etrical and 'orHing para%eters
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 967
A( Critical revie' o5 asp$alt solar collectors tec$nology
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 96F
9( 2#t#re prospects ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 96F
6( Concl#sions
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 96F
3e5erences ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 969
1( 7ntrod#ction
Asp$alt pave%ent s#r5ace te%perat#re can
reac$ #p to 70 C in s#%%er ind#cing a rise
in te%perat#re o5 t$e air above- '$ic$ is
generally Hno'n as t$e $eat island e55ect( 7t
ca#ses an increase in po'er cons#%ption
d#e to t$e #se o5 air conditioning and a
decrease in air I#ality in cities( /oreover-
pave%ents #nder s#c$ $ig$ te%perat#res
are prone to s#55er 5ro% r#tting( 7n
partic#lar- t$e t$er%al o>idation rate
do#bles 'it$ eac$ 10 = incre%ent in
te%perat#re J1K(
Asp$alt solar collectors consist o5 pipes
e%bedded in t$e pave+ %ent 'it$ a
circ#lating ;#id inside( Solar radiation
ca#ses an increase in pave%ent
te%perat#re( !#e to t$e te%perat#re gradi+
ent bet'een t$e ;#id circ#lating t$ro#g$
pipes and t$e pave%ent- a $eat trans5er
process occ#rs 5ro% pave%ent to ;#id '$ic$
leads to a drop in pave%ent te%perat#re
and an increase in ;#id te%+ perat#re( 6$is
drop in asp$alt te%perat#re contrib#tes to
%itigate t$e $eat island e55ect and red#ce
t$e risH o5 per%anent de5or%a+ tions(
4o'ever- '$at %aHes asp$alt solar
collectors really interest+ ing is t$eir ability
to #se t$e te%perat#re rise #ndergone by
t$e circ#lating ;#id to $arness energy(
Asp$alt solar collectors are #s#ally co#pled
'it$ lo' te%perat#re geot$er%al $eat
p#%ps- obtaining reasonable e5;ciency
and operating costs( Energy obtained
5ro% asp$alt solar collectors is generally
#sed 5or sno'+ %elting syste%s or to
%aintain t$er%al co%5ort o5 ad"acent
b#ildings( 6$ere are also concrete solar
collectors- b#t beca#se o5 t$e blacH color-
asp$alt?s solar absorption coe5;cient is
$ig$er t$an concrete J2K( As a conseI#ence-
asp$alt solar collectors per5or% better t$an
t$e concrete ones(
6$e ;rst re5erence to an asp$alt solar
collector dates 5ro% 1979 and is a patent
entitled LL.aving and solar energy syste%
and %et$od?? J3K( <ne o5 t$e pioneer
applications o5 an asp$alt solar collector as
a sno'+%elting syste% is t$e S'iss syste%
SE3S<( 7t consisted o5 pipes e%bebed in a
bridge decH( 6$e syste% is capable o5 storing
20M o5 t$e energy irradiated over t$e bridge
in s#%%er( 6$e GA7A syste% si%ilar to
( *obes+,es#s et al( ) Applied Energy 102 (2013) 962970
9
SE3S<- installed in 1999 in Nino$e- ,apan-
'as t$e ;rst to operate a#to%atically
JA-9K( 6$ere are several st#dies on t$e #se
o5 asp$alt solar collectors as sno'+ %elting
syste%s J611K( <n t$e %arHet- t$ere are
co%panies t$at co%%erciali1e t$ese
syste%s- s#c$ as t$e !#tc$ <o%s 7nterna+
tional 4olding 'it$ its 3oad Energy Syste%s
(3ES) J12K and Oin+ nerOay J13K( 6$e
Englis$ co%pany 7CAPQ @td( $as already
installed asp$alt collectors s#c$ as t$e
sno'+%elting syste% in 6oddington or t$e
4o'e !ell Sc$ool- '$ere t$e playgro#nd is
a solar collector t$at contrib#tes to
%aintain t$e t$er%al co%5ort inside t$e
b#ilding J1AK( <t$er co%panies- s#c$ as
Alternatives and Novotec$ 7nc( in
collaboration 'it$ Oorcester .olytec$nic
7nstit#te $ave developed a Hind o5 asp$alt
solar collector called 3oad'ay .o'er
Syste% t$at co%bined 'it$ a t#rbine
syste% prod#ces electrical energy J19K(
2( Energy balance in asp$alt solar
collectors
An asp$alt solar collector- '$ere t$e
energy is balanced- is 5or%ed by t$ree
di55erent %aterial %edia& t'o solids- t$e
asp$alt
pave%ent and t$e pipes- and t'o ;#ids- t$e
air o5 t$e at%osp$ere and t$e ;#id ;o'ing
t$ro#g$ pipes(
6$ere are t$ree %ec$anis%s o5 $eat
e>c$ange in an asp$alt so+ lar collector&
e>c$ange by cond#ction- convection and
radiation( 6$e energy is balanced ;rst along
t$e pave%ent+at%osp$ere inter+ 5ace( 6$e
$eat ;#> t$ro#g$ t$is inter5ace is ca#sed by
solar radia+ tion- convection and t$er%al
radiation( 6$is $eat ;#> ca#ses a
te%perat#re di55erence bet'een t$e asp$alt
s#r5ace and a point located in t$e pave%ent
at a certain dept$- leading to a cond#ction
process 5ro% t$e pave%ent s#r5ace to t$e
interior( At t$e dept$ '$ere t$e pipes are
e%bedded- t$is $eat trans5er by cond#ction
contin#es t$ro#g$ t$e inter5ace pave%ent+
pipe and t$ro#g$ t$e pipe 'all( A
convection process occ#rs d#e to t$e
te%perat#re di55erence bet'een t$e interior
s#r5ace o5 t$e pipe and t$e ;#id- ca#sing an
increase in ;#id te%perat#re(
2(1(
Cond#ctio
n
Cond#ction is t$e process by '$ic$ $eat is
e>c$anged 5ro% one point to anot$er
t$ro#g$o#t a body d#e to t$e te%perat#re
gradi+ ent bet'een t'o points( 7n t$e asp$alt
solar collector- $eat trans5er occ#rs 5ro% t$e
pave%ent s#r5ace to t$e interior according
to 2o#rier?s @a'&
I
n
R H
n
r6
n
S1T
'$ere I
n
(O %
2
) is t$e $eat trans5er rate in n
direction by #nit o5 s#r5ace perpendic#lar to
n directionC H
n
is t$e t$er%al cond#ctivity in n
direction (O %
1
=
1
) and r6
n
is t$e
te%perat#re gradient in n direction (= %
1
)(
2(2(
Convectio
n
( *obes+,es#s et al( ) Applied Energy 102 (2013) 962970
6
6
( *obes+,es#s et al( ) Applied Energy 102 (2013) 962970
Convection is a $eat trans5er process by
'$ic$ $eat is trans+ 5erred bet'een a
%oving ;#id and a solid s#r5ace in contact
'it$ t$e ;#id( 6'o di55erent convection
processes occ#r in an asp$alt solar collector-
one bet'een t$e asp$alt s#r5ace and t$e air
above it- and t$e ot$er bet'een t$e
circ#lating ;#id and t$e pipe 'alls( 6$e
convection can be 5orced or nat#ral-
depending on t$e ca#ses t$at ind#ce t$e ;
#id %ove%ent and t$e ;o' can be la%inar or
t#r+ b#lent depending on ;o' %ove%ent
conditions( 6$e 3eynolds n#%ber necessary
to start t#rb#lent ;o' in a ;at plate is 3e
!
U 9
10
9
( 6#rb#lent ;o' starts at 3e
!
2300 5or internal pipe ;o'-
alt$o#g$ a 5#lly developed t#rb#lent ;o'
does not occ#r till appro>i%ately 3e
!
10-000 J16K( 2lo' %#st be t#rb#lent to
ac$ieve t$e %a>i%#% $eat trans5er rate at
pipes( Collectors can be designed 'it$ pipe
dia%eter and ;o' rate t$at ens#re t#rb#+
lent ;o' inside pipes( 7n t$e case o5
convection bet'een air and pave%ent
s#r5ace- t$e best case scenario is t$e nat#ral
convection to red#ce $eat losses- b#t t$is
condition depends on t$e at%o+ sp$eric
conditions- partic#larly on 'ind velocity(
6$e $eat ;o' by convection is e>pressed
as&
I
c
R $A
s
S6
s
6
5
T
S2T
'$ere $ is t$e %ean convection coe5;cient o5
t$e s#r5ace (O %
2
=
1
)C A
s
is t$e s#r5ace area (%
2
)C 6
s
is s#r5ace
te%perat#re (=) and
6
5
is ;#id te%perat#re (=)( 6$e %ean
convection coe5;cient $ is ob+ tained 5ro% t$e
adi%ensional N#sselt n#%ber- N#&
N#H
$ R
@
S3T
'$ere H is t$e %aterial?s t$er%al
cond#ctivity (O %
1
=
1
) and @ t$e
c$aracteristic lengt$ (%)( 6$e N#sselt n#%ber
N# is deter%ined #sing t$e di55erent
e%pirical correlations depending on t$e type
o5 convection and t$e ;o' regi%e(
2(2(1( Collector+
at%osp$ere
As stated be5ore t$e convection bet'een
collector and at%o+ sp$ere can be 5orced or
nat#ral( 7t is nat#ral '$en t$ere is no 'ind
and t$e convection is only d#e to a te%perat#re gradient bet'een
ot$er correlations- t$e convection coe5;cient
only depends on 'ind velocity- as in ,#rges?
eI#ation&
$
c
R 9&F V A&1#
%
S10T
A typical range 5or t$e $eat trans5er coe5;
cient o5 air is bet'een
17 O %
2
=
1
and 22(7 O %
2
=
1
J20K(
According to 4all et al( J2AK- ,#rges eI#ation
gives t$e best appro>i%ation to t$e val#es
obtained e>peri%entally(
2(2(2( .ipes+$eat
e>c$ange ;#id
6$e t#rb#lent ;o' convection coe5;cient in
pipes is calc#lated #sing t$e !itt#s*oelter
eI#ation( 6$e %at$e%atical e>pression o5 t$e
!itt#s*oelter eI#ation is&
AU9 n
asp$alt s#r5ace and at%osp$ere( <n t$e
contrary- 5orced convec+
N# R 0&023 3e
!
.r
S11T
tion is ca#sed by 'ind t$at creates an air ;
o' over t$e asp$alt s#r5ace(
2(2(1(1( Nat#ral convection
75 t$e 'ar% s#r5ace is #p'ards or t$e
cold s#r5ace is do'n+ 'ards&
N# R 0&9AGr
@
3a
1UA
10
A
6 3a 6 10
7
SAT
N# R 0&19Gr
@
3a
1U3
10
7
6 3a 6 10
11
S9T
75 t$e 'ar% s#r5ace is do'n'ards or
t$e cold s#r5ace is #p'ards&
N# R 0&27Gr
@
3a
1UA
10
9
6 3a 6 10
10
S6T
'$ere 3a is 3ayleig$ n#%ber and Gr
@
is
Gras$o5 n#%ber J16K(
2(2(1(2( 2orced convection
@a%inar ;o'& 75 ;o' is la%inar along all
t$e s#r5ace or i5 t$e transition to
t#rb#lent ;o' occ#rs at a position
s#c$ t$at
0(99 6 >
c
)@ 6 1&
6$e n val#e is 0(A i5 t$e ;#id is being $eated
and 0(3 i5 it is being cooled( 6$e !itt#s
*oelter eI#ation can be #sed 5or s%all
te%per+ at#re di55erences- as is t$e case o5
t$e asp$alt solar collector- and t$e 5ollo'ing
conditions %#st also be 5#l;lled&
0&7 6 .r 6 160
3e
!
. 10C 000
@U! . 10
2(3( 3adiation
3adiation is a 'ay o5 trans5erring energy
via electro%agnetic 'aves '$ic$ do not
reI#ire t$e presence o5 any %aterial
%edi#%( O$en an electro%agnetic 'ave
reac$es a solid or liI#id s#r5ace-
t$e incident 'ave can be re;ected (I)-
absorbed (a) or trans%itted
(s)- prod#cing a balance o5 t$e incident
radiation( As asp$alt is an opaI#e body (s U
0)- all t$e incident radiation is re;ected and
absorbed&
I V a R 1
S12T
@
N# R 0&66A
3e
1U2
.r
1
U
3
S7
T
2(3(1( Solar radiation
.art o5 t$e radiation co%ing 5ro% t$e s#n is
absorbed by t$e
6#rb#lent ;o'& 75 t$e t#rb#lent ;o'
conditions occ#r in a position >
c
)@ 6 0(99
and t$e critical 3eynolds n#%ber 5or
starting t$e transition 1one to t$e
t#rb#lent ;o' is 3e
>-c
+
6 9 10
9
t$en&
at%osp$ere be5ore reac$ing t$e Eart$?s
s#r5ace& as a conseI#ence- only a percentage
o5 solar radiation reac$es t$e asp$alt
s#r5ace( 6$is radiation is called incident
radiation( As asp$alt is not a per5ect blacH
body- part o5 t$e incident radiation is re;
ected- so
AU9
1U3
t$e solar radiation absorbed by t$e asp$alt s#r5ace is calc#lated
N# R S0&037 3e
@
F71T .r
SF
T
5ro%&
6o #se t$e previo#s correlation t$e
5ollo'ing conditions %#st be satis;ed&
I
s
R a
s
I
i
S13
T
2
0&6 W .r W 60
9 F
'$ere I
s
is t$e radiation absorbed by t$e body (O %

)C I
i
is t$e
incident solar radiation (O %
2
) and
a
s
is t$e absorptivity o5 t$e
%aterial to solar radiation(
9
10
W 3e
@
W 10
!#5;e and *ecH%an (1991) reco%%ended
calc#lating t$e con+ vection coe5;cient 5or
bot$ nat#ral and 5orced convection and
c$oosing t$e $ig$est val#e to eval#ate
convection $eat ;o' J17K(
So%e researc$ #ses t$e previo#s
correlations to calc#late t$e convection
coe5;cient bet'een t$e asp$alt pave%ent
and air J1F-19K- b#t ot$ers J2023K #se
e%pirical correlations developed 5or asp$alt
s#r5aces- s#c$ as t$e 5ollo'ing eI#ation&
$
c
R 69F&2Ab0&001AA6
0&3
#
0&7
V 0&00097S6
s
6
air
T
0&3
c
S9T
2(3(2( 6$er%al radiation
6$e t$er%al radiation is t$e type o5
electro%agnetic radiation e%itted by
bodies beca#se t$eir te%perat#re is above
absol#te 1ero ( 273 C)( 6$e e%issivity e is
t$e ratio bet'een t$e radiation e%itted by a
body at a certain te%perat#re and t$e
radiation e%it+ ted by a blacH body at t$e
sa%e te%perat#re( 6$e t$er%al radiation
e%itted by an asp$alt s#r5ace is calc#lated
according to Ste5an *olt1%ann @a'
J21-29K&
% %
r s
I R
re
6
A
S
1AT
'$ere 6
air
is t$e air te%perat#re (=)C 6
s
is t$e asp$alt s#r5ace
te%perat#re (=)C 6
%
is t$e %ean te%perat#re
bet'een 6
air
and 6
s
(=) t$at $as to be in t$e
interval 6(727 C and #
%
is t$e 'ind veloc+ ity
(%)s) '$ose val#e %#st be in t$e range 5ro%
0(F to F(9 J2AK( 7n
'$ere I
r
is t$e e%itted radiation (O %
2
)C e is
t$e %aterial e%issiv+ ityC r is t$e Ste5an
*olt1%ann constant eI#al to 9(67 10
F
+ O
%
2
=
A
and 6
s
is t$e s#r5ace te%perat#re (=)(
Apart 5ro% e%itting radiation- asp$alt
s#r5aces also absorb long'ave radiation
co%ing 5ro% t$e at%osp$ere&
a sHy
I R ra
a
6
A
S19T
'$ere I
a
is t$e absorbed long'ave radiation
(O %
2
)C a
a
is t$e %aterial absortivity to
long'ave radiationC r is t$e Ste5an
*olt1%ann constant and 6
sHy
is t$e e55ective
sHy te%perat#re (=)(
!i55erent approac$es are #sed to
deter%ine 6
sHy
& so%e consider t$at it is 6 =
lo'er t$an t$e dry b#lb air te%perat#re
J2AK( Alt$o#g$ 6
sHy
6
air
- so%e researc$
ass#%es t$at t$ey are eI#al J20-21-26-27K(
6$e *liss eI#ation is a correlation 'idely
#sed to calc#late 6
sHy
as a 5#nction o5 t$e air
te%perat#re 6
air
and t$e de' point
te%perat#re 6
dp
J1F-19K&
0&29
e%pirical correlations& So#t$gate and !een-
1969C 3#%ney and ,i%ene1- 1971C Noss-
1973C 6$o%son and !e%psey- 19F7C to %od+
els based on t$e eI#ations o5 energy balance
in t$e asp$alt& Stra#b et al(- 196FC !e%sey
and 6$o%pson- 1970C Oillia%son- 1972C
C$ristison and Anderson- 1972C 6$o%pson
et al(- 19F7 J17-1FK(
6$e 8S Strategic 4ig$'ay 3esearc$
.rogra% (S43.) 'as cre+ ated in 19F7( As a
part o5 it- t$e @ong 6er% .er5or%ance
.rogra% (@6..) 'as created 5or in sit#
c$aracteri1ation o5 pave%ents in Nort$
A%erica( At t$e sa%e ti%e- #nder t$e @6..-
t$e S/. (Sea+ sonal /onitoring .rogra%)
'as created in 199A to obtain $o#rly data on
state $ig$'ay pave%ents in t$e 8nited
States and Canada and to eval#ate t$e in;
#ence o5 te%perat#re and %oist#re content
variations on pave%ent be$avior J1F-2A-37K(
7t collected data 5ro% nearby 'eat$er
stations and road sections ;tted 'it$
sensors J17K(
6
sHy
R 6
air
S0&F V 6
dp U290T
S16
T
<ne o5 t$e st#dies on t$e asp$alt pave%ent
te%perat#re predic+
According to 4all et al( J2AK- t$e *liss
eI#ation gives t$e best appro>i%ation to
t$e e>peri%entally %eas#red res#lts(
Since t$e radiation 5ro% t$e at%osp$ere is
concentrated abo#t t$e sa%e spectral
region as t$e s#r5ace e%ission- it can be
ass#%ed t$at a
a
e J16K( Oit$ t$is si%pli;
cation- t$e net $eat ;o' d#e to long'ave
radiation is&
tion %ost o5ten cited 'as cond#cted by
Solai%anian and =ennedy J20K in '$ic$ a
%et$od based on energy balance on t$e
pave%ent s#r5ace 'as developed as a tool 5or
S43.( 7t is #sed to I#icHly and easily
calc#late t$e %a>i%#% pave%ent
te%perat#re and so to deter%ine t$e
dosage o5 asp$alt %i>(
*ased on t$e 'orH o5 Solai%anian and
=ennedy J20K- 4er%ans+ son J39K developed
a n#%erical si%#lation %odel to calc#late
t$e
A A I
i
R
re
S6
s
6
sHy
T S17T
O$en balancing energy so%e a#t$ors #se
a coe5;cient called t$e co%bined coe5;cient
o5 $eat trans5er t$at taHes into acco#nt t$e
e55ects o5 convection and long'ave radiation
J2F-29K( 7n addi+ tion to t$e cond#ction-
convection and radiation disc#ssed so 5ar-
t$ere is a latent and sensible $eat ;o'
ca#sed by rain5all not considered in %ost
st#dies based on energy balance on an
asp$alt s#r5ace J17K(
3( Eval#ation o5 t$e e>isting researc$
7n t$is section- t$e e>isting st#dies carried
o#t so 5ar on asp$alt solar collectors are
analy1ed( 2irstly- a co%pilation o5 t$e
di55erent st#dies o5 asp$alt t$er%al
be$avior 5o#nd in t$e literat#re is
presented as an introd#ction( A5ter'ards-
t$e %et$odology #sed to st#dy asp$alt solar
collectors is revie'ed( 2inally- t$e in;#ence
o5 so%e variables involved in t$e t$er%al
energy collection process is analy1ed(
3(1( 7ntrod#ction to asp$alt?s t$er%al be$avior
7t is necessary to Hno' t$e te%perat#re
distrib#tion o5 an asp$alt pave%ent s#b"ect
to solar radiation be5ore st#dying t$e
asp$alt collector be$avior itsel5( Several
a#t$ors $ave developed %et$ods 5or
predicting asp$alt te%perat#res beca#se
t$ey signi;+ cantly a55ect pave%ents& $ig$
te%perat#res can ca#se plastic
de5or%ations '$ile lo'er te%perat#res can
lead to da%age by $ardening( An acco#nt o5
t$e st#dies carried o#t so 5ar to deter%ine
pave%ent te%perat#re in di55erent regions
is provided in Sec+ tion 3(1(1( 7n al%ost all
asp$alt te%perat#re prediction %odels- as+
p$alt t$er%al properties are reI#ired as
inp#ts- so in Section 3(1(2 so%e e>isting
%et$ods to deter%ine t$er%al cond#ctivity-
$eat capacity and t$er%al di55#sivity o5
asp$alt %aterials are described brie;y(
2inally- so%e concl#sions o5 sensitivity
st#dies 5o#nd in t$e literat#re- '$ic$
analy1e t$e in;#ence o5 asp$alt properties
on pave%ent te%perat#re- are %entioned in
Section 3(1(3(
3(1(1( /et$ods 5or te%perat#re prediction
*arber (1997) 'as a%ong t$e ;rst to
develop a %odel to calc#+ late t$e %a>i%#%
pave%ent te%perat#re by applying a
t$er%al di55#sion %odel to a se%i+in;nite
%edi#% J20-21K( A series o5 st#dies to
predict t$e te%perat#res o5 asp$alt
pave%ents 'ere developed #ntil 19F7
based on t$is ;rst %odel ranging 5ro%
asp$alt te%perat#re at di55erent dept$s
d#ring t$e s#%%er( 7n
200A $e e>panded $is %odel to be able to
predict t$e asp$alt te%+ perat#re in bot$
s#%%er and 'inter J21K(
Xav#1t#rH et al( J1FK developed a %et$od
to predict t$e tran+ sient te%perat#re
distrib#tion in asp$alt 'it$ a
bidi%ensional ;+ nite di55erence %odel(
6$e %odel allo's di55erent types o5
asp$alt %i>t#res to be disting#is$ed in bot$
vertical and $ori1on+ tal directions- '$ic$ is
a big advantage co%pared to st#dies based on
statistical analysis o5 observed data- s#c$ as
t$e correlation developed by !ie5ender5er
et al( J37K '$o tried to esti%ate t$e
%a>i%#% and %ini%#% asp$alt
te%perat#re at a certain dept$ by linear
regression tec$niI#es( At t$e sa%e ti%e-
/in$oto et al( J22K developed a
tridi%ensional ;nite ele%ent %odel to
calc#late t$e pave%ent te%perat#re- 5ro%
$o#rly solar radiation- %ean daily 'ind
speed and $o#rly air te%perat#re collected
at a 'eat$er station(
3ecently 4an et al( J36K and 4all et al( J2AK
developed %odels to calc#late t$e
te%perat#res o5 pave%ents in t$e 8nited
States based on t$e sa%e inp#ts as /in$oto
et al( J22K- b#t #nliHe t$ese st#dies- t$ey
#sed a one+di%ensional ;nite di55erence
approac$( 2#rt$er%ore- 4an et al( J36K
st#died t$e variability o5 asp$alt prop+ erties
in s#%%er and 'inter as 4er%ansson did(
6$e 4all et al( J2AK %odel?s acc#racy proved to
be as good as ot$er co%ple> co%%er+ cial
so5t'are #sing ;nite ele%ents in 2! or 3!
J21-22-2A-39-36K(
6$e data obtained 5ro% t$e @6.. 'ere
#sed as a basis to validate %any o5 t$e
%odels %entioned previo#sly J1F-21-2A-36K(
<t$ers $ave been validated 'it$
instr#%ented sections in ot$er co#ntries
s#c$ as .ort#gal J22K and S'eden J21K(
3(1(2( /et$ods 5or deter%ining asp$alt?s
t$er%al properties
6$e #s#al test to deter%ine t$e t$er%al
cond#ctivity o5 di55er+ ent %aterials is
establis$ed by t$e AS6/ C177 e%ploying a
one+ di%ensional %et$od t$at calc#lates
cond#ctivity 5ro% t$e steady state( A
disadvantage o5 steady+state %et$ods is t$at
t$ey reI#ire ;at plates 'it$ a t$icHness+to+
lengt$ ratio lo'er t$an 1&3- '$ic$
considerably li%its t$e %a>i%#% aggregate
si1e o5 t$e sa%ples( *esides- obtaining
sa%ples 5ro% roads 'it$ t$ese
di%ensions deteriorates t$e pave%ent
str#ct#re( Anot$er dra'bacH is t$e ti%e
reI#ired to reac$ t$e steady state and t$e
acc#racy 'it$ '$ic$ t$e applied $eat ;o'
$as to be %eas#red( 7n contrast- transient
%et$+ ods reI#ire less ti%e to carry o#t t$e
test and are adaptable to di55erent
geo%etries( @#ca and /ra'ira J39K
co%bined stationary and transient %et$ods
to calc#late t$er%al cond#ctivity- speci;c
$eat and t$er%al di55#sivity 5ro% t$e sa%e
test( 6$e cond#ctivity
is calc#lated once t$e sa%ples reac$ t$er%al
eI#ilibri#%- t$e t$er+ %al di55#sivity is
obtained in t$e te%perat#re transient state
and speci;c $eat is calc#lated 5ro% t$e
above J3FA0K( 6ypical val#es o5 asp$alt
s#r5aces t$er%al properties are& t$er%al
cond#ctivity is in t$e range 0(7A2(F9
O)%= JA2K- speci;c $eat is in t$e range
F001F93 ,)Hg = J3FK and t$er%al di55#sivity
bet'een 1(2
16(F 10
7
%
2
s
1
J2AK(
Carlson et al( JA0K designed a test to
%eas#re t$er%al cond#c+ tivity 5ro%
cylindrical sa%ples s#c$ as t$ose #sed in
%ec$anical laboratory tests ac$ieving
t$er%al%ec$anical test integration(
Ng#yen et al( JA1K $ave gone a step
5#rt$er in t$e t$er%al %ec$anical test
integration( 6$ey $ave been able to
deter%ine t$er%al cond#ctivity- t$er%al
trans5er coe5;cient and speci;c $eat 5ro%
sa%ples s#b"ect to tensionco%pression
cycles(
3(1(3( Sensitivity analysis o5
asp$alt te%perat#re
Several sensitivity st#dies $ave been
carried o#t to deter%ine t$e in;#ence o5 t$e
variation o5 di55erent para%eters in asp$alt
te%perat#re J1F-19-36-A2K( So%e o5 t$e
concl#sions obtained in t$ese st#dies
concerning t$er%al cond#ctivity- speci;c
$eat- albedo and e%issivity)absorptivity are
cited belo'(
3(1(3(1( 6$er%al cond#ctivity( 6$e %ean
%a>i%#% daily te%pera+ t#re and t$e
%ini%#% nig$tly te%perat#re increase as
t$er%al cond#ctivity rises J19K( S#r5ace
te%perat#re decreases 'it$ increasing
t$er%al cond#ctivity '$ile te%perat#re
rises as dept$ increases J20-2F-A2K(
6e%perat#re is %ore sensitive to t$er%al
cond#ctivity variations as dept$ increases
J21-A2K(
3(1(3(2( Speci;c $eat( 6e%perat#re variations
decrease as asp$alt speci;c $eat increases
d#e to t$e greater $eat storage capacity o5
t$e pave%ent J1F-19K( 6$is decrease is %ore
noticeable as dept$ increases beca#se- on
t$e s#r5ace- t$ere is no e55ective $eat storage
vol#%e( Asp$alt pave%ents 'it$ $ig$er
speci;c $eat taHe %ore ti%e to reac$
%a>i%al te%perat#res t$an pave%ents 'it$
lo'er capacities J1FK(
3(1(3(3( Albedo( 6$is is t$e re;ectivity o5 an
asp$alt s#r5ace I( 6$e albedo rise ca#ses
bot$ daily and nig$tly te%perat#re
decrease( 6$e te%perat#re drop d#ring t$e
nig$t is d#e to t$e lo'er energy absorbed
d#ring t$e day J19K( 4er%ansson J21K
observed t$at t$e albedo o5 an asp$alt
s#r5ace is greater in 'inter t$an in s#%%er
beca#se- d#ring 'inter- t$e asp$alt s#r5ace
%ay be covered by ice or sno' so t$e
asp$alt color is lig$ter ca#sing an increase
in t$e percentage o5 re;ected radiation(
C$anges 5ro% 0(2 in s#%%er to 0(3 or 0(39 in
'inter 'ere observed( 6$is is con;r%ed by
t$e eart$?s s#r5ace albedo %eas#red by
satellite re%ote sensing tec$niI#es J36K(
3(1(3(A( E%issivity)absorptivity( S%all
variations in e%issivity and absorptivity
ca#se %a"or c$anges in te%perat#re pro;le
JA2K& increasing t$e e%issivity leads to
%a>i%al and %ini%al te%per+ at#re
decrease J19K '$ile increasing t$e
absorptivity %aHes t$e s#r5ace te%perat#re
drop J20K( 4o'ever- 4an et al( J36K noted
t$at i5 t$e algebraic di55erence bet'een t$e
val#es o5 e%issivity and absorptivity is
constant t$ere are no %a"or c$anges in pave+
%ent te%perat#res( 6$ere is no seasonal
variation o5 absorptivity- #nliHe '$at is
reported 5or t$e albedo J36K( 7t s$o#ld be
noted t$at t$e absorptivity o5 an asp$alt
%aterial decreases 'it$ ti%e be+ ca#se t$e
darH s#r5aces s#b"ect to solar radiation and
at%osp$eric agents beco%e lig$ter and re;
ect %ore incident solar radiation J1-2A-A3K(
/oreover- dirt also $elps in red#cing t$e
absorptivity val#es 5ro% 0(9- a typical coe5;
cient o5 asp$alt s#r5aces- to val#es o5 0(F J30K(
3(2( St#dy %et$odology o5 asp$alt
solar collectors
St#dy %et$ods 5o#nd in t$e literat#re to
analy1e t$e be$avior o5 an asp$alt solar
collector are based on e>peri%ental tests or
t$eo+ retical st#dies by %eans o5 n#%erical
%odeling and si%#lation(
3(2(1(
E>peri%ental
st#dies
E>peri%ental st#dies can be divided into
s%all+scale laboratory tests- s%all+scale
tests #nder real at%osp$eric conditions
and large+scale tests in asp$alt collectors
already installed( 6$e last t'o types o5 tests
provide greater insig$t into syste% be$avior-
be+ ca#se not only t$e ele%ents t$at in;
#ence t$e energy $arvesting process are
considered b#t also t$eir variation in real
conditions- '$ic$ 'o#ld be i%possible to
incorporate d#ring laboratory tests(
6$ree types o5 geo%etries $ave been #sed
5or t$e e>peri%ental tests 5o#nd in t$e
literat#re& s%all cylindrical sa%ples- sI#are
slabs and rectang#lar slabs( 3egarding pipe
arrange%ent- it is per5or%ed %ainly 'it$
straig$t pipes or pipes in a serpentine s$ape(
7n 6able 1 t$e e>peri%ental st#dies are classi;
ed according to t$e type o5 test- geo%etry o5
t$e sa%ple and pipe arrange%ent(
6$e types o5 e>peri%ental st#dies t$at
provide greatest #nder+ standing o5 t$e
be$avior o5 t$e collector are t$e 7ASC and
t$e SS3C- beca#se t$ey are s#b"ect to real
conditions and t$e geo%etry is o5
considerable si1e- '$ic$ 5acilitates t$e
st#dy o5 $eterogeneo#s %aterials s#c$ as
asp$alt( <n t$e contrary- '$en very s%all
spec+ i%ens are #sed- t$eir be$avior %ay be
a55ected by so%e pec#liarity o5 t$e %aterials(
7n addition- it is so%eti%es di5;c#lt to
e>trapolate t$e be$avior o5 a red#ced scale
sa%ple beca#se so%e variables %ay not be
signi;cant on a s%all scale b#t t$ey %ay be
relevant in t$e real scale solar collector or
vice versa( 2or all t$e previo#s reasons- it is
necessary to deepen t$e st#dy o5 solar
collectors by %eans o5 7ASC or SS3C tests-
since t$e n#%ber o5 t$e% 5o#nd in t$e
literat#re is li%ited(
3(2(2( 6$eoretical approac$es& n#%erical
%odeling and si%#lation
6$e t$eoretical st#dy o5 t$e asp$alt solar
collector is generally carried o#t #sing t$e ;
nite ele%ent %et$od (2E/) J23-2F-29-31-3AK
#nliHe t$e t$er%al st#dy o5 pave%ents 5or
'$ic$ t$e ;nite di55erence %et$od is
5reI#ently #sed (2!/) JF-1921-2A-39-36K(
<ne o5 t$e %ost 'idely #sed co%%ercial
so5t'are tools 5or t$er%al analysis by ;nite
ele%ent is ANSXS J22-2F-29-3AK b#t t$ere are
ot$ers s#c$ as 2E//ASSE J31K or C</S<@
J26K( 7t is i%portant to initially cali+ brate
n#%erical %odels 'it$ e>peri%ental st#dies
and later validate res#lts to veri5y t$at t$e
%odel ass#%ptions and si%pli;cations can
be %ade 'it$o#t %a"or deviations 5ro%
t$e res#lts obtained e>peri%entally(
3(3( ariables involved in t$er%al
energy collection
7n t$is section- so%e ;ndings obtained in
st#dies cited in Sec+ tion 3(2 related to
%aterials- geo%etric para%eters and
operating conditions o5 t$e asp$alt solar
collector are co%piled(
3(3(1(
/aterials
6$e in;#ence o5 #sing di55erent Hinds o5
%aterials in t$e asp$alt solar collector is
analy1ed in t$e 5ollo'ing paragrap$s(
3(3(1(1( 4ig$ t$er%al cond#ctivity aggregates(
Several st#dies $ave been developed to
analy1e t$e in;#ence o5 raising t$e
pave%ent t$er%al cond#ctivity by t$e
addition o5 aggregates o5 $ig$er t$er+ %al
cond#ctivity s#c$ as grap$ite
J10-2F-29-33-AAK or I#art1 J23-27-32K( As an
idea o5 t$e increase in cond#ctivity t$at t$e
addi+ tion o5 grap$ite ca#ses- t'o sa%ples
'it$ and 'it$o#t grap$ite $ave t$er%al
cond#ctivities o5 2(23 O %
1
=
1
and 1(73 O
%
1
=
1
respectively J33K( 6$e res#lts in t$e
st#dies carried o#t
'it$ and 'it$o#t $ig$ cond#ctivity
aggregates s$o'ed t$at t$e
6able 1
Classi;cation o5 e>peri%ental st#dies 5o#nd in literat#re(
3e5erences 6yp
e o5
st#d
y
6ype o5 geo%etry 4ig$
cond(
aggreg
ate
.ipes %aterial 2l#i
d
S#r
5ace
coa
ting
7nter
nal
dia%
eter
.ipe
spa
cing
(%
.i
pe
de
pt
.ipe
arrange%
ent
J30K 7ASC
a
16(A %
2
No Oat
er
No 190 139 .A2
J31K 7ASC 2(A 3(9 % No .olyet$ylene No 20 300 70
J23-27-32K @A*
b
C
d
(dia%eter Xes)no Copper Oat
er
Xes)n
o
.A1
g
-
.A2
$
190 %%- $eig$t 100
%%)
SS3C
c
3S
e
1(F 0(9
No Copper Oat
er
No 90 <t$er
J27K @A* 3S 1(F 0(9 0(3 % No Copper- radiant .EPA@-
radiant <N7P- radiant
.EP
Oat
er
No A0 .A1
J29-33K @A*
SS
5
300
Xes Copper Oat
er
No 19 100 79 .A2
J10K @A* SS 300 300 190
%%
Xes Oat
er
No 19 100 79 .A2
a
7ASC& 7nstr#%ented Asp$alt Solar Collector(
b
@A*& @aboratory(
c
SS3C& S%all Scale 3eal Conditions(
d
C& Cylindrical(
e
3S& 3ectang#lar Slab(
5
SS& SI#are Slab(
g
.A1& Straig$t .ipe(
$
.A2& Serpentine .ipe(
addition o5 aggregates i%proves t$e
collector e5;ciency J27-33K( /allicH et al(
J32K added copper po'ders trying to
increase t$e cond#ctivity to a greater e>tent(
4o'ever- t$e res#lts 'ere not sat+ is5actory(
6$is %ig$t be d#e to t$e copper+bit#%en
interaction d#r+ ing t$e sa%ple?s 5abrication
process(
A steeper te%perat#re gradient occ#rs in
pave%ent layers 'it$ $ig$er t$er%al
cond#ctivity( /oreover- t$e s#r5ace
te%perat#re decreases '$ile t$e
te%perat#re 'it$ dept$ increases indicating
t$at t$e $eat trans5er process is accelerated
by increasing t$er%al cond#ctivity
J10-2F-29-33-AAK(
3(3(1(2( .ipe %aterial( /etallic pipes 'ere
#sed 5or%erly- %ainly o5 steel (A39A O %
1
=
1
)- iron (F0(A O %
1
=
1
) or copper
(372 O %
1
=
1
) d#e to t$eir $ig$ t$er%al
cond#ctivities JA9K( No'adays- plastic pipes
are pre5erred to avoid proble%s ca#sed by
%etallic pipe corrosion s#c$ as t$e collapse
t$at occ#rred in
1997 in a road sno'+%elting syste% in
=la%at$ 2alls- <regon JAK(
A co%parison o5 5o#r types o5 pipe
%aterials c#rrently #sed in radiant $eat or
sno'+%elting syste%s on roads is 5o#nd t$e
in t$e literat#re( 7t co%pared pipes o5
radiant .EP+A@ (0(A3 O %
1
=
1
) JA6K- radiant .EP (0(A3 O %
1
=
1
)
JA7K- radiant <N7P
(0(29 O %
1
=
1
) JAFK and copper( 6$e
$ig$est te%perat#re in+ crease bet'een
inlet and o#tlet 'as ac$ieved 'it$ copper
pipes 5ollo'ed by t$at o5 radiant .EP+A@
'it$ a di55erence o5 only 3 C- '$ic$ provides
an opport#nity to #se c$eaper %aterials t$an
cop+ per J27K( At t$e sa%e ti%e- t$e
str#ct#ral be$avior o5 t$e asp$alt solar
collector %#st be taHen into acco#nt '$en
selecting a pipe %aterial J2FK(
3(3(1(3( 4eat e>c$ange ;#id( 6$e
c$aracteristics reI#ired 5or t$e cir+
c#lating ;#id are& $ig$ speci;c $eat- stability
in t$e collector oper+ ating te%perat#re
range- co%patibility 'it$ pipes- ab#ndance
and lo' cost( Oater is one o5 t$e best ;#ids
5or syste%s operating at lo' te%perat#res
(range 5ro% 29 C to 90 C) s#c$ as asp$alt
solar collectors JA9K- b#t t$e solidi;cation
te%perat#re %#st be less t$an t$e %ini%#%
te%perat#re e>pected at t$e collector( 2or
t$is reason %i>t#res o5 'ater and anti5ree1e
are generally #sed( Glycols are t$e %ost
co%%only #sed anti5ree1es d#e to t$eir
%oderate cost- $ig$ speci;c $eat- lo'
viscosity and ease o5 corrosion control
J90-91K(
3(3(1(A( S#r5ace coating( <ne o5 t$e %ain
dra'bacHs o5 asp$alt as a solar energy
collector is t$at its be$avior is si%ilar to
t$at o5 a blacH body& it absorbs a $ig$
percentage o5 incident solar radiation b#t in
t#rn it e%its t$er%al long'ave radiation at
$ig$ rates( 2or
t$is reason /allicH et al( J32K applied a
s#r5ace coating consisting o5 a blacH
painting to red#ce asp$alt re;ectivity( 6$e
res#lts s$o'ed an increase in collector e5;
ciency alt$o#g$ t$e t$er%al e%ission rate is
still $ig$ J32K(
3(3(2( Geo%etrical and
'orHing para%eters
7n t$e 5ollo'ing paragrap$s t$e in;#ence
o5 so%e geo%etrical and 'orHing
para%eters- s#c$ as pipe dia%eter- pipe
spacing- pipe dept$- pipe arrange%ent and ;
o' rate- on asp$alt solar collector
per5or%ance is analy1ed(
3(3(2(1( .ipe dia%eter( 2lo' conditions
depend strongly on pipe dia%eter( 6$e $eat
trans5er coe5;cient 5or a t#rb#lent ;o'
inside a pipe according to t$e !itt#s*oelter
correlation decreases 'it$ increasing
dia%eter i5 t$e ;o' is ass#%ed constant( 2or
t$e dia%+ eters analy1ed in t$e Oang et al(
J2FK %odel- t$ere is no circ#lating 'ater
te%perat#re c$ange- b#t t$e increase in
dia%eter ca#ses a drop in pave%ent s#r5ace
te%perat#re(
3(3(2(2( .ipe spacing( 7n general- as pipe
density per area o5 solar collector increases
t$e $eat collection capacity rises J2F-31K
and t$e o#tlet ;#id te%perat#re decreases
J31K( 4o'ever- i5 pipe spac+ ing lo'er t$an
t$e %ini%al spacing '$ic$ ens#res no cool
1ones 5or%ation bet'een pipes 'ere #sed
t$e collector e5;ciency 'o#ld decrease
drastically( 6$is %ini%al spacing depends on
pipe dia%+ eter and ;o' rate J23K( Econo%ic
criteria %#st also be considered '$en
selecting a t#be spacing J31K(
3(3(2(3( .ipe dept$( A t$er%al gradient 'it$
dept$ occ#rs in any as+ p$alt s#r5ace s#b"ect
to solar radiation( !#e to convection bet'een
asp$alt and t$e environ%ent- t$e %a>i%#%
te%perat#re o5 t$e asp$alt s#r5ace is located
at a certain dept$ (20 %% deep according to
@6..) '$ic$ is opti%al 5or placing t$e pipes
J26K( 6$e pave%ent te%perat#re distrib#tion
beco%es %ore $o%ogeno#s as pipe dept$
increases b#t t$e a%o#nt o5 energy t$at t$e
syste% is able to $arness decreases J30-31K( A
%ore #ni5or% te%perat#re distrib#tion can
be ac$ieved at lo'er dept$s by decreasing
pipe spacing J31K(
3(3(2(A( .ipe arrange%ent( 6$is is one o5
t$e %ost i%portant variables concerning a
solar collector?s per5or%ance( No speci;c
st#dies on asp$alt solar collector pipe
arrange%ents $ave been 5o#nd so- in t$is
section concl#sions obtained 5ro% st#dies on
;#id %ec$anics o5 ;at plate collectors are
presented( 6$ere are t'o types o5 pipe
arrange%ents t$at can be #sed in an asp$alt
collec+
tor& a net'orH o5 pipes arranged in parallel
(.6C) and arranged in a serpentine 5as$ion
(S6C)( 2or %a>i%#% e5;ciency- a #ni5or% ;
o' t$ro#g$o#t t$e syste% $as to be
%aintained- beca#se d#e to non+
#ni5or%ities t$e e5;ciency can drop by 2
20M J92K( Several a#t$ors $ave analy1ed ;
#id %ec$anics in solar collectors J93
96K( 7n partic#lar- /atra'y and 2arHas J99K
%ade a co%parison be+ t'een di55erent
types o5 pipe arrange%ents( 6$e S6C proved
%ore e5;cient t$an t$e .6C 5or several
reasons& in t$e S6C t$e ;o' rate along t$e
entire pipe is greater en$ancing $eat
trans5er bet'een circ#lating ;#id and pipe
'all- on t$e contrary- in t$e .6C t$e ;o' in
t$e connections 5ar 5ro% t$e entrance o5
'ater is very lo'- '$ic$ i%pedes t$e $eat
trans5er process and t$e e>istence o5 a #ni+
5or% ;o'( !espite t$e advantages o5 t$e
S6C vers#s t$e .6C- t$e latter is %ore
co%%on 5ro% t$e co%%ercial point o5 vie'
J99K(
3(3(2(9( 2lo' rate( 6$e st#dy o5 ;o' rate is
essential to #nderstand t$e be$avior o5 an
asp$alt solar collector- d#e to t$e close
relation+ s$ip bet'een ;o' rate and syste%
e5;ciency( 2ro% t$e analysis o5 t$e in;#ence
o5 ;o' rate cond#cted in di55erent st#dies
5o#nd in t$e literat#re- t$e 5ollo'ing
concl#sions can be dra'n&
S#r5ace te%perat#re decreases as ;o'
rate increases J10K(
6$e increase in ;o' rate $as no
noticeable in;#ence on te%perat#re
pro;le 'it$ dept$ J10K(
7ncreasing ;o' rate- 5or t$e sa%e pipe
dia%eter- ca#ses an increase in ;#id
velocity '$ic$ leads to an increase in
t$e $eat trans5er coe5;cient and t$e
a%o#nt o5 energy t$at can be
$arnessed J10-97K(
As ;o' rate increases- t$e
te%perat#re incre%ent o5 t$e 'ater
circ#lating t$ro#g$ t$e asp$alt solar
collector decreases J10-33-32-97-31K
and a longer pipe 'ill be reI#ired
5or t$e ;#id to reac$ t$e te%perat#re o5
pave%ent at a certain dept$ J23K(
As ;o' rate increases- t$e ti%e
reI#ired 5or t$e solar collec+ tor to reac$
steady state conditions decreases( 6$is
ti%e is not in;#enced by t$e inlet 'ater
te%perat#re J10K(
A( Critical revie' o5 asp$alt solar
collectors tec$nology
6$e ai% o5 t$is section is to st#dy t$e
5easibility o5 t$e i%ple+ %entation o5 asp$alt
solar collectors and %aHe a co%parison 'it$
ot$er tec$nologies #sed 5or solar energy
$arvesting(
6$e good per5or%ance o5 asp$alt solar
collectors $as been de%+ onstrated 'it$ real
syste%s installed in di55erent places all
aro#nd t$e 'orld 'it$ di55erent cli%atic
conditions& S'it1erland (SE3S< syste% JAK)-
,apan (GA7A syste% J9K)- Net$erlands (3oad
Energy Syste%s

J12K and OinnerOay
J13K)- England (7CAPQ @td( J1AK)- C$ina JFK-
Spain J11K or 8nited States J23K(
Co%pared 'it$ concrete pave%ent solar
collectors- asp$alt per+ 5or%s better beca#se
in spite o5 $aving a lo'er t$er%al cond#ctiv+
ity and $eat storage capacity t$an concrete
pave%ents- asp$alt s#r5aces are able to
capt#re %ore solar energy beca#se t$eir
solar absorption coe5;cient is $ig$er t$an
t$e coe5;cient o5 concrete pave%ents d#e to
t$e blacH color o5 asp$alt %i>t#res J2-AK(
<ne dra'bacH o5 #sing asp$alt instead o5
concrete is t$at d#ring t$e constr#ction
process t$e $ig$ te%perat#re o5 t$e $ot %i>
asp$alt can ca#se da%age to t$e pipe
syste% JAK(
An iss#e t$at $as to be considered in t$e
constr#ction o5 bot$- asp$alt and concrete
solar collectors- is t$e str#ct#ral response o5
t$e syste%( 7t is clear t$at t$is Hind o5 solar
collectors cannot be constr#cted in roads
s#b"ected to $ig$ tra5;c intensities or $ig$
tra5;c loads- beca#se t$e pipe syste% co#ld
be da%aged d#e to a stress concentration(
!i55erent st#dies concerning str#ct#ral
response o5 pave%ent solar collectors are
5o#nd in t$e literat#re J31-9FK(
An advantage o5 asp$alt solar collectors is
t$at t$ey can be in+ stalled not only d#ring
t$e constr#ction o5 ne' in5rastr#ct#res b#t
also d#ring t$e %aintenance 'orHs- 5or
e>a%ple- roads are s#b"ected to periodically
reb#ilt 'orHs- a %o%ent '$en t$e solar
collector syste% can be installed(
Asp$alt solar collectors can be considered
econo%ically 5easible 5ro% t$e initial
invest%ent point o5 vie' beca#se t'o %ain
rea+ sons& t$e cost o5 t$e %aterials is
c$eaper t$an t$e %aterials #sed in a
conventional solar collector and t$e asp$alt
s#r5ace can be #sed 5or ot$er p#rposes(
Asp$alt s#r5aces per5or%s as roads- play+
gro#nds- bridges- etc( and at t$e sa%e ti%e
t$ey can be #sed to col+ lect solar energy-
'$at red#ces even %ore t$e cost associated
to t$e collector itsel5- '$ile conventional
solar collectors are #sed "#st 5or solar energy
$arvesting- b#t- on t$e contrary- t$e asp$alt
solar collectors? e5;ciency is clearly lo'er
t$an t$e e5;ciency o5 conven+ tional solar
collectors beca#se asp$alt collectors are not
speci;+ cally designed 5or solar energy
$arvesting( So- in addition to t$e initial
invest%ent- t$e operational cost o5 t$e
'$ole syste%- incl#ding t$e $eat p#%p
device #s#ally co#pled 'it$ solar t$er%al
collectors- %#st be care5#lly analy1ed and
co%pared 'it$ conven+ tional solar
collectors to stablis$ t$e econo%ic 5easibility
o5 asp$alt solar co%pared 'it$ ot$er
tec$nologies(
9( 2#t#re prospects
3egarding t$e st#dy o5 t$e %et$odology
reported in t$e litera+ t#re- 5#rt$er testing
'it$ larger sa%ples s#b"ect to act#al
'eat$er conditions is considered necessary-
since %ost o5 t$e c#rrent st#dies are
cond#cted in laboratory and are based on
sa%ples '$ic$ are too s%all( /oreover-
t$ere are 5e' n#%erical si%#lations o5
asp$alt solar collectors t$at allo' a %ore
co%pre$ensive st#dy o5 t$e design
para%eters( 6$ere are certain iss#es t$at are
not covered by t$e e>isting %et$odology&
%ost st#dies #se 'ater as t$e circ#lating ;
#id- b#t in real syste%s a %i>t#re o5 'ater
and anti5ree1e is gener+ ally #sed( 2e'
investigations $ave taHen into acco#nt $o'
%oist#re or r#no55 a55ects t$e per5or%ance
o5 an asp$alt solar collector- and t$e in;
#ence o5 t$e degree o5 co%paction- or
constr#ction %et$od on t$e asp$alt solar
collector e5;ciency $as not been disc#ssed(
Al%ost no re5erences to analy1e t$e in;
#ence o5 #sing di55erent pipe dia%eters in
collectors e5;ciency are 5o#nd in literat#re(
/ost o5 t$e st#dies consider t$e in;#ence o5
design variables in t$e sys+ te% per5or%ance
individ#ally- b#t a co%plete st#dy o5 t$e
co%+ bined in;#ence o5 several design
variables is considered necessary(
A co%parison o5 e5;ciency- initial
invest%ent- %aintenance cost- operating
cost and li5e span o5 asp$alt solar collectors
vers#s conventional solar t$er%al collectors
is considered necessary in or+ der to establis$
t$e advantages and disadvantages o5 asp$alt
solar collectors(
6( Concl#sions
3esearc$ pro"ects carried o#t and solar
collectors already in+ stalled con;r% t$e
syste%?s ability to red#ce t$e te%perat#re
o5 t$e asp$alt pave%ent and capt#re t$e
t$er%al energy 5or di55erent p#rposes& sno'+
%elting syste%s- air conditioning o5
b#ildings or even electric energy
prod#ctionC proving t$at asp$alt solar
collec+ tor syste%s are able to $arness clean
and rene'able energy 5ro% t$e s#n(
As a s#%%ary o5 all t$e iss#es disc#ssed in
Section 3 t$e 5ollo'+ ing ;ndings can be
dra'n&
Asp$alt te%perat#re is very sensitive to
t$e variation o5 t$e absorptivity(
6$e variation o5 asp$alt t$er%al
cond#ctivity a55ects t$e te%perat#re
'it$ increasing dept$- 'it$o#t
prod#cing noticeable c$anges in s#r5ace
te%perat#re(
Copper is t$e %aterial #sed in t$e
pipe net'orH '$ic$ ac$ieves greatest
e5;ciency o5 t$e syste%(
*ot$ t$e spacing bet'een pipes and
t$e dept$ '$ere t$ey are located
strongly in;#ence t$e te%perat#re
distrib#tion in t$e collector( 6o ac$ieve
t$e %a>i%#% e5;ciency- t$e ;o'
regi%e inside t$e pipes %#st be
t#rb#lent- so pipe dia%eter and ;o'
rate %#st be care5#lly c$osen to ac$ieve
t#rb#lent ;o' conditions(
6$e opti%al pipe arrange%ent 5ro%
t$e t$er%al point o5 vie' is t$e
serpentine arrange%ent(
6$e collector e5;ciency depends
strongly on ;o' rate& as ;o' rate
increases- $eat trans5er bet'een t$e ;
#id and t$e pipe increases- b#t t$e
te%perat#re incre%ent #nder+ gone by
t$e ;#id decreases(
2#rt$er investigation on asp$alt solar
collectors is needed to analy1e t$e in;
#ence o5 so%e variables not considered in
t$e e>ist+ ing st#dies and to co%pare t$e
per5or%ance and associated costs o5 t$is
tec$nology vers#s conventional solar
t$er%al collectors(
3e5erences
J1K *erda$l .- AHbari 4- @evinson 3- /iller
OA( Oeat$ering on roo;ng %aterials
An overvie'( Constr *#ild /ater
2006C22(A)&A2333(
J2K @arsson <- 6$elandersson S(
Esti%ating e>tre%e val#es o5 t$er%al
gradients in concrete str#ct#res( /ater
Str#ct 2011CAA&1A91900(
J3K @o'e ,@( .aving and solar energy
syste% and %et$od( 7nventor& Oendel-
7(@(
8nited States- patent o5 invention 8S
A(132(07A- 01+02+1979C 1979(
JAK @#nd ,O( .ave%ent sno' %elting(
Geo+4eat Center- <regon 7nstit#te o5
6ec$nology- =la%at$ 2alls- <3(
W$ttp&))geo$eat(oit(ed#)pd5)tp10F(pd5 Y
JAccessed
11(0A(12K(
J9K Gao Z- 4#ang X- @i /- @i# X- Xan XX(
E>peri%ental st#dy o5 slab solar
collection on t$e $ydronic syste% o5
road( Sol Energy 2010CFA&2096102(
J6K [$ao ,- Oang 4- C$en [- Z# 4(
Seasonal be$avior o5 pave%ent in
geot$er%al sno'+%elting syste%
'it$ solar energy storage( 6rans
6ian"in 8niversity
2006C12(9)&3192A(
J7K @i# P- 3ees S,- Spitler ,!( /odeling
sno' %elting on $eated pave%ent
s#r5aces(
.art 7& /odel develop%ent( Appl
6$er% Eng 2007C27(96)&11192A(
JFK 6# X- @i ,- G#an C( 4eat trans5er
analysis o5 asp$alt concrete pave%ent
based on sno' %elting( 7n&
7nternational Con5erence on
Electrical and Control Engineering
(7CECE) 2010C O#$an- C$ina- 2927
,#ne( p( 3799F(
J9K 6# X- ,iang O- G#an C( 4eat analysis
o5 asp$alt concrete pave%ent based on
sno' %elting( 7n& 7nternational
Con5erence on Electric 7n5or%ation and
Control Engineering (7CE7CE) 2011C
O#$an- C$ina- 1917 April( p( 2229F(
J10K O# S- C$en /- [$ang ,( @aboratory
investigation into t$er%al response o5
asp$alt pave%ents as solar collector by
application o5 s%all+scale slabs( Appl
6$er% Eng 2011C31&19F27(
J11K /#0o1 !( .royecto Geovial&
instalaci\n de #n siste%a de des$ielo
%ediante
interca%bio geot]r%ico y
al%acena%iento s#bterr^neo (*6ES)( 77
Congreso de energ_a geot]r%ica en la
edi;caci\n y la ind#stria 2011C /adrid-
Spain- 1011
/arc$(
J12K
$ttp&))'''(oo%s(nl)en)7)301)road`energ
y`syste%(asp> JAccessed 21(12(11K( J13K
$ttp&))'''('inner'ay(nl)sites)'at`doen
`'i"($t%l JAccessed 2F(03(12K(
J1AK $ttp&))'''(ica>(co(#H JAccessed
21(12(11K(
J19K Novotec$- 7nc( 3oad'ay po'er
syste%& tec$nical analysis 5or t$er%al
energy generation( 200F(
W$ttp&))'''(%asstec$(org).ro"ect
M20!eliverables) AltM208nli%ited
M202SM202inal(pd5 Y JAccessed
2F(03(12K(
J16K 7ncropera 2.- !e'itt !.(
2#nda%entos de trans5erencia de
calor( At$ ed( Na#calpan de ,#^re1-
/]>ico& .rentice 4all
4ispanoa%ericana- cop(C 1999(
J17K Xav#1t#rH C- =saibati =( Assess%ent
o5 te%perat#re ;#ct#ations in asp$alt
pave%ent d#e to t$er%al
environ%ental conditions #sing a t'o+
di%ensional- transient ;nite+
di55erence approac$( /o#ntain
.lanes Consorti#% 3eport-
2002C /.C 02+136(
W$ttp&))ntl(bts(gov)lib)13000)13100)13
139)/.C02+
136($t% Y JAccessed 11(0A(12K(
J1FK Xav#1t#rH C- =saibati =- C$iasson A!(
Assess%ent o5 te%perat#re ;#ct#ations
in asp$alt pave%ent d#e to t$er%al
environ%ental conditions #sing a
t'o+ di%ensional- transient ;nite+
di55erence approac$( , /ater Civil Eng
2009C
17(A)&A6979(
J19K G#i ,- .$elan .E- =alo#s$ =E- Golden
,S( 7%pact o5 pave%ent
t$er%op$ysical properties on s#r5ace
te%perat#res( , /ater Civil Eng
2007C19(F)&6F390(
J20K Solai%anian /- =ennedy 6O(
.redicting %a>i%#% pave%ent
s#r5ace te%perat#re #sing %a>i%#%
air te%perat#re and $o#rly solar
radiation( 6ranspor 3es 3ec
1993C1A17&111(
J21K 4er%ansson A( /at$e%atical %odel
5or paved s#r5ace s#%%er and 'inter
te%perat#re& co%parison o5 calc#lated
and %eas#red te%perat#res( Cold 3eg
Sci 6ec$nol 200ACA0&117(
J22K /in$oto /- .ais ,- .ereira .- .icado+
Santos @( .redicting asp$alt pave%ent
te%perat#re 'it$ a t$ree+
di%ensional ;nite ele%ent %et$od( ,
6ransport 3es
*oard 2009C1919(1)&96110(
J23K /allicH 3*- C$en *- *$o'%icH S(
4arvesting energy 5ro% asp$alt
pave%ents and red#cing t$e $eat
island e55ect( 7nt , S#st Eng
2009C2(3)&21A2F(
J2AK 4all /3- !e$de1i .=- !a'son A3-
Gren5ell ,- 7sola 3( 7n;#ence o5 t$e
t$er%op$ysical properties o5
pave%ent %aterials on t$e
evol#tion o5 te%perat#re dept$ pro;
les in di55erent cli%atic regions( ,
/ater Civil Eng
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