Transformer - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

5/15/2014 Transformer - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer 1/32
Pole-mounted distribution transformer
with center-tapped secondary
winding used to provide 'split-phase'
power for residential and light
commercial service, which in North
America is typically rated 120/240
volt.
[1][2]
Transformer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the electrical device. For the media and toy franchise, see Transformers. For other
uses, see Transformer (disambiguation).
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers energy between two
circuits through electromagnetic induction. A transformer may be used as
a safe and efficient voltage converter to change the AC voltage at its
input to a higher or lower voltage at its output without changing the
frequency. Other uses include current conversion, isolation with or
without changing voltage and impedance conversion.
A transformer most commonly consists of two windings of wire that are
wound around a common core to provide tight electromagnetic coupling
between the windings. The core material is often a laminated iron core.
The coil that receives the electrical input energy is referred to as the
primary winding, the output coil is the secondary winding.
An alternating electric current flowing through the primary winding (coil)
of a transformer generates a varying electromagnetic field in its
surroundings which induces a varying magnetic flux in the core of the
transformer. The varying electromagnetic field in the vicinity of the
secondary winding induces an electromotive force in the secondary
winding, which appears as a voltage across the output terminals. If a load
is connected across the secondary winding, a current flows through the
secondary winding drawing power from the primary winding and its
power source.
A transformer cannot operate with direct current. When connected to a
DC source, a transformer typically produces a short output pulse as the
input current rises.
Contents
1 Invention
2 Applications
3 Basic principles
4 Basic transformer parameters and construction
5 Construction
6 Classification parameters
7 Types
8 Applications
9 History
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 Bibliography
14 External links
Invention
The invention of transformers during the late 1800s enabled long distance, cheaper, and energy efficient
transmission, distribution, and utilization of electrical energy. In the early days of commercial electric power, the
main energy source was direct current (DC), which operates at relatively low-voltage and high-current. According
to Joule's Law, energy losses are directly proportional to the square of the current. This law revealed that even a
tiny decrease in current or rise in voltage can cause a substantial lowering in energy losses and costs. Thus, the
historical pursuit for a high voltage low current electricity transmission system took shape. Although high voltage
transmission systems offered many benefits, the future fate of high-voltage alternating current remained unclear for
several reasons: high-voltage sources had a much higher risk of causing severe electrical injuries. Many essential
appliances could only function at low voltage. Regarded as one of the most influential electrical innovations of all
time, the introduction of transformers had successfully reduced the safety concerns associated with alternating
current and had the ability to lower voltage to the value required by most essential appliances.
[3]
Applications
Transformers perform voltage conversion, isolation protection, and impedance matching. In terms of voltage
conversion, transformers can step up voltage and step down current from generators to high voltage transmission
lines, and step down voltage/step up current to local distribution circuits or industrial customers. The step-up
transformer is used to increase the secondary voltage relative to the primary voltage. The step-down transformer is
used to decrease the secondary voltage relative to the primary voltage. Transformers range in size from thumbnail-
sized units used in microphones to those weighing hundreds of tons interconnecting the power grid. A broad range
of transformer designs are used in electronic and electric power applications, including miniature, audio, isolation,
high-frequency, power conversion, etc.
Basic principles
The operation of a transformer is based on two principles of the laws of electromagnetic induction: An electric
current through a conductor, produces a magnetic field surrounding the conductor, and a changing magnetic field in
the vicinity of a conductor induces a voltage across the ends of that conductor.
The magnetic field excited in the primary coil gives rise to self-induction as well as mutual induction between coils.
This self-induction counters the excited field to such a degree that the resulting current through the primary winding
is very small when the secondary winding is not connected to a load.
The physical principles of the inductive behavior of the transformer are most readily understood and formalized
when making some assumptions to construct a simple model which is called the ideal transformer. This model
differs from real transformers by assuming that the transformer is perfectly constructed and by neglecting that
Ideal transformer with a source and a load. N
P
and N
S
are the number of turns in the primary and secondary
windings respectively.
electrical or magnetic losses occur in the materials used to construct the device.
Ideal transformer
The assumptions to characterize the ideal transformer
are:
The windings of the transformer have no
resistance. Thus, there is no copper loss in the
winding, and hence no voltage drop.
Flux is confined within the magnetic core.
Therefore, it is the same flux that links the input
and output windings.
Permeability of the core is infinitely high which
implies that net mmf (amp-turns) must be zero
(otherwise there would be infinite flux) hence I
P
N
P
- I
S
N
S
= 0.
The transformer core does not suffer magnetic hysteresis or eddy currents, which cause inductive loss.
If the secondary winding of an ideal transformer has no load, no current flows in the primary winding.
The circuit diagram (right) shows the conventions used for an ideal, i.e. lossless and perfectly coupled transformer
having primary and secondary windings with N
P
and N
S
turns, respectively.
The ideal transformer induces secondary voltage V
S
as a proportion of the primary voltage V
P
and respective
winding turns as given by the equation
,
where,
a is the winding turns ratio, the value of these ratios being respectively higher and lower than unity for step-
down and step-up transformers,
[4][5][a][b]
V
P
designates source impressed voltage,
V
S
designates output voltage, and,
According to this formalism, when the number of turns in the primary coil is greater than the number of turns in the
secondary coil, the secondary voltage is smaller than the primary voltage. On the other hand, when the number of
turns in the primary coil is less than the number of turns in the secondary, the secondary voltage is greater than the
primary voltage.
Any load impedance Z
L
connected to the ideal transformer's secondary winding allows energy to flow without loss
from primary to secondary circuits. The resulting input and output apparent power are equal as given by the
equation
.
Combining the two equations yields the following ideal transformer identity
.
This formula is a reasonable approximation for the typical commercial transformer, with voltage ratio and winding
turns ratio both being inversely proportional to the corresponding current ratio.
The load impedance Z
L
and secondary voltage V
S
determine the secondary current I
S
as follows
.
The apparent impedance Z
L
' of this secondary circuit load referred to the primary winding circuit is governed by a
squared turns ratio multiplication factor relationship derived as follows
[7][8]
.
For an ideal transformer, the power supplied to the primary and the power dissipated by the load are equal. If Z
L
=
R
L
where R
L
is a pure resistance then the power is given by:
[9][10]
The primary current is given by the following equation:
[9][10]
Induction law
A varying electrical current passing through the primary coil creates a varying magnetic field around the coil which
induces a voltage in the secondary winding. The primary and secondary windings are wrapped around a core of
very high magnetic permeability, usually iron,
[c]
so that most of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary
and secondary coils. The current through a load connected to the secondary winding and the voltage across it flow
in the directions indicated in the figure.
The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of induction, which states that:
Ideal transformer and induction law
where V
s
is the instantaneous voltage, N
s
is the number of turns in the secondary coil,
and d/dt is the derivative
[d]
of the
magnetic flux through one turn of the
coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented
perpendicularly to the magnetic field lines,
the flux is the product of the magnetic flux
density B and the area A through which it
cuts. The area is constant, being equal to
the cross-sectional area of the transformer
core, whereas the magnetic field varies
with time according to the excitation of the
primary. Since the same magnetic flux
passes through both the primary and
secondary coils in an ideal transformer,
[7]
the instantaneous voltage across the
primary winding equals
Taking the ratio of the above two equations gives the same voltage ratio and turns ratio relationship shown above,
that is,
.
The changing magnetic field induces an emf across each winding.
[11]
The primary emf, acting as it does in
opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes termed the counter emf.
[12]
This is in accordance with Lenz's law,
which states that induction of emf always opposes development of any such change in magnetic field.
As still lossless and perfectly-coupled, the transformer still behaves as described above in the ideal transformer.
Polarity
The relationships of the instantaneous polarity at each of the terminals of the windings of a transformer depend on
the direction the windings are wound around the core. Identically wound windings produce the same polarity of
voltage at the corresponding terminals. This relationship is usually denoted by the dot convention in transformer
circuit diagrams, nameplates, and on terminal markings, which marks the terminals having an in-phase
relationship.
[13][14][15][e][f]
Real transformer
Instrument transformer, with
polarity dot and X1 markings
on LV side terminal
Leakage flux of a transformer
The ideal transformer model neglects the following basic linear aspects in real transformers.
Core losses, collectively called magnetizing current losses, consist of
[18]
Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear application of the voltage applied in the transformer core, and
Eddy current losses due to joule heating in the core that are proportional to the square of the transformer's
applied voltage.
Whereas windings in the ideal model have no impedance, the windings in a real
transformer have finite non-zero impedances in the form of:
Joule losses due to resistance in the primary and secondary windings
[18]
Leakage flux that escapes from the core and passes through one winding
only resulting in primary and secondary reactive impedance.
If a voltage is applied across the primary terminals of a real transformer while
the secondary winding is open without load, the real transformer must be
viewed as a simple inductor with an impedance Z:
.
Leakage flux
Main article: Leakage inductance
The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated
by the primary winding links all the turns of every winding,
including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that
take it outside the windings.
[19]
Such flux is termed leakage
flux, and results in leakage inductance in series with the
mutually coupled transformer windings.
[12]
Leakage flux
results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged
from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power
supply. It is not directly a power loss, but results in inferior
voltage regulation, causing the secondary voltage not to be
directly proportional to the primary voltage, particularly
under heavy load.
[19]
Transformers are therefore normally
designed to have very low leakage inductance.
Nevertheless, it is impossible to eliminate all leakage flux
because it plays an essential part in the operation of the transformer. The combined effect of the leakage flux and
the electric field around the windings is what transfers energy from the primary to the secondary.
[20]
Real transformer equivalent circuit
In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts
may deliberately be introduced in a transformer design to limit the short-circuit current it will supply.
[12]
Leaky
transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury vapor
lamps, and neon signs or for safely handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc
welders.
[21]
Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-frequency transformers in circuits
that have a DC component flowing in the windings.
[22]
Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when transformers are operated in parallel. It can be shown that if
the percent impedance (Z) and associated winding leakage reactance-to-resistance (X/R) ratio of two transformers
were hypothetically exactly the same, the transformers would share power in proportion to their respective volt-
ampere ratings (e.g. 500 kVA unit in parallel with 1,000 kVA unit, the larger unit would carry twice the current).
However, the impedance tolerances of commercial transformers are significant. Also, the Z impedance and X/R
ratio of different capacity transformers tends to vary, corresponding 1,000 kVA and 500 kVA units' values being,
to illustrate, respectively, Z ~ 5.75%, X/R ~ 3.75 and Z ~ 5%, X/R ~ 4.75.
[23][24]
Equivalent circuit
See also: Steinmetz equivalent circuit
Referring to the diagram, a practical transformer's physical behavior may be represented by an equivalent circuit
model, which can incorporate an ideal transformer.
[25]
Winding joule losses and leakage reactances are represented by the following series loop impedances of the model:
Primary winding: R
P
, X
P
Secondary winding: R
S
, X
S
.
In normal course of circuit equivalence transformation, R
S
and X
S
are in practice usually referred to the primary side
by multiplying these impedances by the turns ratio squared, (N
P
/N
S
)
2
= a
2
.
Core loss and reactance is
represented by the
following shunt leg
impedances of the model:
Core or iron losses:
R
C
Magnetizing
reactance: X
M
.
Transformer universal emf equation
If the flux in the core is purely sinusoidal, the
relationship for either winding between its rms
voltage E
rms
of the winding, and the supply
frequency f, number of turns N, core cross-
sectional area a in m
2
and peak magnetic flux
density B
peak
in Wb/m
2
or T (tesla) is given by
the universal emf equation:
[18]
If the flux does not contain even harmonics the
following equation can be used for half-cycle
average voltage E
avg
of any waveshape:
R
C
and X
M
are collectively termed the magnetizing branch of the model.
Core losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in the core and are proportional to the square
of the core flux for operation at a given frequency.
[26]
The finite permeability core requires a magnetizing current I
M
to maintain mutual flux in the core. Magnetizing current is in phase with the flux, the relationship between the two
being non-linear due to saturation effects. However, all impedances of the equivalent circuit shown are by definition
linear and such non-linearity effects are not typically reflected in transformer equivalent circuits.
[26]
With sinusoidal
supply, core flux lags the induced emf by 90. With open-circuited secondary winding, magnetizing branch current
I
0
equals transformer no-load current.
[25]
The resulting model, though sometimes termed 'exact' equivalent circuit based on linearity assumptions, retains a
number of approximations.
[25]
Analysis may be simplified by assuming that magnetizing branch impedance is
relatively high and relocating the branch to the left of the primary impedances. This introduces error but allows
combination of primary and referred secondary resistances and reactances by simple summation as two series
impedances.
Transformer equivalent circuit impedance and transformer ratio parameters can be derived from the following tests:
open-circuit test,
[g]
short-circuit test, winding resistance test, and transformer ratio test.
Basic transformer parameters and construction
Effect of frequency
The time-derivative term in Faraday's Law shows that
the flux in the core is the integral with respect to time of
the applied voltage.
[28]
Hypothetically an ideal
transformer would work with direct-current excitation,
with the core flux increasing linearly with time.
[29]
In
practice, the flux rises to the point where magnetic
saturation of the core occurs, causing a large increase in
the magnetizing current and overheating the transformer.
All practical transformers must therefore operate with
alternating (or pulsed direct) current.
[29]
The emf of a transformer at a given flux density increases
with frequency.
[18]
By operating at higher frequencies,
transformers can be physically more compact because a
given core is able to transfer more power without
reaching saturation and fewer turns are needed to
achieve the same impedance. However, properties such
as core loss and conductor skin effect also increase with
frequency. Aircraft and military equipment employ
400 Hz power supplies which reduce core and winding
weight.
[30]
Conversely, frequencies used for some
Power transformer over-excitation
condition caused by decreased
frequency; flux (green), iron core's
magnetic characteristics (red) and
magnetizing current (blue).
railway electrification systems were much lower (e.g.
16.7 Hz and 25 Hz) than normal utility frequencies (50 60 Hz) for historical reasons concerned mainly with the
limitations of early electric traction motors. As such, the transformers used to step-down the high over-head line
voltages (e.g. 15 kV) were much heavier for the same power rating than those designed only for the higher
frequencies.
Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher
frequency than intended will lead to reduced magnetizing current. At a
lower frequency, the magnetizing current will increase. Operation of a
transformer at other than its design frequency may require assessment of
voltages, losses, and cooling to establish if safe operation is practical. For
example, transformers may need to be equipped with 'volts per hertz'
over-excitation relays to protect the transformer from overvoltage at
higher than rated frequency.
One example of state-of-the-art design is traction transformers used for
electric multiple unit and high-speed train service operating across the
country border and using different electrical standards, such transformers'
being restricted to be positioned below the passenger compartment. The
power supply to, and converter equipment being supply by, such traction
transformers have to accommodate different input frequencies and
voltage (ranging from as high as 50 Hz down to 16.7 Hz and rated up to
25 kV) while being suitable for multiple AC asynchronous motor and DC
converters & motors with varying harmonics mitigation filtering
requirements.
Large power transformers are vulnerable to insulation failure due to transient voltages with high-frequency
components, such as caused in switching or by lightning.
[31]
Energy losses
A theoretical (ideal) transformer does not experience energy losses, i.e. it is 100% efficient. The power dissipated
by its load would be equal to the power supplied by its primary source. In contrast, a real transformer is typically
95 to 99% efficient, due to several loss mechanisms, including winding resistance, winding capacitance, leakage
flux, core losses, and hysteresis loss. Larger transformers are generally more efficient than small units, and those
rated for electricity distribution usually perform better than 98%.
[32]
Experimental transformers using superconducting windings achieve efficiencies of 99.85%.
[33]
The increase in
efficiency can save considerable energy in a large heavily loaded transformer; the trade-off is in the additional initial
and running cost of the superconducting design.
As transformer losses vary with load, it is often useful to express these losses in terms of no-load loss, full-load loss,
half-load loss, and so on. Hysteresis and Eddy current losses are constant at all load levels and dominate
overwhelmingly without load, while variable winding joule losses dominating increasingly as load increases. The no-
load loss can be significant, so that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on the electrical supply. Designing
energy efficient transformers for lower loss requires a larger core, good-quality silicon steel, or even amorphous
steel for the core and thicker wire, increasing initial cost. The choice of construction represents a trade-off between
initial cost and operating cost.
[34]
Transformer losses arise from:
Winding joule losses
Current flowing through winding conductors causes joule heating. As frequency increases, skin effect and
proximity effect causes winding resistance and, hence, losses to increase.
Core losses
Hysteresis losses
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the
core. According to Steinmetz's formula, the heat energy due to hysteresis is given by
, and,
hysteresis loss is thus given by
where, f is the frequency, is the hysteresis coefficient and
max
is the maximum flux density, the
empirical exponent of which varies from about 1.4 to 1 .8 but is often given as 1.6 for iron.
[34][35][36]
Eddy current losses
Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors and a core made from such a material also
constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire length. Eddy currents therefore circulate
within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsible for resistive heating of the core
material. The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse
square of the material thickness.
[34]
Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core of a stack
of plates electrically insulated from each other, rather than a solid block; all transformers operating at
low frequencies use laminated or similar cores.
Magnetostriction related transformer hum
Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically expand and contract
slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction, the frictional energy of
which produces an audible noise known as mains hum or transformer hum.
[4][37]
This transformer hum is
especially objectionable in transformers supplied at power frequencies
[h]
and in high-frequency flyback
transformers associated with PAL system CRTs.
Stray losses
Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the
Core form = core type; shell form =
shell type
supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such
as the transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat.
[38]
There are
also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field but these are usually small.
Mechanical vibration and audible noise transmission
In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating forces between the primary
and secondary windings. This energy incites vibration transmission in interconnected metalwork, thus
amplifying audible transformer hum.
[39]
Core form and shell form transformers
Closed-core transformers are constructed in 'core form' or 'shell form'.
When windings surround the core, the transformer is core form; when
windings are surrounded by the core, the transformer is shell form. Shell
form design may be more prevalent than core form design for
distribution transformer applications due to the relative ease in stacking
the core around winding coils.
[40]
Core form design tends to, as a
general rule, be more economical, and therefore more prevalent, than
shell form design for high voltage power transformer applications at the
lower end of their voltage and power rating ranges (less than or equal to,
nominally, 230 kV or 75 MVA). At higher voltage and power ratings,
shell form transformers tend to be more prevalent.
[40][41][42][43]
Shell
form design tends to be preferred for extra high voltage and higher
MVA applications because, though more labor-intensive to
manufacture, shell form transformers are characterized as having
inherently better kVA-to-weight ratio, better short-circuit strength
characteristics and higher immunity to transit damage.
[43]
Construction
Cores
Laminated steel cores
Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of high permeability silicon steel.
[44]
The steel has a permeability many times that of free space and the core thus serves to greatly reduce the
magnetizing current and confine the flux to a path which closely couples the windings.
[45]
Early transformer
developers soon realized that cores constructed from solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy current losses, and their
designs mitigated this effect with cores consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires.
[46]
Later designs constructed
the core by stacking layers of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained in use. Each lamination is insulated
from its neighbors by a thin non-conducting layer of insulation.
[47]
The universal transformer equation indicates a
minimum cross-sectional area for the core to avoid saturation.
Laminated core transformer showing
edge of laminations at top of photo
Power transformer inrush current
caused by residual flux at switching
instant; flux (green), iron core's
magnetic characteristics (red) and
magnetizing current (blue).
Laminating the core greatly
reduces eddy-current losses
The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly elliptical
paths that enclose little flux, and so reduce their magnitude. Thinner
laminations reduce losses,
[48]
but are more laborious and expensive to
construct.
[49]
Thin laminations are generally used on high-frequency
transformers, with some of very thin steel laminations able to operate up
to 10 kHz.
One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved stacks
of E-shaped steel sheets capped with I-shaped pieces, leading to its
name of 'E-I transformer'.
[49]
Such a design tends to exhibit more losses,
but is very economical to manufacture. The cut-core or C-core type is
made by winding a steel strip around a
rectangular form and then bonding the
layers together. It is then cut in two,
forming two C shapes, and the core
assembled by binding the two C halves
together with a steel strap.
[49]
They
have the advantage that the flux is
always oriented parallel to the metal
grains, reducing reluctance.
A steel core's remanence means that it
retains a static magnetic field when
power is removed. When power is then
reapplied, the residual field will cause a
high inrush current until the effect of the
remaining magnetism is reduced, usually
after a few cycles of the applied AC waveform.
[50]
Overcurrent
protection devices such as fuses must be selected to allow this harmless
inrush to pass. On transformers connected to long, overhead power
transmission lines, induced currents due to geomagnetic disturbances during solar storms can cause saturation of the
core and operation of transformer protection devices.
[51]
Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses by using cores made with low-loss high-permeability
silicon steel or amorphous (non-crystalline) metal alloy. The higher initial cost of the core material is offset over the
life of the transformer by its lower losses at light load.
[52]
Solid cores
Powdered iron cores are used in circuits such as switch-mode power supplies that operate above mains
frequencies and up to a few tens of kilohertz. These materials combine high magnetic permeability with high bulk
electrical resistivity. For frequencies extending beyond the VHF band, cores made from non-conductive magnetic
ceramic materials called ferrites are common.
[49]
Some radio-frequency transformers also have movable cores
(sometimes called 'slugs') which allow adjustment of the coupling coefficient (and bandwidth) of tuned radio-
frequency circuits.
Small toroidal core transformer
Toroidal cores
Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which,
depending on operating frequency, is made from a long strip of silicon
steel or permalloy wound into a coil, powdered iron, or ferrite.
[53]
A strip
construction ensures that the grain boundaries are optimally aligned,
improving the transformer's efficiency by reducing the core's reluctance.
The closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the construction of
an E-I core.
[21]
The cross-section of the ring is usually square or
rectangular, but more expensive cores with circular cross-sections are
also available. The primary and secondary coils are often wound
concentrically to cover the entire surface of the core. This minimizes the
length of wire needed, and also provides screening to minimize the core's
magnetic field from generating electromagnetic interference.
Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated E-I types for a similar power level. Other
advantages compared to E-I types, include smaller size (about half), lower weight (about half), less mechanical hum
(making them superior in audio amplifiers), lower exterior magnetic field (about one tenth), low off-load losses
(making them more efficient in standby circuits), single-bolt mounting, and greater choice of shapes. The main
disadvantages are higher cost and limited power capacity (see Classification parameters below). Because of the
lack of a residual gap in the magnetic path, toroidal transformers also tend to exhibit higher inrush current,
compared to laminated E-I types.
Ferrite toroidal cores are used at higher frequencies, typically between a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of
megahertz, to reduce losses, physical size, and weight of inductive components. A drawback of toroidal
transformer construction is the higher labor cost of winding. This is because it is necessary to pass the entire length
of a coil winding through the core aperture each time a single turn is added to the coil. As a consequence, toroidal
transformers rated more than a few kVA are uncommon. Small distribution transformers may achieve some of the
benefits of a toroidal core by splitting it and forcing it open, then inserting a bobbin containing primary and
secondary windings.
Air cores
A physical core is not an absolute requisite and a functioning transformer can be produced simply by placing the
windings near each other, an arrangement termed an 'air-core' transformer. The air which comprises the magnetic
circuit is essentially lossless, and so an air-core transformer eliminates loss due to hysteresis in the core material.
[12]
The leakage inductance is inevitably high, resulting in very poor regulation, and so such designs are unsuitable for
use in power distribution.
[12]
They have however very high bandwidth, and are frequently employed in radio-
frequency applications,
[54]
for which a satisfactory coupling coefficient is maintained by carefully overlapping the
primary and secondary windings. They're also used for resonant transformers such as Tesla coils where they can
achieve reasonably low loss in spite of the high leakage inductance.
Windings
Windings are usually arranged
concentrically to minimize flux leakage.
Cut view through transformer windings.
White: insulator. Green spiral: Grain
oriented silicon steel. Black: Primary
winding made of oxygen-free copper. Red:
Secondary winding. Top left: Toroidal
transformer. Right: C-core, but E-core
would be similar. The black windings are
made of film. Top: Equally low capacitance
between all ends of both windings. Since
most cores are at least moderately
conductive they also need insulation.
Bottom: Lowest capacitance for one end of
the secondary winding needed for low-
power high-voltage transformers. Bottom
left: Reduction of leakage inductance
would lead to increase of capacitance.
The conducting material used for the windings depends upon the application, but in all cases the individual turns
must be electrically insulated from each other to ensure that the current travels throughout every turn.
[55]
For small
power and signal transformers, in which currents are low and the
potential difference between adjacent turns is small, the coils are
often wound from enamelled magnet wire, such as Formvar wire.
Larger power transformers operating at high voltages may be
wound with copper rectangular strip conductors insulated by oil-
impregnated paper and blocks of pressboard.
[56]
High-frequency
transformers
operating in the tens
to hundreds of
kilohertz often have
windings made of
braided Litz wire to
minimize the skin-
effect and proximity
effect losses.
[28]
Large power transformers use multiple-stranded
conductors as well, since even at low power frequencies non-
uniform distribution of current would otherwise exist in high-current
windings.
[56]
Each strand is individually insulated, and the strands
are arranged so that at certain points in the winding, or throughout
the whole winding, each portion occupies different relative positions
in the complete conductor. The transposition equalizes the current
flowing in each strand of the conductor, and reduces eddy current
losses in the winding itself. The stranded conductor is also more
flexible than a solid conductor of similar size, aiding manufacture.
[56]
The windings of signal transformers minimize leakage inductance and
stray capacitance to improve high-frequency response. Coils are
split into sections, and those sections interleaved between the
sections of the other winding.
Power-frequency transformers may have taps at intermediate points
on the winding, usually on the higher voltage winding side, for
voltage adjustment. Taps may be manually reconnected, or a manual
or automatic switch may be provided for changing taps. Automatic
on-load tap changers are used in electric power transmission or
distribution, on equipment such as arc furnace transformers, or for automatic voltage regulators for sensitive loads.
Audio-frequency transformers, used for the distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers, have taps to allow
adjustment of impedance to each speaker. A center-tapped transformer is often used in the output stage of an
audio power amplifier in a push-pull circuit. Modulation transformers in AM transmitters are very similar.
Dry-type transformer winding insulation systems can be either of standard open-wound 'dip-and-bake' construction
or of higher quality designs that include vacuum pressure impregnation (VPI), vacuum pressure encapsulation
(VPE), and cast coil encapsulation processes.
[57]
In the VPI process, a combination of heat, vacuum and pressure
Cutaway view of liquid-
immersed construction
transformer. The conservator
(reservoir) at top provides
liquid-to-atmosphere isolation
as coolant level and
temperature changes. The
walls and fins provide required
heat dissipation balance.
is used to thoroughly seal, bind, and eliminate entrained air voids in the winding polyester resin insulation coat layer,
thus increasing resistance to corona. VPE windings are similar to VPI windings but provide more protection against
environmental effects, such as from water, dirt or corrosive ambients, by multiple dips including typically in terms of
final epoxy coat.
[58]
Cooling
See also: Arrhenius equation
To place the cooling problem in perspective, the accepted rule of thumb is that
the life expectancy of insulation in all electric machines including all transformers
is halved for about every 7 C to 10 C increase in operating temperature, this
life expectancy halving rule holding more narrowly when the increase is between
about 7 C to 8 C in the case of transformer winding cellulose
insulation.
[59][60][61]
Small dry-type and liquid-immersed transformers are often self-cooled by
natural convection and radiation heat dissipation. As power ratings increase,
transformers are often cooled by forced-air cooling, forced-oil cooling, water-
cooling, or combinations of these.
[62]
Large transformers are filled with
transformer oil that both cools and insulates the windings.
[63]
Transformer oil is
a highly refined mineral oil that cools the windings and insulation by circulating
within the transformer tank. The mineral oil and paper insulation system has
been extensively studied and used for more than 100 years. It is estimated that
50% of power transformers will survive 50 years of use, that the average age of
failure of power transformers is about 10 to 15 years, and that about 30% of
power transformer failures are due to insulation and overloading failures.
[64][65]
Prolonged operation at elevated temperature degrades insulating properties of
winding insulation and dielectric coolant, which not only shortens transformer life
but can ultimately lead to catastrophic transformer failure.
[59]
With a great body
of empirical study as a guide, transformer oil testing including dissolved gas
analysis provides valuable maintenance information. This underlines the need to
monitor, model, forecast and manage oil and winding conductor insulation
temperature conditions under varying, possibly difficult, power loading
conditions.
[66][67]
Building regulations in many jurisdictions require indoor liquid-filled transformers to either use dielectric fluids that
are less flammable than oil, or be installed in fire-resistant rooms.
[68]
Air-cooled dry transformers can be more
economical where they eliminate the cost of a fire-resistant transformer room.
The tank of liquid filled transformers often has radiators through which the liquid coolant circulates by natural
convection or fins. Some large transformers employ electric fans for forced-air cooling, pumps for forced-liquid
cooling, or have heat exchangers for water-cooling.
[63]
An oil-immersed transformer may be equipped with a
Buchholz relay, which, depending on severity of gas accumulation due to internal arcing, is used to either alarm or
de-energize the transformer.
[50]
Oil-immersed transformer installations usually include fire protection measures such
as walls, oil containment, and fire-suppression sprinkler systems. Another protection means consists in fast
depressurization systems (http://www.electricenergyonline.com/?page=show_article&article=362) which are
activated by the first dynamic pressure peak of the shock wave, avoiding transformer explosion before static
pressure increases. Many explosions are reported to have been avoided thanks to this technology.
[69]
Polychlorinated biphenyls have properties that once favored their use as a dielectric coolant, though concerns over
their environmental persistence led to a widespread ban on their use.
[70]
Today, non-toxic, stable silicone-based
oils, or fluorinated hydrocarbons may be used where the expense of a fire-resistant liquid offsets additional building
cost for a transformer vault.
[68][71]
PCBs for new equipment was banned in 1981 and in 2000 for use in existing
equipment in United Kingdom
[72]
Legislation enacted in Canada between 1977 and 1985 essentially bans PCB use
in transformers manufactured in or imported into the country after 1980, the maximum allowable level of PCB
contamination in existing mineral oil transformers being 50 ppm.
[73]
Some transformers, instead of being liquid-filled, have their windings enclosed in sealed, pressurized tanks and
cooled by nitrogen or sulfur hexafluoride gas.
[71]
Experimental power transformers in the 500-to-1,000 kVA range have been built with liquid nitrogen or helium
cooled superconducting windings, which eliminates winding losses without affecting core losses.
[74][75]
Insulation drying
Construction of oil-filled transformers requires that the insulation covering the windings be thoroughly dried of
residual moisture before the oil is introduced. Drying is carried out at the factory, and may also be required as a
field service. Drying may be done by circulating hot air around the core, or by vapor-phase drying (VPD) where an
evaporated solvent transfers heat by condensation on the coil and core.
For small transformers, resistance heating by injection of current into the windings is used. The heating can be
controlled very well, and it is energy efficient. The method is called low-frequency heating (LFH) since the current
used is at a much lower frequency than that of the power grid, which is normally 50 or 60 Hz. A lower frequency
reduces the effect of inductance, so the voltage required can be reduced.
[76]
The LFH drying method is also used
for service of older transformers.
[77]
Bushings
Larger transformers are provided with high-voltage insulated bushings made of polymers or porcelain. A large
bushing can be a complex structure since it must provide careful control of the electric field gradient without letting
the transformer leak oil.
[78]
Classification parameters
Transformers can be classified in many ways, such as the following:
Power capacity: From a fraction of a volt-ampere (VA) to over a thousand MVA.
Duty of a transformer: Continuous, short-time, intermittent, periodic, varying.
Frequency range: Power-frequency, audio-frequency, or radio-frequency.
Voltage class: From a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts.
Cooling type: Dry and liquid-immersed - self-cooled, forced air-cooled; liquid-immersed - forced oil-
cooled, water-cooled.
Circuit application: Such as power supply, impedance matching, output voltage and current stabilizer or
circuit isolation.
Utilization: Pulse, power, distribution, rectifier, arc furnace, amplifier output, etc..
Basic magnetic form: Core form, shell form.
Constant-potential transformer descriptor: Step-up, step-down, isolation.
General winding configuration: By EIC vector group - various possible two-winding combinations of the
phase designations delta, wye or star, and zigzag or interconnected star;
[i]
other - autotransformer, Scott-T,
zigzag grounding transformer winding.
[79][80][81][82]
Rectifier phase-shift winding configuration: 2-winding, 6-pulse; 3-winding, 12-pulse; . . . n-winding, [n-
1]*6-pulse; polygon; etc..
Types
Various specific electrical application designs require a variety of transformer types. Although they all share the
basic characteristic transformer principles, they are customize in construction or electrical properties for certain
installation requirements or circuit conditions.
Autotransformer: Transformer in which part of the winding is common to both primary and secondary
circuits.
[83]
Capacitor voltage transformer: Transformer in which capacitor divider is used to reduce high voltage
before application to the primary winding.
Distribution transformer, power transformer: International standards make a distinction in terms of
distribution transformers being used to distribute energy from transmission lines and networks for local
consumption and power transformers being used to transfer electric energy between the generator and
distribution primary circuits.
[83][84][j]
Phase angle regulating transformer: A specialised transformer used to control the flow of real power on
three-phase electricity transmission networks.
Scott-T transformer: Transformer used for phase transformation from three-phase to two-phase and vice
versa.
[83]
Polyphase transformer: Any transformer with more than one phase.
Grounding transformer: Transformer used for grounding three-phase circuits to create a neutral in a three
wire system, using a wye-delta transformer,
[80][85]
or more commonly, a zigzag grounding winding.
[80][82][83]
Leakage transformer: Transformer that has loosely coupled windings.
An electrical substation in Melbourne, Australia
showing three of five 220 kV 66 kV transformers,
each with a capacity of 150 MVA
[86]
Transformer at the Limestone
Generating Station in Manitoba,
Canada
Resonant transformer: Transformer that uses resonance to generate a high secondary voltage.
Audio transformer: Transformer used in audio equipment.
Output transformer: Transformer used to match the output of a valve amplifier to its load.
Instrument transformer: Potential or current transformer used to accurately and safely represent voltage,
current or phase position of high voltage or high power circuits.
[83]
Applications
Transformers are
used to increase
voltage before
transmitting
electrical energy
over long
distances through
wires. Wires have
resistance which
loses energy
through joule
heating at a rate
corresponding to
square of the
current. By
transforming
power to a higher voltage transformers enable economical
transmission of power and distribution. Consequently,
transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry, permitting generation to be located remotely from points of
demand.
[87]
All but a tiny fraction of the world's electrical power has passed through a series of transformers by the
time it reaches the consumer.
[38]
Transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to step-down the supply voltage to a level suitable for
the low voltage circuits they contain. The transformer also electrically isolates the end user from contact with the
supply voltage.
Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match devices such as microphones
and record players to the input of amplifiers. Audio transformers allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two-way
conversation over a single pair of wires. A balun transformer converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a
signal that has balanced voltages to ground, such as between external cables and internal circuits.
History
Discovery of induction
Faraday's experiment with induction between
coils of wire
[88]
Faraday's ring transformer
Electromagnetic induction, the principle of the operation of the transformer, was discovered independently and
almost simultaneously by Joseph Henry and Michael Faraday in
1831. Although Henry's work likely having preceded Faraday's
work by a few months, Faraday was the first to publish the
results of his experiments and thus receive credit for the
discovery.
[89]
The relationship between emf and magnetic flux is
an equation now known as Faraday's law of induction:
.
where is the magnitude of the emf in volts and
B
is the
magnetic flux through the circuit in webers.
[90]
Faraday performed the first experiments on induction between
coils of wire, including winding a pair of coils around an iron ring,
thus creating the first toroidal closed-core transformer.
[91]
However he only applied individual pulses of current to
his transformer, and never discovered the relation between the turns ratio and emf in the windings.
Induction coils
The first type of transformer to see wide use was the induction coil,
invented by Rev. Nicholas Callan of Maynooth College, Ireland in 1836.
He was one of the first researchers to realize the more turns the
secondary winding has in relation to the primary winding, the larger the
induced secondary emf will be. Induction coils evolved from scientists'
and inventors' efforts to get higher voltages from batteries. Since batteries
produce direct current (DC) rather than AC, induction coils relied upon
vibrating electrical contacts that regularly interrupted the current in the
primary to create the flux changes necessary for induction. Between the
1830s and the 1870s, efforts to build better induction coils, mostly by
trial and error, slowly revealed the basic principles of transformers.
First alternating current transformers
By the 1870s, efficient generators producing alternating current (AC)
were available, and it was found AC could power an induction coil directly, without an interrupter.
In 1876, Russian engineer Pavel Yablochkov invented a lighting system based on a set of induction coils where the
primary windings were connected to a source of AC. The secondary windings could be connected to several
'electric candles' (arc lamps) of his own design.
[92]

[93]
The coils Yablochkov employed functioned essentially as
transformers.
[92]
In 1878, the Ganz factory, Budapest, Hungary, began manufacturing equipment for electric lighting and, by 1883,
had installed over fifty systems in Austria-Hungary. Their AC systems used arc and incandescent lamps, generators,
and other equipment.
[94]
Induction coil, 1900, Bremerhavn,
Germany
Shell form transformer. Sketch used
by Uppenborn to describe ZBD
engineers' 1885 patents and earliest
articles.
[95]
Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs first exhibited a device with an
open iron core called a 'secondary generator' in London in 1882, then
sold the idea to the Westinghouse company in the United States.
[46]
They
also exhibited the invention in Turin, Italy in 1884, where it was adopted
for an electric lighting system.
[95]
However, the efficiency of their open-
core bipolar apparatus remained very low.
[95]
Early series circuit transformer distribution
Induction coils with open magnetic circuits are inefficient at transferring
power to loads. Until about 1880, the paradigm for AC power
transmission from a high voltage supply to a low voltage load was a
series circuit. Open-core transformers with a ratio near 1:1 were connected with their primaries in series to allow
use of a high voltage for transmission while presenting a low voltage to the lamps. The inherent flaw in this method
was that turning off a single lamp (or other electric device) affected the voltage supplied to all others on the same
circuit. Many adjustable transformer designs were introduced to compensate for this problematic characteristic of
the series circuit, including those employing methods of adjusting the core or bypassing the magnetic flux around
part of a coil.
[95]
Efficient, practical transformer designs did not appear until the 1880s, but within a decade, the
transformer would be instrumental in the War of Currents, and in seeing AC distribution systems triumph over their
DC counterparts, a position in which they have remained dominant ever since.
[96]
Closed-core transformers and parallel power
distribution
In the autumn of 1884, Kroly Zipernowsky, Ott Blthy and Miksa
Dri (ZBD), three engineers associated with the Ganz factory, had
determined that open-core devices were impracticable, as they were
incapable of reliably regulating voltage.
[98]
In their joint 1885 patent
applications for novel transformers (later called ZBD transformers), they
described two designs with closed magnetic circuits where copper
windings were either a) wound around iron wire ring core or
b) surrounded by iron wire core.
[95]
The two designs were the first
application of the two basic transformer constructions in common use to
this day, which can as a class all be termed as either core form or shell
form (or alternatively, core type or shell type), as in a) or b),
respectively (see images).
[40][41][99][100]
The Ganz factory had also in
the autumn of 1884 made delivery of the world's first five high-efficiency
AC transformers, the first of these units having been shipped on September 16, 1884.
[101]
This first unit had been
manufactured to the following specifications: 1,400 W, 40 Hz, 120:72 V, 11.6:19.4 A, ratio 1.67:1, one-phase,
shell form.
[101]
In both designs, the magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary windings traveled almost entirely within the
confines of the iron core, with no intentional path through air (see Toroidal cores below). The new transformers
were 3.4 times more efficient than the open-core bipolar devices of Gaulard and Gibbs.
[102]
The ZBD patents
Core form, front; shell form, back.
Earliest specimens of ZBD-designed
high-efficiency constant-potential
transformers manufactured at the
Ganz factory in 1885.
The ZBD team consisted of Kroly
Zipernowsky, Ott Blthy and Miksa
Dri
included two other major interrelated innovations: one concerning the use of parallel connected, instead of series
connected, utilization loads, the other concerning the ability to have high turns ratio transformers such that the supply
network voltage could be much higher (initially 1,400 to 2,000 V) than the voltage of utilization loads (100 V
initially preferred).
[103][104]
When employed in parallel connected electric distribution systems, closed-core
transformers finally made it technically and economically feasible to provide electric power for lighting in homes,
businesses and public spaces.
[105][106]
Blthy had suggested the use of closed cores, Zipernowsky had suggested
the use of parallel shunt connections, and Dri had performed the experiments;
[107]
Transformers today are designed on the principles discovered by the
three engineers. They also popularized the word 'transformer' to
describe a device for altering the emf of an electric current,
[105][108]
although the term had already been in use by 1882.
[109][110]
In 1886,
the ZBD engineers designed, and the Ganz factory supplied electrical
equipment for, the world's first power station that used AC generators
to power a parallel connected common electrical network, the steam-
powered Rome-Cerchi power plant.
[111]
Although George Westinghouse had bought Gaulard and Gibbs' patents
in 1885, the Edison Electric Light Company held an option on the US
rights for the ZBD transformers, requiring Westinghouse to pursue
alternative designs on the same principles. He assigned to William
Stanley the task of developing a device for commercial use in United
States.
[112]
Stanley's first patented design was for induction coils with
single cores of soft iron and adjustable gaps to regulate the emf present
in the secondary winding (see image).
[97]
This design
[113]
was first used
commercially in the US in 1886
[96]
but Westinghouse was intent on
improving the Stanley design to make it (unlike the ZBD type) easy and
cheap to produce.
[113]
Westinghouse, Stanley and associates soon developed an easier to
manufacture core, consisting of a stack of thin 'Eshaped' iron plates,
insulated by thin sheets of paper or other insulating material. Prewound
copper coils could then be slid into place, and straight iron plates laid in
to create a closed magnetic circuit. Westinghouse applied for a patent for
the new low-cost design in December 1886; it was granted in July
1887.
[107][114]
Other early transformers
In 1889, Russian-born engineer Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky developed the first three-phase transformer at the
Allgemeine Elektricitts-Gesellschaft ('General Electricity Company') in Germany.
[115]
In 1891, Nikola Tesla invented the Tesla coil, an air-cored, dual-tuned resonant transformer for generating very
high voltages at high frequency.
[116][117]
Stanley's 1886 design for adjustable
gap open-core induction coils
[97]
See also
Magnetization
Inductor
Polyphase system
Load profile
Magnetic core
Geomagnetic storm
Paraformer
Rectiformer
Switched-mode power supply
Electronic symbol
Notes
a. ^ "The turn ratio of a transformer is the ratio of the number of turns in the high-voltage winding to that in the low-
voltage winding",
[6]
common usage having evolved over time from 'turn ratio' to 'turns ratio',
b. ^ A step-down transformer converts a high voltage to a lower voltage while a step-up transformer converts a low
voltage to a higher voltage, an isolation transformer having 1:1 turns ratio with output voltage the same as input
voltage.
c. ^ Transformer windings are usually wound around ferromagnetic cores but can also be air-core wound.
d. ^ The expression d/dt, defined as the derivative of magnetic flux with time t, provides a measure of rate of
magnetic flux in the core and hence of emf induced in the respective winding.
e. ^ ANSI/IEEE C57.13, ANS Requirements for Instrument Transformers, defines polarity as the 'designation of the
relative instantaneous directions of the currents entering the primary terminals and leaving the secondary terminals
during most of each half cycle', the word 'instantaneous' differentiating from say phasor current.
[16]
f. ^ Transformer polarity can also be identified by terminal markings H0,H1,H2... on primary terminals and X1,X2,
(and Y1,Y2, Z1,Z2,Z3... if windings are available) on secondary terminals. Each letter prefix designates a different
winding and each numeral designates a termination or tap on each winding. The designated terminals H1,X1, (and
Y1, Z1 if available) indicate same instantaneous polarities for each winding as in the dot convention.
[17]
g. ^ A standardized open-circuit or unloaded transformer test called the Epstein frame can also be used for the
characterization of magnetic properties of soft magnetic materials including especially electrical steels.
[27]
h. ^ Transformer hum's fundamental noise frequency is two times that of the power frequency as there is an
extension and a contraction of core laminations for every cycle of the AC wave and a transformer's audible hum
noise level is dominated by the fundamental noise frequency and its first triplen harmonic, i.e., by the 100 & 300
Hz, or 120 & 360 Hz, frequencies.
[37]
i. ^ For example, the delta-wye transformer, by far the most common commercial three-phase transformer, is
known as the Dyn11 vector group configuration, Dyn11 denoting D for delta primary winding, y for wye
secondary winding, n for neutral of the wye winding, and 11 for relative phase position on the clock by which the
secondary winding leads the primary winding, namely, 30 leading.
j. ^ While the above formal definition, derived from standards such as IEEE C57.12.80, applies to large
transformers, it is not uncommon in colloquial, or even trade, parlance for small general-purpose transformers to
be referred to as 'power' transformers, for distribution transformers to be referred to as 'power distribution'
transformers, and so on.
References
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642.
2. ^ Mack, James E.; Shoemaker, Thomas (2006). "Chapter 15 - Distribution Transformers" (http://books.mcgraw-
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(11th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 151 to 1522. ISBN 0-07-146789-0.
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(http://books.google.com/?
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4. ^
a

b
Winders, John J., Jr. (2002). Power Transformer Principles and Applications. CRC. pp. 2021.
5. ^ Hameyer, Kay (2001). "3.2 'Definition of Transformer Ratio' in Section 3 - Transformers". Electrical Machines
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6. ^ Knowlton, 6-13, p. 552
7. ^
a

b
Flanagan, William M. (1993). Handbook of Transformer Design & Applications (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
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a

b
John Avison (1989). "The World of Physics". [Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd]. pp. 300320.
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a

b
Jim Breithaupt (2000). "New Understanding: Physics for Advanced Level (4th Edition)". [Stanley Thornes
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a

b

c

d

e
Calvert, James (2001). "Inside Transformers" (http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/transfor.htm).
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LeEEk6t&sig=SFYhwdztWIVTr1yK6hQc-LOKL44&hl=en&sa=X&ei=37E_Uf-
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b

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d
Say, M. G. (1984). Alternating Current Machines (5th ed.). Halsted Press. ISBN 0-470-27451-4.
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b
McLaren, P. G. (1984). Elementary Electric Power and Machines. pp. 6874. ISBN 0-13-257601-5.
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a

b
Say, p. 485
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25. ^
a

b

c
Daniels, A. R. Introduction to Electrical Machines. pp. 4749.
26. ^
a

b
Say, pp. 142-143
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(http://webstore.iec.ch/webstore/webstore.nsf/mysearchajax?Openform&key=60404-
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a

b
Dixon, Lloyd (2001). "Power Transformer Design" (http://focus.ti.com/lit/ml/slup126/slup126.pdf).
Magnetics Design Handbook. Texas Instruments.
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b
Billings, Keith (1999). Switchmode Power Supply Handbook. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-006719-8.
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External links
Inside Transformers, composed by J. B. Calvert, from Denver University
(http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/transfor.htm)
Substation and Transmission
(http://www.dmoz.org/Business/Electronics_and_Electrical/Substation_and_Transmission/) at DMOZ
Introduction to Current Transformers (http://www.elkor.net/pdfs/AN0305-Current_Transformers.pdf)
Transformer (Interactive Java applet) (http://www.phy.hk/wiki/englishhtm/Transformer.htm), 'Physics is fun'
by Chui-king Ng
HD video tutorial on transformers (http://www.afrotechmods.com/videos/transformer_tutorial.htm)
Three-phase transformer circuits (http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_2/chpt_10/6.html) from All About
Circuits
Bibliography of Transformer Books (http://www.transformerscommittee.org/info/Bibliographybooks.pdf) by
P.M. Balma, from IEEE Transformer Committee
Einschalten des Transformators. German Wikipedia article about transformer inrush current at switch on (in
German).
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transformer&oldid=608163697"
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