CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW


2.1 Introduction
This Chapter presents the literature review that will set the scene of the project and
current state of knowledge. In addition to ensue the theoretical understanding of the
research material with the result of the completed project related to the
characterization of the reservoir sediments to evaluate its feasibility in producing new
structural masonry products such as interlocking bricks.
Sediment is a naturally occurring material that is broken down by processes of
weathering and erosion. It is subsequently transported by the action of fluids such as
wind, water, or ice, and/or by the force of gravity acting on the particle itself.
Sediments are most often transported by water (fluvial processes), wind (Aeolian) and
glaciers (Donald and Fred 1996). Sediment contains many materials, including
individual primary particles, aggregate, organic materials, and associated chemicals.
Sediment properties influence how each individual primary or aggregate particle
behaves in flowing water. Size, shape, and density of sediments affect the settling
velocity, which in turn affects sediment transport rates and at what point particles
deposit. Sediment is considered to be fully characterized when its shape, size, density,
constituent texture, mineralogy, and stability are known (Martin 1955). Sediment is a
primary concern as related to several important issues including water quality, aquatic
habitat, and reservoir water-storage capacity (JURACEK and ZIEGLER 2009). In
addition, the reservoir is used for flood control, water supply, recreation, fish and
wildlife habitat, water-quality control, and navigation supplementation (Ken 2005).
7

Most natural rivers are approximately balanced with respect to sediment
inflow and outflow. Dam construction dramatically alters this balance, creating an
impounded river reach characterized by extremely low flow velocities and efficient
sediment trapping. The impounded reach will accumulate sediment and lose storage
capacity until a balance is again achieved, which would normally occur after the
impoundment has become filled up with sediment and can no longer provide design
water storage capacity for the reservoir and other benefits. Reduction of reservoir
storage capacity will affect the hydropower, navigation, recreation, and as well as
causes adverse environmental impact Therefore, at any dam or reservoir where
sustainable long-term use is to be achieved, it will be necessary to manage sediments
as well as water and this is a real challenge (Gregory and Jiahua 2010).
Moreover, these sediments contain both organic and inorganic contaminants,
which can end up in drains, rivers and coastal waters and thus contaminating water
resources and polluting the environment. The pollution of these sediments is linked to
the industrial history of the region, where certain activities such as iron and steel
industries, metallurgy of nonferrous ores and energy sectors remain polluting (Lafhaj
et al 2008). Thus, sediments have to be treated as waste material and their
management has become an environmental and economical concern for a large
number of countries (Marot 1998).

2.2 Cameron Highlands Hydroelectric Scheme
The Cameron Highlands Hydroelectric Scheme is located in the northwest of the state
of Pahang, Malaysia. It was constructed in the period between 1957 and 1964. The
scheme consists of four small run-of-rivers and one storage hydro projects and has
five power stations. The main features of the storage project beside the 100 MW
underground power stations are a 40-m high concrete buttress dam with gated
spillways, four side-stream diversion schemes (of Sg. Plauur, Sg. Kial, Sg. Kodol,
and Sg. Telom) ,some 20 km length of tunnels, the Bertam Intake and other
appurtenant structures. The major specifications and the layout plan of the scheme are
shown in Table 2.2.1_2 and Figure 2.2.1 (Published by Tenaga Nasional Berhad
(TNB) 1978).
8

TABLE 2.2.1 Specification of The Soltan Abu Bakar Dam (The Ringlet Reservoir)
(Published by Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) 1978)
Gross Storage [MCM] 6.7
Usable Storage [MCM] 4.7
Dam Height [m] 40
Dam Type [m] Concrete & Rock fill
Normal Water Level [EL.m] 1,068.3
Low Water Level [EL.m] 1,058.3


TABLE 2.2.2 Specification of Hydro Projects (Published by Tenaga Nasional Berhad
(TNB) 1978)
Item Kampung
Raja P/S
Kuala
Terla P/S
Rabinson
Falls P/S
Habu P/S Sultan
Yussuf P/S
Max.
Output
[MW] 10.8 10.3 30.5 22.75 425.0
Max.
Discharge
[m
3
/sec] 1.253 1.718 0.173 4.347 5.493
Rated Head [m] 80 37 235 91 573
Gross Head [m] 83.8 39.3 243.7 97.5 587.3
Annual
Generation
[GWh] 6 5 7 32 320
Operational
Year
1964 1964 1959 1964 1963
Intake
Water
Level
[EL.m] 1,387.3 1,284.7 1,410.6 1,165.7 1,070.8
Tail Water
Level
[EL.m] 1,296.3 1,245.62 1,172.0 1,071.2 493.5
Catchment
Area
[km
2
] 30.8 43.3 21.4 132.7 183.4
Generation
Type
Run-of-
River
Run-of-
River
Run-of-
River
Run-of-
River
Dam &
Water way
Turbin
Type
HF HF HP HF HP
9


FIGURE 2.2.1 Layout Plan of the Cameron Highlands Hydroelectric Scheme
(Published by Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) 1978)

The Ringlet Reservoir is a man-made lake created upstream of the concrete
dam on Sg. Bertam. It impounds the waters of Sg. Bertam and its tributaries and those
of Sg. Telom, Sg. Plauur, Sg. Kodol and Sg. Kial which have been diverted from the
Telom catchment through the Telom Tunnel into the Bertam catchment. The designed
gross storage of the reservoir is about 6.7 million cubic meters, of which, 4.7 million
cubic meters is usable storage. Water from the Ringlet Reservoir is channeled through
a tunnel to the Sultan Yussuf) Power Station and then is discharged through a tailrace
tunnel into the Reservoir of the Batang Padang Hydroelectric Scheme. The Ringlet
Reservoir has an estimated dead storage of 2.0 million cubic meters of water and have
a useful design life of approximately 80 years (Published by Tenaga Nasional Berhad
(TNB) 1978).


10

2.3 Bricks made of sediments
One of the best waste management practices is to use the waste materials in producing
new building and construction materials instead of depositing them into landfills.
Recently, many researchers have utilized sediments in producing brick as a
construction material. These studies are as follows:
2.3.1 Fired clay bricks utilizing polluted river sediments
Mazen et al (2009) have conducted a research work to demonstrate the practical use of
polluted river sediments after treatment into brick production. They have utilized the
sediments as partial replacement to sand and clay. In their study, the sediment-
amended mix-design bricks which required around 2% more water to obtain a level of
plasticity than the standard brick mix-design. The produced brick by firing have been
tested for firing shrinkage, porosity, water absorption, permeability, compressive
strength, freeze and thaw resistance and heavy metal leaching. The result showed that
the firing shrinkage of sediment-amended brick is higher than that of the Business
document Service Standard (BdN-Standard), whereas the BdN- Standard bricks are
more permeable than the F factory T trial bricks. Moreover, a laser granular
distribution undertaken on the fraction <62.5m of Total Solid (TS) showed that the
volume of particles with a diameter <30m was equal to 50%, while in sample 1 of
sand, the silt fraction was equal to 7%. The frost resistance test was showed that the
average weight losses for all brick samples are less than 1%. On the other hand, the
quantities of metal leached out of the fired bodies are less than Total Solid (TS),
confirming that the firing process led to better stabilization of heavy metal. They have
concluded that the treated sediments brick production has improved the valorization
path environmentally and cost-effectively.
2.3.2 Brick utilizing with dredged harbour sediments
Key and Volker (2002) have conducted a research work to produce brick with dredged
sediments of the harbour basin of Bremen, Germany. They have considered the
following in their study: 1) mixing the raw materials, 2) the experiments of industrial-
scale brick production using these raw materials, 3) testing the physical and chemical
properties of the final product. For this purpose, the dredged sediment was transported
to Hanseaten-Stein Brickworks, a factory near Hamburg, Germany. Consequently
harbour sludge and natural clay have been mixed, homogenized and dried in a steam
11

dryer in waste water drained condition. The dried sample had dried formed after being
with a pressed and burnt in a tunnel kiln at a temperature of 1050 C. During burning
process around 1700 m
3
exhaust air was released under the physical conditions inside
the furnace and sent to neutralize the acidic components by injected into Ca(OH)
2
.
The waste heat of furnace was used in boiler to make steam for the first dryer in the
process. The manufactured brick ought to be investigated for constructional
characteristics of the brick, such as: ceramic body density, compressive strength, slope
and dimensional stability, water absorption, frost resistance and content of hazardous
soluble and efflorescent salt. Their results illustrated that the harbour sediments of
Bremen could be used as raw material for brick production as well as the exhaust gas
and waste water could be compiled the threshold limits stated in German emission
regulation (except SO
2
) and could be discharged into the sewage water system of
Hamburg. They have concluded that utilization of harbour sediment rather than
depositing them could avoid reduction of natural clay resources and space
consumption by constructing new landfills equipped with dehydrating facilities and
compensation areas. Furthermore, two parameters, pH-value and grain size, which
have been varied in leaching tests could change the course of the bricks life cycle.
2.3.3 Building bricks utilizing reservoir sediment
Yuh et al (2008) have carried out a research work on possibility of producing building
bricks. For the purpose of the research work, the sediment samples were gathered
from the drying beds at Shi-Men Dam in Tao-Yuan County, Taiwan, The factors
which have been investigated in their study were: 1) to characterize reservoir
sediment, 2) to prepare reservoir sediment specimen and sintering operation
procedure, 3) to characterize sintered sample; were the samples were mechanically
minced, sieved (between 74m to 300m) and dried at 105 C for 48 h. The clay also
was sieved before sintering. After that, the homogenous combinations of sediment
samples with clay addition of 0%, 5%, 10%, and 20% (by dry weight) and water (20%
weight). To prepare cylindrical specimens (20mm diameter, 55mm height), the dry
powder should be pressed at 60 kgf/cm
2
(80 psi.). In sintering process, the temperature
was increased at 10C/min in an electric furnace (DENGYNG, DF-404). Their result
showed that the metal concentration of the leachate from the toxicity characteristics of
the leaching procedure (TCLP) test is all fulfilling the present authoritarian limits.
12

They have concluded that: 1) the maximum density of around 2.5g/cm
3
took place at
1100C and 0% clay (i.e. 100% reservoir sediment) addition, 2) the shrinkage of
sintered specimens are progressed the compressive strength, density and water
absorption. Conversely, the water absorption reduced as the shrinkage enhanced, 3)
the verification of the feasibility of using sintered recycled materials for building
construction and encouragement of the potential relevance of reservoir sediment in
brick manufacturing.
2.3.4 Lightweight bricks utilizing water treatment sludge and rice husks
Yuh et al (2009) have carried out a research work to produce lightweight bricks by
sintering mixed of dried water treatment sludge, which is obtained from Fong-Yuan
water treatment plant located in central part of Taiwan and rice husk ash. Rice husk
ash is a deposit of high ash silica content with high porous and light weight. The rice
husk ash has been utilized in brick manufacturing, concrete, lightweight building
materials cement and steel manufacturing. The parameters which have been
considered in their study were: 1) to characterize water treatment plant (WTP) sludge
and rice husk, 2) to prepare WTP sludge specimens and sintering operation procedure,
3) to characterize sintered samples, were WTP sludge and rice husk samples have
been dried separately. The dried WTP sludge has been grounded and subsequently the
grounded dried WTP sludge and the dried rice husk have been sieved (between 74m
and 300m) individually and they have been blended and mixed. Then by adding
sufficient amount of H
2
O and pressure, the mixed samples ought to be pressed
(cylindrical specimens, 20 mm in diameter and 55 mm in height). Eventually sintered
specimens have been prepared by heating at 600 C for 120 min increasing to 1100C
for 180 min. The analysis showed that the main components of WTP sludge are SiO
2
,
Fe
2
O
3
, Al
2
O
3
and CaO. Moreover, bulk densities of dark red sintered samples
decreased with increasing rice husk addition, from 2.4 to 1.6 g/cm
3
at 1100C;
however, the water absorption increased with increasing rice husk addition ratio. In
addition, by adding 20% rice husk, the shrinkage of samples increased from 10% to
45%. And also, with the rice husk ratio at 15% and below, higher compressive
strength developed at 1100C ranging from 162 to 540 kgf/cm
2
that could be in
agreement with the code requisite (150 kgf/cm
2
). They have concluded that the
lightweight bricks including 15 wt % rice husks that were sintered at 1100C
13

developed low bulk density and high strength material were yielding with relevant
Taiwan standards.
2.3.5 Development of unfired brick utilizing fly ash and lime
Chindaprasirt and Pimraksa (2008) have carried out a research work on the properties
of fly ash-lime granule unfired bricks by curing of the mixture of fly ash and lime to
increase the pozzolanic reaction of fly ash-lime granule to produce unfired brick. The
fly ash has been obtained from Mae-Moh power plant in the north of Thailand. Six
different finenesses of fly ash (FA) were used to prepare granules of three mixtures of
fly ash and lime. To avoid water loss and CO
2
uptake, the manufactured granules were
cured in an air tight container. The 4 days moist-cured incubation period for fly ash-
lime granules and 30 days incubation for 100 FA is required to investigate the
microstructure of granule by using scanning electron microscope, energy dispersive
spectroscopy and X-ray Diffraction. Then the unfired brick samples have be prepared
by water loading to a little gel and capillary waters remaining within samples for heat
treatment autoclaved at 1305 C and 0.14 Pa of pressure for 4 hours to achieve
solid bricks at room temperature with constant weight. They have focused in their
study on the following: 1) Microstructure and mineralogy of: a) 100% fly ash granule,
b) 100% non-granule fly ash, c) fly ash-lime granule, 2) mechanical properties of fly
ash-lime granule unfired brick, 3) environmental impaction of fly ash-lime granule
unfired brick. The results showed that without lime, the mixture needed a long
incubation period of moist curing of 30 days to build up new hydrated phases,
whereas with the addition of lime, a much shorter time of 4 days necessitated. They
also have concluded that fly ash-lime granule offers a good alternative by means of fly
ash for making environmental friendly unfired brick.
2.3.6 Clay bricks utilizing polluted river sediments: Treatment with Novosol

process and valorization in clay bricks
Lafhaj et al (2008) have conducted a research work to legalize the treatment of
polluted sediments with the Novosol

process in the North region of France where

was contaminated by iron and steel industries, metallurgy of nonferrous ores and
energy sectors. The objectives of their study were: 1) the Novosol

process, 2)
characterization of raw and treated river sediments, 3) valorization of treated river
sediments in clay brick. In the Novosol

process, the raw sediments, Nord-Pas-de-

14

Calais region (France), have been mixed during phosphatation phase with phosphoric
acid (2-3.5%) in tabular reactor of the Solvey Company. To break down the organic
matter, the phosphate sediments at 650C were calcined by thermal treatment in
rotary kiln. The gaseous from rotary kiln and tabular reactor were sent to gas
treatment using activated charcoal and sodium bicarbonate. The industrial waste
incinerator fly ash and residual sodium chemical which were stored and valorized; are
chemically stabilized to be integrated in road building material. The results of the tests
which have been conducted on this new brick are: Atterbergs test, water absorption,
compressive strength, freezing and thawing resistance, efflorescence, and heavy metal
leaching. They have concluded that the sediment proportion is an important parameter
in determining the brick quality somehow increasing the sediment content caused
decreasing of compression strength of the brick and decreasing of its resistance to
freezing and thawing. They have also concluded that treated sediments have been
profitably and productively included bricks with different proportions ranging from
25% to 45% (dry bases).

2.4 Sediments characterizations
When a river is stilled behind a dam, the sediments it contains sink to the bottom of
the reservoir. The proportion of a rivers total sediment load captured by a dam
known as its "trap efficiency" approaches 100 per cent for many projects, especially
those with large reservoirs. As the sediments accumulate in the reservoir, so the dam
gradually loses its ability to store water for the purposes for which it was built. Every
reservoir loses storage to sedimentation although the rate at which this happens varies
widely (Patrick 1996).
2.4.1 Geochemical tracing and spatial evolution of the sediment bed load of the
Romaine River (Qubec, Canada)
Hardy et al (2010) have conducted a research work to characterize the sediment
transport of the river under the natural condition on the Romaine River in eastern
Quebec, Canada. The hydroelectric power generation complex conducted to impound
four reservoirs on the lower 300 km of the river and capture the bed load of the river
to change the annual product of sediments to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Their approach
15

is mainly focused on the following: 1) multi-parameter geomechanical tracing of the
bed load, 2) measurements of the annual bed load, 3) estimation of the sediment yield
to the river system; were the sample of sediments taken from the river has been dried
and weighed the sampled then screened (63 to 250 m); dried and weighed again.
After that it is splited to 200g to heavy liquid separation at specific gravity 3.32. Thus
the heavy and light minerals are classified. Since these two types of minerals to be
analyzed (ICP_MS), they were separately dried, weighed and ground to fine. The
results identified a series of distinctive geomecanical domains. Moreover they indicate
a longitudinal fractionation of the bed load along the 300 km course of the river. Since
the sediment yield to the river system is able to show the total length of unstable banks
of Romaine River, must be identified 7 the annual bed loud ought to be measured. It
was noted that the high flow rate did not yield significantly high bed load at the
gauging station during the spring floods of 2003 & 2004. However, much higher
discharge did not produce much higher bed loads. They have concluded that the
application of a multi-parameter tracing is to characterize a river bed load, has showed
the behaviour of the latter compositional evaluation monitored. It can analyze the light
7 heavy portions of the sand-size particles of the bed load of the river, has vital effect
on the identification and location of major compositional cut. In addition, only 18% of
the annual quantity of sand-size material entering the river system through bank
erosion. And the high discharges removed from downstream river bed a significant
portion of sediments that have been previously deposited during the retreat of the ice
sheet. The resulting available space for sedimentation continues to stop transporting of
sediments of the Romaine River.
2.4.2 Effect of incoming sediment on the transport rate of bed load in mountain
streams
Guo et al (2009) have conducted a research work to figure out the variation of bed
load transport with varying sediment supply before and after the first flood of the year
and during non-flood season which can be classified as traveling bed load and
structural bed load in the stream in southwest China. In order to measure bed load
transport and flow with a double-box sampler which is similar to a pit trap sampler,
sediment sampling diminishes the disturbance of the stream bed by other bed load
samplers such as Sheet metal Heley-Smith, etc. to decrease effect of the stochastic
16

nature of bed load transport because of providing a more reliable estimate of the bed
load transport rate. The parameters which have been considered in this study were: 1)
the collected sediment was thoroughly and evenly mixed before the wet weight of the
representative bed load measurement was taken, 2) the sample sediment was dried,
weighed, and sieved in the laboratory to attain the size distribution, 3) the weight and
diameter of the largest five particle of each bed load sample were measured. Thus the
bed load transport under natural condition and impact of sediment supply can bed load
transport have been investigated. Their results showed that during the non-flood
season (Nov.-Apr.) there is less precipitation in the Diaoga River basin and loose
deposits of sediment pile up on slopes and in gullies make the land scope prone to
erosion in the flood season. The first flood in the year can bring large portions of
deposits of sediment to cause intensive sediment transport on the slopes to the stream
channel. Moreover, if the stream bed has a flat condition, the travelling bed load can
pass through the bed without stopping and destroy the stream bed structures during
high flood. Incoming sediment loads and stream bed structures have great impact on
bed load transport in high slope motion streams, while flow intensity sometimes is a
minor restrictive value. They have concluded that bed load transport in mountain
streams is not mainly affected by water flow; however incoming sediment load may
greatly affect the channel bed condition and the rate of bed load transport. Thus the
bed load can be grouped into travelling bed load and structural bed load according
to the motion of the particles.