MA 105 Calculus: Lecture 1: U. K. Anandavardhanan IIT Bombay

MA 105 Calculus: Lecture 1
U. K. Anandavardhanan
IIT Bombay
July 23, 2009
U. K. Anandavardhanan IIT Bombay
Sequences of real numbers

A sequence is

A sequence is an ordered list of numbers.

a1 ,

a1 , a2 ,

a1 , a2 , . . . , an ,

a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .

a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
For each natural number n,

a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
For each natural number n, there is a corresponding real number
an .

a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
an . Thus,

a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
an . Thus, a sequence is a function

a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
f : N R.

a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
f : N R.
Notation: {an }
n=1

a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
f : N R.
Notation: {an }
n=1
A sequence may be given by a dening equation.

a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
f : N R.
Notation: {an }
n=1
A sequence may be given by a dening equation. Example: the
n
sequence dened by an = n+1 is

a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
f : N R.
Notation: {an }
n=1
n
sequence dened by an = n+1 is { 1 , 2 , 3 , . . .}.
2 3 4

a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
f : N R.
Notation: {an }
n=1
n
sequence dened by an = n+1 is { 1 , 2 , 3 , . . .}. A sequence may be
2 3 4
given by a recursive relation.

a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
f : N R.
Notation: {an }
n=1
n
2 3 4
given by a recursive relation. Example: a1 = 1, a2 = 1,
an = an1 + an2 .

a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
f : N R.
Notation: {an }
n=1
n
2 3 4
an = an1 + an2 . Thus, {an } = {1, 1,

a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
f : N R.
Notation: {an }
n=1
n
2 3 4
an = an1 + an2 . Thus, {an } = {1, 1, 2,

a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
f : N R.
Notation: {an }
n=1
n
2 3 4
an = an1 + an2 . Thus, {an } = {1, 1, 2, 3,

a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
f : N R.
Notation: {an }
n=1
n
2 3 4
an = an1 + an2 . Thus, {an } = {1, 1, 2, 3, 5,

a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
f : N R.
Notation: {an }
n=1
n
2 3 4
an = an1 + an2 . Thus, {an } = {1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .}.

a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
f : N R.
Notation: {an }
n=1
n
2 3 4
an = an1 + an2 . Thus, {an } = {1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .}.
Question:

a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
f : N R.
Notation: {an }
n=1
n
2 3 4
an = an1 + an2 . Thus, {an } = {1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .}.
Question: Can you nd the dening equation for this sequence?

However, not every sequence can be given by a dening equation.

Can you give a quick example?

Can you give a quick example? Whats the next number? is fun,

but, theres no one correct answer.

but, theres no one correct answer. Any answer is correct!

but, theres no one correct answer. Any answer is correct! In fact
any answer can be justied by a polynomial dening equation.

Example: If a1 = 1, a2 = 4, a3 = 9,

Example: If a1 = 1, a2 = 4, a3 = 9, a4 is

Example: If a1 = 1, a2 = 4, a3 = 9, a4 is 16

Example: If a1 = 1, a2 = 4, a3 = 9, a4 is 16 if you take an = n2 ,

Example: If a1 = 1, a2 = 4, a3 = 9, a4 is 16 if you take an = n2 , is
10

10 if you take an = n3 + 7n2 11n + 6, etc.

Some fun stu:

Some fun stu: look-and-say sequence!

1, 11, 21, 1211, 111221, 312211, 13112221, . . .

1, 11, 21, 1211, 111221, 312211, 13112221, . . .
Whats the next number?

1, 11, 21, 1211, 111221, 312211, 13112221, . . .
LOOK AND SAY!

1, 11, 21, 1211, 111221, 312211, 13112221, . . .
LOOK AND SAY!
11

1, 11, 21, 1211, 111221, 312211, 13112221, . . .
LOOK AND SAY!
1113

1, 11, 21, 1211, 111221, 312211, 13112221, . . .
LOOK AND SAY!
111321

1, 11, 21, 1211, 111221, 312211, 13112221, . . .
LOOK AND SAY!
11132132

1, 11, 21, 1211, 111221, 312211, 13112221, . . .
LOOK AND SAY!
1113213211

It must be clear to you that two sequences of real numbers can be
added, subtracted, and multiplied.

added, subtracted, and multiplied. You carry out all these term by
term.

term. When can you divide one sequence by another?

The most important concept associated to sequences is that of
convergence.

convergence.
A sequence {an } has the limit L if we can make the terms an as
close to L as we like by taking n suciently large.

convergence.
Notation: lim an = L or an L as n
n

convergence.
n
The limit of a sequence may or may not exist.

convergence.
n
The limit of a sequence may or may not exist. If it exists, we say
that the sequence converges;

convergence.
n
that the sequence converges; otherwise we say the sequence
diverges.

convergence.
n
that the sequence converges; otherwise we say the sequence
diverges.

N denition of the limit

lim an = L an can be made as close to L
n
as we want for large enough n

n

the distance between an and L can be made
as small as we want for large enough n

n

i.e., You give me any positive number.

n

i.e., You give me any positive number. Ill consider the sequence
|a1 L|, |a2 L|, . . . , |an L|, . . .

n

|a1 L|, |a2 L|, . . . , |an L|, . . .
and Ill show you that,

n

|a1 L|, |a2 L|, . . . , |an L|, . . .
and Ill show you that, after a stage,

n

|a1 L|, |a2 L|, . . . , |an L|, . . .
and Ill show you that, after a stage, the entries from this sequence
are smaller than that number.

n

|a1 L|, |a2 L|, . . . , |an L|, . . .
are smaller than that number.The number that you have given me
is usually denoted by (epsilon),

n

|a1 L|, |a2 L|, . . . , |an L|, . . .
is usually denoted by (epsilon), and N is how far I chose to go in
the sequence

n

|a1 L|, |a2 L|, . . . , |an L|, . . .
the sequence in order to show you that entries from |aN L|
onwards are smaller than .

n

|a1 L|, |a2 L|, . . . , |an L|, . . .
onwards are smaller than . If you make your smaller and smaller,

n

|a1 L|, |a2 L|, . . . , |an L|, . . .
I may have to take larger and larger N, to play this game.

n

|a1 L|, |a2 L|, . . . , |an L|, . . .
I may have to take larger and larger N, to play this game. Finally,
aN , aN+1 , aN+2 , . . . (L , L + ).

In the textbook, youll see:

lim an = L,

lim an = L, if for every > 0,

lim an = L, if for every > 0, there is a corresponding integer N

such that
n

such that
|an L| <
n

such that
|an L| < whenever n N.
n

such that
n
Lets do one example:

such that
n
Lets do one example: Consider the sequence

1 1
1
1, , , . . . , , . . .
2 3
n

such that
n

1 1
1
1, , , . . . , , . . .
2 3
n
We know that the limit is 0.

such that
n

1 1
1
1, , , . . . , , . . .
2 3
n
We know that the limit is 0. To test this,

such that
n

1 1
1
1, , , . . . , , . . .
2 3
n
We know that the limit is 0. To test this, given ,

such that
n

1 1
1
1, , , . . . , , . . .
2 3
n
We know that the limit is 0. To test this, given , we need to nd
N such that

such that
n

1 1
1
1, , , . . . , , . . .
2 3
n
N such that
1
1
1
= < .
0 =
n
n
n

such that
n

1 1
1
1, , , . . . , , . . .
2 3
n
N such that
1
1
1
= < .
0 =
n
n
n
Any N >
will do.

Drawback of the denition:

Drawback of the denition: You have to rst guess the limit in
order to test for convergence.

order to test for convergence. However, the denition is useful in
proving theorems about convergence which do make life easier in
computing limits of sequences.

Theorem (Limit Laws)
Suppose {an } and {bn } are convergent sequences.

Suppose {an } and {bn } are convergent sequences. Then,

1
lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn .

1
n
2
lim can = c lim an , where c is a constant.

1
n
2
n
3
lim (an bn ) = lim an lim bn .

1
n
2
n
4
n
3
1
1
=
, where no an is 0.
lim
n an
lim an
n

Lets prove at least one limit law, say,


Given that an and bn are convergent sequences.

Given that an and bn are convergent sequences. Let

lim an = L1


lim an = L1
&
lim bn = L2 .


lim an = L1
&
lim bn = L2 .
We need to show that


lim an = L1
&
lim bn = L2 .
We need to show that lim (an bn ) = L1 L2 .

n


lim an = L1
&
lim bn = L2 .

n
Note: {bn } is bounded.


lim an = L1
&
lim bn = L2 .

n
Note: {bn } is bounded. i.e., there exists M > 0 such that

|bn | M for all n 1.


lim an = L1
&
lim bn = L2 .

n

|bn | M for all n 1. (Why?)


lim an = L1
&
lim bn = L2 .

n

|bn | M for all n 1. (Why?) Now,
|an bn L1 L2 | = |an bn L1 bn + L1 bn L1 L2 |


lim an = L1
&
lim bn = L2 .

n

|an bn L1 bn | + |L1 bn L1 L2 |


lim an = L1
&
lim bn = L2 .

n

|an bn L1 bn | + |L1 bn L1 L2 |
= |bn | |an L1 | + |L1 | |bn L2 |


lim an = L1
&
lim bn = L2 .

n

|an bn L1 bn | + |L1 bn L1 L2 |
= |bn | |an L1 | + |L1 | |bn L2 |
M |an L1 | + |L1 | |bn L2 |


lim an = L1
&
lim bn = L2 .

n

|an bn L1 bn | + |L1 bn L1 L2 |
= |bn | |an L1 | + |L1 | |bn L2 |
M |an L1 | + |L1 | |bn L2 |
Thus, after a stage, |an bn L1 L2 | can be made as small as we
want!
Theorem (Squeeze Theorem)

If an bn cn for n n0 and lim an = lim cn = L, then
n

n
n
lim bn = L.
n

n
n
lim bn = L.
n

n
n
lim bn = L.
n

n
n
lim bn = L.
n

Recall: increasing sequence,
Thanks to Nirav for pointing out a mistake in an earlier version.


Recall: increasing sequence, decreasing sequence,


Recall: increasing sequence, decreasing sequence, monotonic
sequence.


sequence.
Theorem
Every bounded monotonic sequence is convergent.


sequence.
Theorem
We will not prove this theorem, but, you are encouraged to think
about it.


sequence.
Theorem
about it. Such a theorem is true because our sequences are
sequences of real numbers.


sequence.
Theorem
sequences of real numbers. Once again, since we are working with
sequences of real numbers, theres a way, which is intrinsic to the
sequence, to test for convergence:


sequence.
Theorem
sequences of real numbers. Once again, since we are working with
sequences of real numbers, theres a way, which is intrinsic to the
sequence, to test for convergence: a sequence is convergent if and
only if the dierences of terms, after a stage, can be made as small
as we want.1

Series
q
an denote
Given a sequence {an }, let

n=p
ap + ap+1 + . . . + aq .
Series
q
an denote

n=p
ap + ap+1 + . . . + aq .
n
ai .
With {an }, we associate a sequence {sn } where sn =

i =1
Series
q
an denote

n=p
ap + ap+1 + . . . + aq .
n
ai . The

i =1
symbol
an
n=1
is the innite series associated to {an }.
Series
q
an denote

n=p
ap + ap+1 + . . . + aq .
n
ai . The

i =1
symbol
an
n=1
is the innite series associated to {an }. If lim sn = s exists, we

n
an = s.
an is convergent and write
say that the series

n=1
n=1
Series
q
an denote

n=p
ap + ap+1 + . . . + aq .
n
ai . The

i =1
symbol
an
n=1

n
an = s. The
say that the series
n=1
n=1
number s is called the sum of the series.

Series
q
an denote

n=p
ap + ap+1 + . . . + aq .
n
ai . The

i =1
symbol
an
n=1

n
an = s. The
say that the series

n=1
n=1
number s is called the sum of the series. If the sequence {sn } of

partial sums diverges, we say that the series diverges.
Series
Theorem
an convergent = lim an = 0.
n=1
Series
Theorem
n
n=1
Proof. lim an =
n
Series
Theorem
n
n=1
Proof. lim an = lim (sn sn1 )

n
Series
Theorem
n
n=1
Proof. lim an = lim (sn sn1 ) = lim sn lim sn1

n
Series
Theorem
n
n=1
Proof. lim an = lim (sn sn1 ) = lim sn lim sn1 = 0.

n
Series
Theorem
n
n=1

n
If lim an does not exist or if lim an = 0, then

n
an diverges.
Series
Theorem
n
n=1

n

n
Theorem
If
an and
bn are convergent, then so are
constant) and (an + bn ).
an diverges.
can (c is a
Series
Theorem
n
n=1

n

n
Theorem
If
an and
constant) and (an + bn ). Moreover,
an diverges.
can (c is a
Series
Theorem
n
n=1

n

n
Theorem
If
an and
an .
can = c
n=1
can (c is a
an diverges.
n=1
Series
Theorem
n
n=1

n

n
Theorem
If
an and
an .
can = c
n=1
n=1
n=1
bn .
an +
(an + bn ) =
can (c is a
an diverges.
n=1
n=1

MA 105 Calculus: Lecture 1: U. K. Anandavardhanan IIT Bombay

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MA 105 Calculus: Lecture 1

July 23, 2009

U. K. Anandavardhanan IIT Bombay