* Chapter 15

Fluids
Fluids
2
Both liquids and gases are fluids.
Gases are compressible but liquids are nearly incompressible.
The ratio of an objects or materials mass to its volume is called
the mass density,
) kg/m unit (S.I.
3
V
m
=
Pressure
3
The force exerted by a static fluid on an object (including the
walls of its container) is always perpendicular to the surfaces of the
object.
The pressure is defined as the ratio of the force to the area on
which the force is exerted. It is a scalar quantity.
Pa) pascal, or N/m : units (S.I.
2
A
F
p =
Pressure and Depth
4
Fluids have pressure that increases with depth.
Lets examine the forces on a static liquid
sample:
Adg A p Vg A p
mg A p pA
+ = + =
+ =
0 0
0

Thus if the pressure at one point in a liquid is
p
0
, the pressure p at depth d below that point
is:
If the liquid is open to the atmosphere, and p
0
is the pressure at the surface of the liquid, then
p
0
is the atmospheric pressure.
gd p p + =
0
Pressure and Depth
5
In a fluid at static equilibrium, all points at the same depth must be
at the same pressure.
Otherwise, the pressure difference would cause the fluid to flow
and so it would not be in equilibrium!
If we draw a horizontal line through a connected liquid at
equilibrium, the pressure is the same at all points on that line. equilibrium, the pressure is the same at all points on that line.
Pressure and Depth
6
As a consequence, a connected liquid at rest in a container rises to
the same height in all open regions of the container.
Water is slowly poured into the container below until the water
level has risen into tubes A, B, and C. The water doesnt overflow
from any of the tubes. How do the depths in the three columns
compare to each other? compare to each other?
A hydraulic lift is at equilibrium
when
Hydraulic Lift
7
Pascals principle states that an external pressure applied to an
enclosed fluid is transmitted unchanged to every point within the
fluid.
F F
+ + = +
If gh is small then
A large output force can be applied
by means of a small input force.
gh
A
F
p
A
F
p + + = +
2
2
0
1
1
0
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
F
F
A
A
A
F
A
F
= =
Hydraulic Lift
8
The volume of liquid pushed down on the left must equal the
volume pushed up on the right.
Since the volumes are equal,
2
1
1
2
2 2 1 1
d
d
A
A
d A d A = =
The last statement is consequence of conservation of energy.
2 1
2 2 1 1
2
1
1
2
1
2
W W
d F d F
d
d
F
F
A
A
=
=
= = but
Absolute vs. Gauge Pressure
9
Many pressure gauges, such as tire gauges and the gauges on air
tanks, measure not the actual or absolute pressure, p,
but rather what is called gauge pressure, p
g
,
gd p p + =
0
gd p p p = =
where p
0
= 1.00 atm = 1.013 x 10
5
Pa is, in this case specifically,
the atmospheric pressure.
gd p p p
g
= =
0
Manometers
10
A device for measuring the pressure of a gas contained in a vessel.
One end of the U-shaped tube is open to the atmosphere.
The other end is connected to the pressure to be measured.
Pressure at point 2 is p
2
= p
0
+gh = p
1
.
Barometers
11
A long closed tube is filled with mercury and inverted in a dish of
mercury.
The closed end is nearly a vacuum.
Measures atmospheric pressure as p
atm
=
Hg
gh.
1 atm = 760 mm (of Hg).
Buoyancy
12
The fact that the pressure in a fluid
increases with depth leads to a net upward
force on any object that is immersed in the
fluid. The upward force is referred to as a
buoyant force.
Archimedes principle states that the
magnitude of the buoyant force, F , always magnitude of the buoyant force, F
B
, always
equals the weight of the fluid displaced by
the object.
Suppose the fluid has density
f
and the
object displaces volume V
f
of fluid.
Archimedes principle in equation form is
g V F
f f B
=
Totally Submerged Object
13
Suppose an object of mass m
o
is totally submerged in a fluid. The net
force acting on the object is:
Noting that V
o
= V
f
for an object fully submerged, we see that an object
floats or sinks depending on whether the fluid density
f
is larger or
smaller than the objects density .
( )
o o f f o o f f o B
V V g g V g V g m F = =
smaller than the objects density
o
.

o
>
f

o
<
f

o
=
f
In this case V
f
is not the same as V
o
. The
fraction of the volume of a floating object
Floating Object
14
A floating object is at equilibrium. The buoyant force exactly
balances the weight of the object:
g V g m g V F
o o o f f B
= = =
fraction of the volume of a floating object
below the fluid surface is equal to the ratio of
the density of the object to that of the fluid:
For fresh-water icebergs floating in seawater:
1 < =
f
o
o
f
V
V

89% or
kg/m
kg/m
3
3
89 . 0
1030
917
= =
o
f
V
V
Fluid Dynamics
15
We discuss the ideal-fluid model which assumes
that a fluid is incompressible, nonviscous and
steady (laminar, as opposed to turbulent).
The particles move along streamlines in steady
flow.
Consider a fluid moving through a pipe of Consider a fluid moving through a pipe of
nonuniformsize (diameter).
The volume V
1
that crosses A
1
in some time
interval is the same as the volume V
2
that crosses
A
2
in that same time interval.
Equation of Continuity
16
It follows that:
This is called the equation of continuity. The product of the area and the
2 2 1 1
2 2 1 1
2 2 1 1
2 1
A v A v
t A v t A v
x A x A
V V
=
=
=
=
This is called the equation of continuity. The product of the area and the
fluid speed at all points along a pipe is constant for an incompressible
fluid.
As a consequence, flow is faster in narrower parts of a flow tube, slower
is wider parts.
Bernoullis Equation
17
As a fluid moves through a region where its speed and/or
elevation above the Earths surface changes, the pressure in the
fluid varies with these changes.
The relationship between fluid speed, pressure and elevation is a
statement of energy conservation and is known as Bernoullis
Equation: Equation:
The pressure of a fluid decreases as the speed of the fluid
increases.
The pressure decreases as the elevation increases.
2
2
2 2 1
2
1 1
2
1
2
1
gy v p gy v p + + = + +
Applications
18
A Venturi-tube measures gas-flow speeds.
Applications
19
In an atomizer, a stream of air passes over one end of an open
tube. The other end is immersed in a liquid.
The moving air reduces the pressure above the tube which causes
the fluid rises into the air stream.
The liquid is dispersed into a fine spray of droplets
Applications
20
Lift in airplane wing.
The wing is shaped so that air flows more rapidly over the top of
the wing than along the bottom. As a result, the pressure on top of
the wing is reduced, and a new upward force (lift) is generated.
Hurricanes and tornadoes blow the roof off a house.
Tarps on transport trucks that lift. Tarps on transport trucks that lift.
21