Contents

Deections

Constitutive equations on the cross-section level

Deection by integration of the geometric equations

3.1 Deection by the conjugate beam and related methods . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4
6

Principle of virtual work

4.1 Principle of virtual forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Deections by the principle of virtual forces . . . . . .
4.3 Deection in a simple beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1 Contribution of the shear deformation . . . . .
4.4 Displacements in planar frames, effect of normal forces
4.5 Effect of the normal force in an arch . . . . . . . . . .

.
.
.
.
.
.

7
9
10
10
11
12
13

Thermal effects
5.1 Temperature gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Unied treatment of thermal effects by PVf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15
16
16

Example on the force and thermal effects in a frame

17

Settlement of supports

18

Deections of trusses
8.1 Williot-Mohr method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19
20

Appendix solved examples

23

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

1 Deections
Flexibility (compliance) is dened by constitutive equations (a synonum is material laws, rarely
also physical equations) on three levels:
1. Material level is the basic one, used in elasticity and material science.

The simplest example is the uniaxial stress-strain law

dz

= E
F= dx dy

dy

dx

du

(1)

which denes the linear elastic behaviour of an innitesimal cube loaded by the force F = dA = dxdz at
two opposite sides. The relative extension (contraction
for negative force)

Fig. 1 An innitesimal cube

= du/dx

in uniaxial tension.

(2)

is called strain, the intensity of the force effect is stress

and E is the Young modulus.
2. Cross-section level is the medium one. The transition from the material to the crosssection level is taught in elasticity courses.
The simplest example is an innitesimal stub of a beam in
simple tension. The relative extension of the beam axis

is introduced. It may vary along the beam axis

N

dx

(x) = dv(x)/dx

du

Fig. 2 A stub between two

close cross-sections in tension.

If uniform strain = and stress = N/A are asssumed

in the whole cross-section the constitutive law becomes in

the wake of equation (1)
N (x) = EA(x)

(3)

3. Structure level is the top level. The transition from the cross-section level to the structure
level is the subject of this chapter.
F

u(x)
u(x)

Displacements of points x of the beams axes owing to

the given system of forces are computed. The transition
cannot be dened by similar simple relationships as in the
previous two cases because of the variability of structures.
Methods rather than formulas are necessary and available.

Fig. 3 Deection

vector
u(x) due to the force F .

Constant material and cross-section characteristics E and A are assumed in equations (1) and
(3). They both could vary in space or along the beam axis leaving these equations still valid.

2 Constitutive equations on the cross-section level

For didactic reasons the derivation is limited to planar beams and frames. Similar relashionships hold for space beams and frames but they are beyond the scope of these notes. Besides
equation (3), there are two other constitutive equations on the cross-section level. The next one
denes the relationship between the moment M acting at a cross-section and the curvature of
the deection line.
The differential stub of the beam is subject to the bendd
ing moment M . Due to the moment, the upper face of
the beam contracts while the lower face extends. In
the wake of these deformations, the left and the right
M
M
y
part of the beam rotate with respect to each other by
the angle d. The rate of change of the angle by which
d
dx
the deformed axis of the beam is inclined with respect
to the original one is the curvature .
Fig. 4 Beam inclination d owing to
= d/dx
(4)
the bending moment M .
It is derived in the theory of elasticity and stated here without evidence that
M (x) = (x)EJ

(5)

du

where J denotes the moment of inertia of the cross-section with respect to its central y axis
(normal to the plane of the problem).
The last constitutive equation on the cross-section level refers to the shear force and shear
deformation. Shear force always is accompanied by variable bending moment, see the second
equilibrium equation (12). In order to demonstrate the shear deformation as simply as possible,
we assume in its denition that the bending moment and curvature at the cross-section are negligible. Full denition of the shear deformation accounts for the rotations of the cross-sections
due to bending.
V

The shear deformation at a cross-section is dened as the ratio

du

(x) = du(x)/dx
and associates with the shear force by

dx

V (x) = (x)kGA
V

Fig. 5 Shear deformation

owing to shear force V

k1

(6)

where G is the shear modulus of elasticity (closely connected

with E), A is the cross-section area and k is the factor which
depends on the cross-section shape. These characteristics and
equation (6) are derived in the theory of elasticity again.

The constitutive equations (3),(5) and (6) for the cross-section level are valid for linear elastic
materials which obey the rule (1) and similar linear material laws on the material level. It is
worth mentioning that in steel structures, at service load levels, the condition is mostly met.
It is far worse in reinforced concrete structures since concrete cracks at service load levels
already. Nevertheless, the linear elastic constitutive equations are commonly adopted for deection computations. It is argued that the cracking in concrete aficts just a small part of the
concrete volume at the edge bers of the most loaded cross-sections. These equations, however,
3

are not valid at the limit load levels.

Another condition for the constitutive equations to be valid is that the reference axis of the
beam must coincide with the gravity centers of the cross-sections. If this condition is not met a
coupled system of equations applies between the cross-section deformations , and on one

side and internal forces N , M and V on the other side.

A prismatic beam was assumed in the above developments. It is the most frequent case
in practice. Material constants E and G and cross-section characteristics J,A and k are then
constant along the beam axis. The expressions remain valid even in case these constants and
characteristics are functions of x in beams with variable cross-section.

3 Deection by integration of the geometric equations

The straightforward way to the deection of a beam is through geometric equations. They connect the global description of the beam displacements with the local parameters , and .

In case of a general curved beam the geometric relations are rather complicated and reader is
referred to textbooks on elasticity in this respect. For a straight beam they become simple in
terms of the axial displacement u(x) and lateral displacement v(x).
x
u(x)
In particular, axial deformation depends solely on u(x) and

curvature on v(x) for a straight beam. Shear deformation

cannot be expressed in terms of u(x) and v(x) and yet another
v(x)
variable need be introduced. This is beyond the scope of the
subject. In great majority of beams the effect of shear deformaFig. 6 Axial and lateral
tion on the deection is very small and is neglected in comcomponents of the beam parison to the effect of . This simplication is adopted here.
displacement
The relationship between axial deformation and u(x) is simple:

(x) =

du(x)
dx

(7)

It remains to dene the relationship between curvature and deection v(x) of a beam.
Curvature of the deection line is (refer to calculus and differential geometry)

(x) =

d2 v(x)
dx2

1
1+

dv(x) 2
dx

v(x)

Actual deections in real structures are very small compared to

the spans of the beams. Typical ratio is of the order 1/1000 and
Fig. 7 Deection
of
a the tangent of the deection slope dv(x)/dx has the same order
of magnitude. The second summand in the denominator in the
straight beam
above expression for curvature can thus be neglected against 1
since 106 << 1.
The simplied nal expression for the curvature then reads
(x) =
4

d2 v(x)
dx2

(8)

Constitutive equations (3) and (5) for the cross-section level together with geometric equations (7) and (8) constitute two differential equations which enable the calculation of the displacements from the known internal forces. Mind that the calculations can be carried out separately for u(x) and v(x). Solution of a simple differential equation is necessary in each case. It
is demonstrated on the example of a simple beam subject to uniform lateral loading. Since no
normal force occurs in such a beam the axial displacement vanishes.

x
A

Fig. 8 Sample beam for de-

Substitution into equation (8) from the constitutive equation (5)

provides
d2 v(x)
M (x) = EJ
(9)
dx
Bending moment M (x) is simple to derive in this simple example.

ection computation.
A simple linear differential equation is obtained
fl
f
d2 v(x)
x x2 = EJ
2
2
dx
Integration repeated twice with respect to x yields
fl 3
f
x x4 + cx + d = EJv(x)
12
24
with integration constants c and d which can be determined from the boundary conditions:
1. at x = 0

v(x) = 0 d = 0

2. at x = l

l
v(x) = 0 c = f 24

The deection line becomes

v(x) =

f
(l3 x 2lx3 + x4 )
24EJ

with the maximum

5f l4
384
at the beam center. The solution could have been simpler if the symmetry had been utilized.
Analogous development can be carried out for the axial load effects. This is rarely necessary in
practice, however, since axial deformation of beams seldom of interest.
This mathematical approach turns out lengthy and ineffective when the deection of frames
is to be computed since the boundary conditions of individual beams become coupled. Several
methods have been developed to facilitate the solution. From the mathematical point of view,
they do not introduce any new concept just that specic systems are introduced in the solution
of the integration constants. Historically these methods were perceived as independent. They
are not used in computer programs and their importance has thus decreased substantially. They
are briey characterized in the next section for completeness and reference. An important
advantage distinguishes these methods from the virtual work methods: a complete deection
line is obtained whereas the work methods just deliver deection at a discrete point in a denite
direction.
vmax =

Table 1: Analogies used in conjugate beam and related methods. Positive v(x) and f (x) are
downwards, positive M (x) pulls at lower face
actual beam
conjugate beam
basic equations
f (x) = dV (x)/dx
M (x) = EJd(x)/dx
V (x) = dM (x)/dx
(x) = dv(x)/dx
basic quantities
lateral continuous load f (x)
bending moment M (x)
shear force V (x)
deection slope (x)
bending moment M (x)
deection v(x)
M (x) = 0 vanishing moment,
v(x) = 0, vertical support
boundary cond.
hinge
V (x) = 0, vanishing shear force (x) = 0, rotation constraint
discontinuity in the shear force discontinuity in the deection
V (x), vertical support
slope (x), hinge
clamped end
free end
clamped end
free end

3.1 Deection by the conjugate beam and related methods

The methods are based on the mathematical similarity of the constitutive/geometric equation (9)
and the equilibrium equation (11). The idea is that owing to this similarity the methods used
to develop the bending moment diagrams from the given transverse load can also be used in
developing the deection line from the given bending moment. The deection line is developed on a conjugate beam. The supports of the conjugate beam are determined with the aid
of Table 1. The conditions in the actual beam (left column in the table) are the static boundary conditions. They convert to the associated geometric boundary conditions in the conjugate
beam. A deection line is obtained in the form of the bending moment to a ctitious load acting
on the conjugate beam. The ctitious load is the bending moment on the actual beam divided
by exural stiffness EJ.
The moment area and elastic load methods also are based on the analogies summarized in
Table 1. The family have also been termed geometric methods [2]. An obvious drawback is
their limitation to straight beams. Historically, they played important part in structural mechanics before the computer era but have virtually disappeared from contemporary design practice.
Graphic presentation of the deection became standard in computer programs for planar frames
and stripped the geometric methods of their appeal. The methods still retain didactic value and
are therefore given ample space even in recent textbooks [2], [3].

ACTUAL BEAM
l

v=0
v=0

M=0
V=0

A cantilever beam serves as an illustrative example. It is loaded

by a single vertical force. Note
that the bending moment diagram
is constructed twice on the actual
and on the conjugate beam. The
symbol v stands for the deection
slope dv(x)/dx in the gure. The
calculation steps start in the left
column and end up in the right one.
The bending moment diagram divided by the exural stiffness EJ
is used as a ctitious load on the
conjugate beam. Care is necessary
in dealing with signs and diagrams
conventions when perfect consistency is to be maintained. This,
however, is not the issue here.

CONJUGATE BEAM

M=0
V=0

v=0
v=0

F l/EJ

Fl3/(3EJ)
v(x)

F l M(x):

Fig. 9 Actual and conjugate beams and their loading.

Conjugate boundary conditions in intermediate supports are shown in the next example of
a continuous beam. Flexural stiffness is set to EJ = 1 for simplicity in this example and v
denotes dv(x)/dx.

1
1

ACTUAL

BEAM

M(x)/(EJ)

CONJUGATE
0.66

1
1
1
M=0 v=0 M=0 v=0
v=0
V=0

v=0
v=0
7/6
V(x):

M(x): 1

M=0 v=0

M=0
V=0

1/6
1/2

M(x)=v(x)

0.33

1.0
Fig. 10 Deection of a continuous beam by the conjugate beam method.

4 Principle of virtual work

There are several work principles of structural mechanics. They can be derived from equilibrium
conditions with the aid of a generic mathematical concept the principle of virtual work (PVW).

The derivation of the PVW is outlined for illustration purposes for a specic case a part of
a straight beam between sections a and b as shown in Sketch 11. In order to simplify the matter
pure bending deformation is assumed (the shear deformation is neglected and axial forces absent).

f(x)

V(a)
M(a)
>0

v(x)

x=a

x=b

Mind that with common positive rotation

counterclockwise, positive deection v(x)
downwards (because most deections in
buildings are downwards) and positive curvature as indicated in the gure imply

M(b)
V(b)

(x) =

Fig. 11 Loading and deection of a part of a

straight beam. Sign convention.

d(x)
dx

(x) =

dv(x)
dx

(10)

which agrees with equation (8).

Equilibrium condition (11) is multiplied by v(x)

d2 M (x)
= f (x)
dx2

(11)

and integrated from a to b:

b
a

d2 M (x)
v(x) + f (x)v(x) dx = 0
dx2

Integration of the rst term twice by parts yields

dM (x)
v(x)
dx

v(x)
M (x)
dx
a

b
a

M (x)

d2 v(x)
+
dx2

b
a

f (x)v(x)dx = 0

With the aid of equations (12) (equilibrium),

dM (x)
= V (x)
dx

dV (x)
= f (x)
dx

(12)

(10) and (8) (geometric relations) and after substitution of the boundaries the nal form is
obtained:
work of external f orces

work of internal f orces

V (a)v(a) + V (b)v(b) M (a)(a) + M (b)(b) +

b
a

f (x)v(x)dx

b
a

M (x)(x)dx = 0

This is a specic form of the PVW for the part of a straight beam. Just two conditions need to
be satised for its validity:
1. M (x), V (x) and f (x) must be in equilibrium
2. geometric relations (10) and (8) hold.
These conditions obviously are met by the forces and displacements of the actual state. They
are also met by lots of other imaginable force and displacement states. The set of all force states
that meet the equilibrium conditions are called the virtual stress states and similarly the set of
displacement states that obey the geometric equations are called virtual displacements. In this
sense, the actual force and displacement states belong to the set of the virtual ones. The work
8

of internal forces can easily be extended for the case when shear and axial deformations take
place
dwint = (N V M )dx

(13)

Analogous mathematical tricks can be used for other bodies and boundary conditions. The
equilibrium conditions and geometric equations take on various shapes in various specic cases,
nevertheless, the verbal denitions of the virtual stress states and displacements remain valid.
The basic version of the PVW applies to a general three-dimensional continuum and is derived
with the aid of the Gauss theorem instead of the per-partes integration. All specic forms can
be wrapped up in the verbal form (albeit not entirely exact):
Principle 1 The total work of external and internal forces of any virtual stress state on any
virtual displacements equals zero.
The actual force and displacements states can be perceived special cases of the respective virtual states. Discontinuous displacements are allowed but the work of internal forces on the
discontinuities must be accounted for.
While the above derivation is purely mathematical an intuitive explanation is possible, too.
It follows from the balance of the energy that in deformable bodies not only the external forces
do work. The work they do must be absorbed by the body. It goes into the work of internal
forces. Each internal force does work on the corresponding deformation so that in a differential
length dx of a beam the work (13) is done. Minus signs indicate that the work is absorbed
(spent) in the deformation. This intuitive explanation is not awless, however. If the work
evaluated in equation (13) were an actual work spent in the deformation process the internal
forces would have had to remain constant while the deformation was applied. This is not true
in the actual process of deformation when internal forces increase.
Mind that neither the forces nor the displacements are restricted in the PVW beyond the
conditions stated above. This leaves great exibility for applications since actual as well as
other virtual states can be used in it.
Whereas the way from specic types of equilibrium conditions to the PVW resembles the
proof by induction, the reverse way, that is, deducing equilibrium conditions back from the
PVW, is elegant and general. The PVW often is accepted as a postulate and equilibrium conditions are derived from it. As a matter of fact, the geometric equations also can be derived
from the PVW. Reader is referred to textbooks on the mechanics of continua and engineering
mechanics for systematic presentation of these issues.

4.1 Principle of virtual forces

Two load cases (stress states) are dened prior to stating the principle.
1. The actual load case N , V and M due to the given actual load. In this load case the
associated deformations , and are present,

= N/(EA)

= V /(GAk)

= M/(EJ)

(14)

The internal forces are in equilibrium with the given loads. The actual load case may also
include temperature effects and settlement of supports. These effects do not imply any
internal forces in statically determinate structures but deformations and displacements
due to these effects add up to those caused by the forces.
2. The virtual load case N , V and M due to a virtual loading. The virtual loading is
arbitrary in the general sense but it is selected by the analyst in practice to meet some
purpose. The virtual loading and corresponding internal forces are in equilibrium.
9

The principle of virtual forces (PVf) simply substitutes a virtual load case for the equilibrium
force system in the PVW and addresses the work of this force system on the actual displacements and deformations.
Principle 2 The total work of external and internal forces of the virtual load case on the displacements and deformations of the actual load case equals zero.
Fi ui +

w = wext + wint =
i=allf orces

structure

structure

[ f (x)u(x)dx

N (x)(x) + V (x)(x) + M (x)(x)]dx = 0

(15)

Forces Fi include both the given load and the external and internal reactions.
Remark: If the integral is assumed in a more general sense (Lebesgue integral) then the work of the
external forces can be expressed in a simplied form wext = structure f (x)u(x)dx. Besides the
work of the distributed load it comprises the work of all concentrated forces. The latter can be perceived
as a limit case of the distributed load when the intensity grows to innity on an innitely small length.
A similar approach can be adopted with respect to the work of the internal forces. Analogous generalization of the integral allows for discontinuous displacements which can be perceived as innitely large
deformations taking place on an innitely small lengths of the beam. For instance, relative rotation of
the adjacent parts can be allowed at a cross-section x which is interpreted as innitely large (x) taking
place in an innitely small vicinity of x.

4.2 Deections by the principle of virtual forces

In order to compute displacements in the actual load case, the actual deformations (x), (x)

and (x) are necessary. They can be computed from the known internal forces of the actual
load case with the aid of the constitutive equations (3), (5) and (6). Temperature changes afict
directly the actual deformations but these effects will be dealt with later on.
The selection of the virtual load case remains free up to now. In order to compute a denite
component of displacement (including rotation) at a denite point of the structure, the virtual
load consists of a single concentrated force (moment) acting at the point in the direction of the
respective component. The selection is illustrated in an example.

4.3 Deection in a simple beam

A simple beam in Sketch 8 is analyzed to compute the vertical deection at the center and the
rotation at the right support. The former displacement can be compared to the deection obtained by integration in section 3. Shear deformation is neglected rst for valid comparison.

10

1
v

The virtual load case is shown on

top right of Sketch 12, below is the
corresponding bending moment diagram. If the shear deformation
is neglected (and no axial deformation present) the virtual work of
the forces acting in the virtual load
case (the left diagram in Sketch 12)
on the displacements and deformations of the actual load case (the
top right diagram in Sketch 12) becomes

M(x)= x/2

M(x)=f/2(2xx2 )

l/2
V(x)= f(l/2x)

M(x)= x/l

Fig. 12 Actual and virtual load cases for the calculation

of the vertical deection at the center and the rotation at

the right support.
w = 1 v 2

l/2
0

M (x)(x) dx = 1 v 2
1
EJ

1
EJ

l/2
0

M (x)M (x) dx =

1 f
x (lx x2 ) dx = 0
2 2
0
5f l4
v=
384EJ
The evaluation matches the result from section 3. The rotation at the right support can be readily
obtained when the virtual load case is used shown in the right bottom part of Sketch 12.
1 v 2

w = 1

l/2

1
EJ

l
0

=
4.3.1

x
f
(lx x2 ) dx = 0
2
l

f l3
24EJ

Contribution of the shear deformation

The example can easily be extended to take into account the shear deformation. In the case of
the vertical deection v, the contribution to the work of the shear force amounts to
wshear = 2

l/2
0

V (x)(x) dx = 2

l/2
0

1 1
f l2
l
dx =
f ( x)
2
2 kGA
8 kGA

The shear force diagram of the virtual load case is not included in Sketch 12. It consists of
two constant sections with values 1/2 and 1/2. The contributions of the bending and shear
deformations to v can be compared. Their ratio is
vshear
384l2 EJ
=
vbend
5 8l4 kGA
For a square cross-section with side d, Poisson ratio and cross-section shape factor = 0, k = 1
it becomes
2
d
vshear
= 1.6
vbend
l
11

The ratio is small enough to be neglected for most practical purposes and acceptable beam
dimensions. It is worth mentioning that the evaluation of the same deection by the conjugate
beam methods or direct integration of the deection line would be far more difcult if possible
at all. Compare how easy the shear contribution is computed by the PVf.

4.4 Displacements in planar frames, effect of normal forces

The shear deformation is commonly neglected in the evaluation of displacements in planar
frames. This simplication is adopted forthwith unless otherwise stated. In other words, the
Bernoulli-Euler hypothesis is adopted for the bending of beams. One reason for it is historical
the hypothesis has been familiar for generations of structural engineers. The steps of the displacement calculation are summarized in the next example.
actual load case:
=?
EJ=constant
EA=constant

hF

Fh/l

hF
h=4

M(x)

N(x)

l=4
virtual load case:
1

1/l
1
N(x)

M(x)

Fig. 13 Rotation in a simple planar frame, actual and virtual load cases.

Rotation at the roller support has to be computed.

In the rst step, the reactions and internal forces are computed and drawn for the actual
load case.
The virtual load case is then dened such that a single external force does work on the
desired displacement component (the rotation at the roller in this case). The appropriate
force in this particular example is the moment at the roller.
Reactions and internal forces diagrams are then computed and drawn for the virtual load
case.
Virtual work is integrated. Inspection of the internal forces diagrams indicates that the
functions to be integrated are relatively simple (linear and parabolic) on individual intervals. Integration formulas for frequent combinations of functions are set up in table 2.
The deection is evaluated using the table:
bending moment

normal f orce

= 1/6 hF 1 l 1/(EJ) 1 F h/l 1/l h 1/EA

12

Once again a square cross-section is assumed with side d in order to compare the contributions
of the bending moment and normal force to the rotation :
F
=
Ed2

bending moment

normal f orce

2hl
d2

h
l

Typical aspect ratios h/d = l/d = 10 imply then

F
(
=
Ed2

bending moment

200

normal f orce

The effect of normal force apparently can be neglected in many structures with rather common proportions. Consideration should be given to arrangements where relatively great normal
forces occur like columns and arches with great vertical loads. This is demostrated in the example of a semi-circle arch in Sketch 14.

4.5 Effect of the normal force in an arch

Two actual load cases will be considered, a horizontal force shown in Sketch 14 and vertical
force at the center in Sketch 15. The indicated displacements will be computed in the respective
load cases and contributions of bending and axial deformation compared for each of them. The
internal forces diagrams are symmetric in all load cases (actual and virtual) with respect to the
vertical symmetry axis of the beam and just the symmetric halves are shown in the diagrams.
Moreover, the bending moment and shear force functions turn out nearly identic for both actual
and virtual load cases in the rst actual load case the horizontal force. Therefore just their common shape is shown in Sketch 14.

N(x), M(x), N(x), M(x):

u=?

F
45

Fig. 14 Deection of a circular arch owing to a horizontal force.

The actual and virtual load cases in the rst task exhibit afne internal forces diagrams:
N () = F sin(),
Since

M () = F r sin(),

N () = sin(),

sin2 ()d = /2 the deection u is readily obtained

u = Fr

1
r2
+
EJ EA
13

M () = r sin()

Contributions of bending and axial deformation can clearly be distinguished in this intermediate
result. Once again a square cross-section with side d is assumed and the deection becomes
u=

F r
r
12
2
2Ed
d

+1

With r/d = 5 the ratio of the bending to axial deformation contribution is 300.
The same displacement is computed in the other actual load case and therefore the same
virtual stress states can be utilized. It remains to solve for the internal forces diagrams in the
actual load case shown in Sketch 15.
F
N(x):

M(x):
0.41

1.41

u=?

45

Fig. 15 Deection of a circular arch owing to a central vertical force.

The bending moment and normal force functions are

M () =

Fr
(1 cos() sin())
2

N () =

F
( cos() sin())
2

The integrals of M M and N N yield

u=

F r3
EJ

Fr
1
1
+

2 4
EA
2 4

where the denominators clearly indicate which are the contributions of bending and axial deformation respectively. Assuming the same cross-section as above the deection becomes
u=

Fr
r
3.44
2
Ed
d

1.286

The ratio of the bending to axial deformation contributions is now 67 for r/d = 5 substantially
lower than it was with the horizontal loading force. It requires engineering judgement and
experience to tell in some problems of practice whether the effect of normal forces can be
neglected.
Rule 4.1 Throughout these notes the effect is neglected unless otherwise stated.
The above example is deliberately presented in brief. The reader is recommended to work it out
in detail as an exercise on the application of the PVf to curved beams.
Axial deformations must not be confused with temperature expansion/contraction. The former refers to the elastic deformation due to axial forces. Where there is no normal force there is
no (elastic) axial deformation. This deformation is often neglected. At the same time, temperature change may induce axial extension/contraction which must not be neglected. The issue is
exposed in the next section.
14

Table 2: Integration formulas for virtual work evaluation. ab is a common multiplier in all
formulas
b

2nd deg. b

a
a
a

2nd deg. b 2nd deg.

b b

ab

1/2

1/2

2/3

1/3

2/3

1/2

1/3

1/6

1/3

1/4

5/12

1/2

1/6

1/3

1/3

1/12

1/4

5 Thermal effects
Temperature changes entail volume changes in all building materials. Volume changes in their
turn imply displacements of structures. It is assumed here that there is some strain-free reference temperature at which there are no displacements. All thermal effects are then due to
the temperature changes with respect to this reference temperature. This temperature is usually
about 20o C in european building standards. The notation and formulas are rendered simpler,
however, if the reference strain-free temperature is put at 0o C. It is well possible since only
temperature changes count. Symbol t denotes the temperature change with respect to the reference temperature. Symbol t is reserved to another thermal effect explained later in this
section.
For all design purposes, linear dependence can be assumed of the extension in one direction
on the temperature change with the temperature extension factor . In beams, the lateral (perpedicular to the beam axis) extensions/contractions invoke no displacements of the beam axis
and the structure. Axial extension
t = t

(16)

2 t r

on the other hand, results in displacements of the structure. In great majority of practical instances, the temperature change t is the same in the whole structure or, at least, in its parts. Such
change is called homogeneous or partially homogeneous temperature change. Displacements
due to homogeneous temperature changes can often be determined by elementary considerations.
An example is the semi-circle arch treated in section 4.5. When subject to homogeneous temperature
increase t, the arch extends in both directions, its
horizontal elongation is 2tr. Vertical displacement
of the same magnitude must occur at the roller. These
two components determine the displacement of the

semi-arch entirely. The matter might turn out much

45
r
r
more difcult when the temperature effect is analysed
2 t r
in a more complex frame or the temperature effect
takes place in only a part of the structure. A systemFig. 16 Homogeneous temperature inatic tool is necessary for such occasions. It is even
crease in a semicircle.
more needed for the other thermal effect that can take
place in frames.

15

5.1 Temperature gradient

Temperature quite often is continuously changing across the beam depth. It is assumed forthwith that this change is linear and the term temperature gradient is used for this thermal effect.
Total temperature change in a cross-section of a beam can thus be decomposed in the temperature change t and the temperature gradient t as indicated in the left diagram of Sketch 17.
1/2 t dx

t lo t
t

t up

dx

Fig. 17 Temperature gradient t and its effect

curvature.

The two effects can be treated separately.

The temperature change t effect is illustrated
in the previous section. Positive temperature gradient shown in Sketch 17 elongates
the upper and contracts the lower bers of
the cross-section (provided the beam is free).
The resulting curvature t is the ratio of
the difference of these changes divided by
the cross-section depth h and the differential
length dx:

tdx
t
=
(17)
hdx
h
The minus sign is necessary to keep the sign convention consistent with the usual sign convention of the bending moment (positive when it pulls at lower surface). PVf offers a systematic
tool to treat both factors in the same manner.
t =

5.2 Unied treatment of thermal effects by PVf

Temperature effects occur in the actual load case (stress state) in the terminology of the PVf.
Displacement is thus obtained by the PVf when the temperature induced axial extension (16)
and temperature gradient induced curvature (17) are substituted in the standard virtual work
expression (15) for and . If the actual load case includes both force and thermal effects they

are added up in and in equation (15). In all other respects the standard algorithm of the PVf

remains intact. The calculation is demonstrated for a separate temperature gradient in a beam. It
is recalled on this occasion that it is a good habit in the engineering practice to compute various
loads effects separately and superpose them in the nal summary where the extrem effects are
sought.

16

t=20 o C
l

l
1

M(x):

virtual load case:

v=?
crosssection
+10 o C

10 o C

Fig. 18 Deection due to a temperature gradi-

ent in a beam.

The simple beam in Sketch 18 is subject to

temperature gradient t = 20o C. Deection
at the end of the cantilever is to be computed.
Mind that the depth of the cross-section must
be given in such tasks (see equation (17)). In
place of the actual stress state solution, the
temperature induced curvature is computed.
In this simple example, no separate diagram
is necessary since the temperature gradient
and beam depth are constant. The virtual
load case is shown in Sketch 18.

Substitution in equation (15) delivers the deection:

v=

2l
0

2l

M (x) dx =

t l2
t
dx =
M (x)
h
h

Note that the temperature change t alone would cause no deection v in this simple structure.
Horizontal displacements would change in such a case, of course.

6 Example on the force and thermal effects in a frame

Relative rotation of two connecting members at hinge D is computed rst due to temperature
increase t = 20o C in the tie in the frame shown in Sketch 19.

0.5

t=20 oC

0.5
virtual load case, N(x)

Fig. 19 Relative rotation due to temperature increase in the tie.

It is seen in the actual load case sketch (left in Sketch 19) that virtual forces can only do work
in the tie since no extension or curvature takes place anywhere else. Moreover, just the normal
force in the tie will do work on the thermal expansion/contraction of the tie. It is thus sufcient
for the given task to draw the normal force diagram for the virtual load (right in Sketch 19). The
relative rotation at the hinge is then
=

structure

N (x)dx = 0.5 t

Note that normal forces are relevant in the virtual load case in spite of the fact that the elastic
deformations due to the normal force are neglected according to Rule 4.1.
17

The example is now modied. A concentrated force is added at the central hinge. Bending
moments occur both in the actual and the virtual load cases. Normal forces in the actual load
case also exist but they need not be drawn since their effect is neglected. The internal forces
diagrams are complemented in Sketch 20.
=?

1
1

2F

2F

t=20 oC

actual load case, M(x)

virtual load case, M(x)

Fig. 20 Relative rotation due to temperature increase in the tie and a concentrated vertical force

at the central hinge.

The diagram of the normal force in the virtual load case from the original version of the example
remains valid and so does the contribution of the temperature to . The total relative rotation
is then
= 0.5 t +

structure

M (x)

1
1 1
M (x)
dx = 0.5 t +2 1 2F 4 1 2F 2
EJ
2
3 EJ

= 0.5 t

32F
3 EJ

7 Settlement of supports
Settlement of supports is a special form of a more general phenomenon imposed displacements. It happens most frequently in the wake of the consolidation of the foundation soil.
Displacements of structures induced by the settlement of supports often can be determined by
elementary geometric considerations just like in case of the thermal effects. The example in
Sketch 21 testies to that. The same simple beam as in Sketch 18 is subject to a given vertical
displacement s of the right support.
There are neither internal forces nor deformations in
s
the actual load case. There is thus no need to draw the
v=?
l
l
internal forces diagrams for the virtual load case since
these internal forces will not do any work. Instead,
1
virtual load case:
the work of the external forces of the virtual load case
must be complemented by the work of the reaction on
1
the imposed displacement s of the actual load case.
2
The PVf yields:
Fig. 21 Settlement of support in a sim1 v 2 s = 0, v = 2 s
ple beam.
The result could have been obtained by inspection of Sketch 21. The PVf becomes useful in
more complex frames like that in Sketch 22. The settlement consists of the rotation at the
clamped end of the frame.
18

actual load case:

virtual load case:

v=?

4
41
1.

M=5

A
5

10

Fig. 22 Settlement of support (rotation at the clamped end) in frame.

The virtual load case is set up in the standard way unit force is applied in the direction of
the required displacements. It is sufcient to compute the reactions in this load case. The PVf
equation reads:
MA + 1 v = 0 v = 5

8 Deections of trusses
Specic properties of truss members induce substantial simplication in the deection calculation. The work of internal forces reduces to the work of the normal forces, that is, the terms
with M (x) and V (x) disappear from equation (15). Further, constant member forces and
axial stiffnesses of truss members are assumed so that the integration within each member can
be carried out and results in a sum on all members:
Fi ui +

w =
i=allf orces

structure

Nj j lj = 0

[ f (x)u(x)dx

(18)

j=all members

The term in the square brackets mostly can be omitted if all loading is reduced to concentrated
forces as it is usual with trusses. Needless to say, j includes both the deformation due to

member force and thermal expansion/contraction:

j =

Nj
+ t
j
(EA)j

(19)

Application of equation (18) is illustrated on the truss in Sketch 23. Axial stiffnesses are the
same, AE, for all members except 4, 5 and 5, 6 where they are 5 times greater.
10

5
F=50

14
.4
1

21

4
41
1.

07
7.

50

5
1

.2

70

virtual load case:

2

f=10

1
1

Fig. 23 Deection of a truss.

19

l
2
1
1
1
1
1.41
1
1.41
1

member
column
1,2
2,3
4,5
5,6
1,5
2,5
3,5
3,6

EAi /EA
N
3
4
1
-5
1
-5
5
70
5
50
1
-21.2
1
0
1
7.07
1
-5

N
5
-1
-1
2
0
-1.414
0
1.41
0

Calculations usually are organized

in a table. It is convenient to use
relative, not absolute axial stiffnesses in the calculations and in the
table in order to avoid very large
and/or very small numbers. Sum
of the members contributions to the
virtual work in the last column of
the table yields then the deection:

w
6
5
5
28
0
42.5
0
14.1
0

v=

94.6
EA

The contributions of individual members

Ni,j
Ni,j i,j li,j = Ni,j (EA)i,j li,j = col.5 col.4 / col.2 col.1

EA

to the virtual work appear in the last column of the table.

Deection u due to temperature increase t = 20o C in a single member turns out easy to
compute in the next example.

u=?

1
1

8
1

2
1

07

C
1

.7

20
1

t=

1.5

0
1.5

Fig. 24 Deection of a truss due to a temperature in-

The virtual stress state is shown

in the right diagram of Sketch 24.
Just member force N2,4 need be
computed in order to evaluate the
deection. Equilibrium conditions
of the whole structure provide the
external reactions as indicated in
Sketch 24. The vertical equilibrium of joint 2 entails N2,4 =
N2,5 . The equilibrium in the horizontal direction of joints 1 and 3
yields N1,2 = 1 and N2,3 = 0.

crease
The horizontal equilibrium condition then reads

2 : N1,2 N2,4 / 2 + N2,5 / 2 = 0

and N2,4 = 0.707 is obtained. The virtual work includes just two forces of the virtual stress
state
w = 1 u ( N l)2,4 = 0

so that

u = ( N l)2,4 = t (0.707) 1.414 = t

8.1 Williot-Mohr method

Previous sections on deections in plane frames and trusses might inspire an inquiry into a
method that delivers deections in the whole truss like the conjugate beam method does in
20

beams. The answer is the Williot-Mohr method. Unfortunately, the Williot-Mohr method basically is graphical and, consequently, it is losing practical importance in the context of contemporary structural mechanics. Its concept can occasionally be applied in checking the results
obtained by other methods and that is why it is briey introduced here. Displacement vectors
of all joints are drawn one by one to a suitable scale in the truss plane starting with a joint that
does not move. Fundamentals are explained on a simple example. Member forces must be
known in all members prior to drawing the diagram of the displacement vectors. For the truss
in Sketch 25 they are

N1,3 = N1,3 = 2/2 = 0.707 N1,2 0.5

The elastic (possibly also thermal) changes of the lengths of all members are computed next
with E A = 1 for simplicity:
l1,3 = l2,3 =

l 1,2

1
1,

l 2,3

u2
3

2
=1
2

m2

u3= u3
1

l
1

l1,2 =

scale:

N1,3
l1,3 = 2/2 2 = 1
EA

nd

le

tia

ten

po

u3
2

po
ts

in

u3

of
3

u1

u2

Fig. 25 Williot diagram development

Joint 1 apparently does not move and is selected for the reference point. Relative displacements
of other joints with respect to joint 1 thus are at the same time their absolute displacements in
this specic case. This need not be always the case (in some cases all joints may move) but
in spite of it the displacements of joints with respect to the reference point are termed absolute
displacements in order to avoid confusion. The term relative displacement is reserved here for
the displacement of one joint with respect to some other one.
Relative displacement of joint 2 with respect to joint 1 is vector u2 . l1,2 is the component
1
of this vector in the direction of member 1,2. This direction, incidentally, is horizontal so that
l1,2 is the horizontal projection of u2 . Since joint 1 does not move u2 = u2 the relative
1
1
displacement of joint 2 with respect to joint 1 equals the absolute displacement of joint 2. For a
general couple of joints the relative displacement of joint j with respect to joint i is denoted by
uj . li,j is the projection of the relative displacement vector uj upon the member direction
i
i
li,j = mj uj
i
i
21

where mj is the unit vector pointing from joint i to joint j. In case of joint 2, the roller support
i
enforces that the displacement vector u2 is horizontal and is therefore equal to its horizontal
projection derived above.
l1,2
1
u=
=
0
0
The absolute and relative displacements vectors are drawn in a suitable scale in a Williot diagram. The origin is denoted 0 and it indicates the zero displacement of the reference point. The
absolute displacement vector u2 can be now drawn. Its end point is indicated by the respective
joint number 2. As for the displacement of joint 3, projection l1,3 of u3 upon the direction
1
m3 and the starting point of the vector is known. Note that the projection is oriented including
1
the sense. Positive sense of the direction is from joint 1 towards joint 3. Contraction l1,3 is
negative and is thus inserted in the reversed sense. The end point of the vector u3 must lie on
1
the dashed line indicated in Sketch 25. Similarly the end point of vector u3 must lie on the
2
other dashed line and the displacement vector u3 is thus obtained at the intersection of the two
dashed lines. The displacements vectors can nally be transferred (in another suitable scale) in
the diagram of the truss to gain an overview of the deformed structure.
The rst vector u2 was easy to draw in the last example since the displacement of joint 2 was
restrained by the roller. In general trusses the reference point is selected arbitrarily and some of
the adjacent members is assumed not to rotate. Joint 1 is the most suitable reference point in the
truss in Sketch 26. None of the adjacent joints is constrained so that their displacement vectors
cannot be determined at the moment. In order to get ahead member 1,2 is assumed not to rotate
which is equivalent to saying that there is a ctitious roller with vertical axis added at joint 2
and the roller at joint 3 is released. These changes are adopted exclusively for the drawing of
the Williot diagram and do not affect the member forces and extensions! They are indicated in
the sketch of the deected truss in Sketch 26 where the ctitious rolller is marked with a circle..
A substitute initial displacement vector u2 is obtained and all absolute displacement vectors are
obtained in the same manner as described above. The development of the Williot diagram is
shown in two phases in Sketch 26 in order to facilitate the retracing of its construction. It is
apparent in the sketch of the displaced truss that it is sufcient to rotate it clock-wise in order to
position joint 3 properly. Even this step can be carried out in the Williot diagram and is called
the Mohr correction. It is, however, beyond the scope of these notes.

22

scale:

.7

07

.7

0.5 2 0.5
1

07

1
first phase
u5 =u4

F=1

0 u2
l1,5

1
u3

second phase
u6

l3,5

u5 =u4

0 u2 l 2,3
l1,5

Fig. 26 Williot diagram development with a substitute initial vector.

References
[1] CEN. Eurocode 1. Basis of design and actions on structures, 6th env 1991-1 edition, 1993.
[2] A. Kassimali. Structural analysis. PWS Publishing Company, a division of International
Thomson Publishing Inc., 1995. ISBN 0-534-95046-9.
[3] S. Utku, C. H. Norris, and J.B. Wilbur. Elementary structural analysis. McGraw-Hill, Inc.,
4 edition, 1991. ISBN 0-07-065933-8.

9 Appendix solved examples

Vertical deection v and relative rotation at the connecting hinge are computed for three load
cases of the frame. Cross-section of both parts is 0.1 0.1 (m). Young modulus E = 106 (kPa)
and thermal expansion factor = 0.00001 are assumed. In the second LC, temperature gradient
is considered with higher temperature on the upper face of the beam. The third load case is a
settlement of the indicated support. The effect of the normal forces is taken into account. A
modied structure is considered with cross-section 1 1 (m).

23

LC2:

LC3:

f=1
LC1:
1111111111111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000000000000
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0 v=?
1
0
=?

t=40C

s=0.01

ACTUAL LC 1

VIRTUAL LC (v):
M:

M:
16

VIRTUAL LC ():

M:
4

1
1

4
5.33

4.26
2.4

1
1

5.33

N:

N:

0.6

N:

1.07

1
0.33

6.67
1

1.07

0.267

The displacements are summarized in the table below. The contribution of the normal force is
negligible (2.4 104 of the total v = 27.5 in LC1). When a stronger cross-section 1 1(m)
is considered, the contribution of the axial deformation grows to 2.4 102 while the absolute
value of the deection decreases 10000. The deection v then is
v=

1
27.5(1 + 2.4 102 ) = 28.3 104
10000
Displacements for cross-section 1 1
LC
v

4
1 28.3 10
7.11 104
2
0.0080
0.001
3
0.01
0

Displacements for cross-section 0.1 0.1

LC
v

27.5 6.97
. 1
2 0.080 0.01
3
0.01
0

24

Axial stiffness of all members is the same AE = 1:

u=?
0.5

0.5

.12
1

s=?

.12
1

1.1
2

2
2

ALL MEMBER
FORCES, EXCEPT
THE ONE
INDICATED,
ARE THE
SAME
AS IN THE
ACTUAL STATE

0.5

ALL OTHER
FORCES
ARE 0

ALL OTHER
FORCES
1 ARE 0

0.5

1
2

1.1

.12

3
3
u=45.8
v=64.8

3.5

0
.7

07

3
.35

10

0.
35
4

.18
1

7
0.

64

25

.3
0

07

.7
5

.35

1
0.5

70

3
1.5

.5

3
3

29.2

0.5

64.4

12

0.5

1.1
2

v=?