Group 8

Part 2
Chris Miller, Will McCabe, Luciano Cortes-Alvarado


Chris Miller: Biography, (Sec. 10.2) #11
Will McCabe: (Sec. 4.6) #24, (Sec. 9.5) #9
Luciano Cortes-Alvarado: (Sec. 9.2) #47, (Sec. 10.2) #6
Leonhard Euler Biography
- Born in Basel Switz on April 15 1707
-He was a Mathematician and Physicist, one for the
founders of pure mathematics.
-Developed the theory of trigonometric and logarithmic
functions
-Euler was appointed the mathematics director of the
newly created Berlin Academy of Science and Beaux
Arts
Leonhard Euler Biography
Cont.
- Euler was blind near the end of his life, but that didn't stop him, his
productivity continue undiminished.
- He help to establish the mathematical instruction into the Russian Education
system.
- Leon Euler had a brain hemorrhage while he was working and died in
September 1783 in St. PetersBurg Russia.


(Sec 4.6) Problem # 24
Prove the statement in two ways:
(a) by contraposition and (b) by
contradiction.

24) The reciprocal of any irrational number is irrational.
(The reciprocal of a nonzero real number x is 1/x.)

4.6 - #24 Background Info
First lets explain the basics of the problem before we solve it:

A real number r is rational if, and only if, it can be expressed as a quotient of two integers with a nonzero
denominator. A real number that is not rational is irrational. More formally, if r is a real number, then r is rational.
Method of Proof by Contraposition:
1. Express the statement to be proved in the formx in D, if P(x) then Q(x). (This step may be done
mentally.)
2. Rewrite this statement in the contrapositive formx in D, if Q(x) is false then P(x) is false. (This step
may also be done mentally.)
3. Prove the contrapositive by a direct proof.
a. Suppose x is a (particular but arbitrarily chosen) element of D such that Q(x) is false.
b. Show that P(x) is false.
Method of Proof by Contradiction:
1. Suppose the statement to be proved is false. That is, suppose that the negation of the statement is
true.
2. Show that this supposition leads logically to a contradiction.
3. Conclude that the statement to be proved is true.


4.6 - #24 Step-By-Step
a. (Contraposition) The reciprocal of any irrational number is irrational.
(The reciprocal of a nonzero real number x is 1/x.)
The contraposition of a true statement is always true since they are logically equivalent. Therefore, if we show that the
contrapositive of a statement is true, we have shown that the statement is true. The contrapositive of if P(x) then Q(x) is "if Q(x) is
false then P(x) is false." In this case, we will want to prove that if the reciprocal of 1/x is rational, then x is rational.
1. Let 1/x be rational.
2. Then 1/x = a/b where b is not zero and a and b are integers.
3. We can argue that a is also nonzero since 1/x is nonzero.
4. By reciprocating both sides, we get x = b/a.
5. Since b and a are integers and a is nonzero (*by definition of rational) x is rational
Since x is rational, and we wanted to prove that x is rational then the contraposition is true and the original statement is
true.
b. (Contradiction) The reciprocal of any irrational number is irrational.
(The reciprocal of a nonzero real number x is 1/x.)
To prove something by contradiction, we show that the negation of this statement is not true (and therefore, the statement is
true). The negation of "If P(x) then Q(x)" is "P(x) and not Q(x).
Negation: x is an irrational number, but the reciprocal of x is rational. (Moreover, 1/x is rational)
1. By the definition of rational, 1/x = a/b where a and b are integers and b is nonzero.
2. Then b = ax. This implies that x = b/a.
3. Assuming a is nonzero, then x is a rational number.
4. This contradicts the fact that x is irrational.
Therefore, the since the contradiction is false the original statement the reciprocal of any irrational number is irrational, is
true.
(Sec 9.2) Problem # 47
A permutation on a set can be regarded as a function from the set to itself. For instance, one permutation of {1, 2, 3,
4} is 2341. It can be identified with the function that sends each position number to the number occupying that
position. Since position 1 is occupied by 2, 1 is sent to 2 or 1 2; since position 2 is occupied by 3, 2 is sent to
3 or 2 3; and so forth.
a. Use arrows to write each of the six permutations of {1, 2, 3}.






1->1 1->1 1->2 1->2 1->3
1->3
2->2 2->3 2->1 2->3
2->1 2->2
3->3 3->2 3->3 3->1
3->2 3->1



Definition
A permutation of a set X is a rearrangement of its elements.

Let X= {1, 2, 3 }. Then there are 6 permutations:

123,132,213,231,312,321

A permutation of a set X is a one-one correspondence from
X to itself.

Theorem:
For any integer n with n 1, the number of permutations of a
set with n elements is n!.

9.2 - #47a
Any element of the set can be chosen in step 1, so there are n ways to perform step 1.
Any element except that chosen in step 1 can be chosen in step 2, so there are n 1 ways to perform step 2. In general, the
number of ways to perform each successive step is one less than the number of ways to perform the preceding step. At the point
when the nth element is chosen, there is only one element left, so there is only one way to perform step n. Hence, by the
multiplication rule, there are ways to perform the entire operation. In other words, there are n! permutations of a set of n elements.
n(n 1)(n 2) 21 = n!

A permutation of a set of objects is an ordering of the objects in a row. For example, the set of elements a, b, and c has six
permutations.
abc acb cba bac bca cab

In general, given a set of n objects, how many permutations does the set have? Imagine forming a permutation as an n-step
operation:
Step 1: Choose an element to write first.
Step 2: Choose an element to write second.
Step n: Choose an element to write n th.
9.2 - # 47b
b. Use arrows to write each of the permutations of {1, 2, 3, 4} that keep 2 and 4 fixed.
1->1 1->3
2->2 2->2
3->3 3->1
4->4 4->4
Definition:
An r-permutation of a set of n elements is an ordered selection of r elements taken from the
set of n elements. The number of r-permutations of a set of n elements is denoted P(n, r).

If n and r are integers and 1 r n, then the number of r-permutations of a set of n elements
is given by the formula

P(n, r ) = n(n 1)(n 2) (n r + 1)
or, equivalently,
P(n, r ) = n!
(n r )!

Suppose a set of n elements is given. Formation of an r-permutation can be thought of as an r
-step process. Step 1 is to choose the element to be first. Since the set has n elements, there
are n ways to perform step 1. Step 2 is to choose the element to be second. Since the
element chosen in step 1 is no longer available, there are n 1 ways to perform step 2. Step 3
is to choose the element to be third. Since neither of the two elements chosen in the first two
steps is available, there are n 2 choices .

9.2 - # 47c,d
c. Which permutations of {1, 2, 3} keep no elements fixed?
1->2 1->2 1->3
2->1 2->3 2->1
3->3 3->1 3->2

d. Use arrows to write all permutations of {1, 2, 3, 4} that keep no elements fixed.
1->2 1->2 1->2 1->3 1->3 1->3 1->4 1->4 1->4
2->1 2->3 2->4 2->1 1->4 2->4 2->1 2->3 2->3
3->4 3->4 3->1 3->4 3->2 3->1 3->2 3->1 3->2
4->3 4->1 4->3 4->2 4->1 4->2 4->3 4->2 4->1




(Sec 9.5) Problem # 9
A club is considering changing its bylaws. In an initial straw vote on the issue,
24 of the 40 members of the club favored the change and 16 did not. A
committee of six is to be chosen from the 40 club members to devote further
study to the issue.

a) How many committees of six can be formed from the club membership?

b) How many of the committees will contain at least three club members who, in the
preliminary survey, favored the change in the bylaws?

9.5 - # 9 Background Info
For each positive integer n, the quantity n factorial denoted n!, is defined to be the product of all
the integers from 1 to n: n! = n (n 1) 321.

Zero factorial, denoted 0!, is defined to be 1: 0! = 1.

Let n and r be nonnegative integers with r n. An r-combination of a set of n elements is a
subset of r of the n elements. The symbol which is read n choose r , denotes the number
of subsets of size (r-combinations) that can be chosen from a set of n elements.
The number of subsets of size r (or r-combinations) that can be chosen from a set of n elements,
is given by the formula


or,
equivalently,
where n and r are nonnegative integers with r n.
*remember that 0! = 1


9.5 - # 9 More Background
Info
Theorem 9.3.1 The Addition Rule
Suppose a finite set A equals the union of k
distinct mutually disjoint subsets A1, A2, . . . , Ak . Then
Theorem 9.3.2 The Difference Rule
If A is a nite set and B is a subset of A, then
N(A B) = N(A) N(B).

9.5 - # 9 Step-By-Step
a. How many committees of six can be formed from the club membership?
To approach this problem we would use the formula, where n would be 40
since it is the club
membership (set of elements) and r would be the committees,
being 6.
So: n = 40, r = 6

* I will show the steps on paper:

Part 1: The first thing that I did was plug in our n and (1)
r values. Then I inserted them into the formula.
Part 2: Then I factorized what the formula came out
with as shown. From there I cancelled out like (2)
terms in the numerator and denominator.
Part 3: The final step I used the remaining terms from
part 2 (as shown) and multiplied them. The (3)
final result was 3,838,380.

Answer: 3,838,380 committees of six can be formed from the club membership.




9.5 - # 9 Step-By-Step
b. How many of the committees will contain at least three club members who, in the preliminary survey,
favored the change in the bylaws?
* Remember: In an initial straw vote on the issue, 24 of the 40 members of the club favored the change and
16 did not. A committee of six is to be chosen from the 40 club members to devote further
study to the issue.

We will do this problem exactly like how we did Part A of #9, except we will be using the Addition Rule. Now
we must split up the members for change from the ones against change.. One part for the 24 members of the club
that favored the change, and one part for the 16 that did not. We will categorize these as n1 and n2, which will be
two split sets of the total set of 40 members of the club. So, moreover, n1 + n2 + 40. n1 will be 24 (for change),
and n2 will be 16 (against).
n1 = 24 (for), n2 = 16 (against)

Now, the r values for these sets must add up to 6 combined. It must add up to 6 because committees of 6
are being chosen to devote further study to the issue. Out of these 6 members, at least 3 have to be for change.
So, the rs for n1 will have to be 3, 4, 5, and 6 because we must be between 3 - 6 to agree with the guidelines of
the problem.
If n1s rs are 3, 4, 5, and 6. Then n2s rs must be ordered 3, 2, 1, and 0.
Because: 3 + 3 = 6, 4 + 2 = 6, 5 + 1 = 6, and 6 + 0 = 6.

Now lets begin the problem using these values set to n1 and n2 in order. We will start this on the next slide.

9.5 - # 9 Step-By-Step
b. (CONTINUED)
*understanding that must have at least 3 for change.
We recall: n1 = For Change (24) n2 = Against(16)
3 3

4 2

5 1

6
0
*totals for both must equal 6, for 6 members in a committee

As you can see how the problem is done using the
formula we used in part(a), and using the Addition
Rule. We got the answer of 3,223,220.

3,223,220 committees of six can be formed
from the club membership, containing at
least 3 club members who favored the
change in the bylaws.


(Sec 10.2) Problem # 6
An edge whose removal disconnects the graph of which it is a part is
called a bridge. Find all bridges for each of the following graphs.

A)V1V3, V2V3, V4V3, V5V3
B) V1V2, V7V8,V3V4
C)V2V3,V9V10,V6V7,V7V8


10.2 - # 6 Background Info
Bridges - The bridges of a connected graph are the graph edges whose
removal disconnects the graph more generally, a bridge is an edge of a
graph whose removal increases the number of components of . An edge of
a connected graph is a bridge iff it does not lie on any cycle. A graph
containing one or more bridges is said to be a bridged graph, while a graph
containing no bridges is called a bridgeless graph.


Is it possible for a citizen of Knigsberg to make a tour of
the city and cross each bridge exactly twice? (See
Figure) Why?


(Sec 10.2) Problem # 11
No, if you want to end where you started, you cant cross
all the bridges without retracing your steps on at least
one bridge.

Now if you can retrace your steps
on one bridge or end at a
different location than you
started then it is possible

(Sec 10.2) Problem # 11
cont.
Bibliography
Epp, S. (2010). Discrete mathematics with applications. (4 ed.).
Massachusetts, Boston: Cengage Learning.
Leonhard Euler. (2014). The Biography.com website. Retrieved 04:05, Apr
24, 2014, fromhttp://www.biography.com/people/leonhard-euler-21342391.
Leonhard Euler. (2014). In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/195201/Leonhard-Euler