Disasters

David F. Gillespie
Disasters are a form of collective stress posing an unavoidable threat to people around the
world. Disaster losses result from interactions among the natural, social, and built
environments, which are becoming increasingly complex. The risk of disaster and
people's susceptibility to damage or harm from disasters is represented with the concept
of vulnerability. Data from the Indian Ocean tsunami, Hurricane Katrina, and genocide in
Darfur, Sudan, show poor people suffer disproportionately from disasters. Disaster social
work intervenes in the social and built environments to reduce vulnerability and prevent
or reduce long-term social, health, and mental health problems from disasters.

disaster; collective stress; vulnerability; preparedness; mitigation; response; recovery

People have experienced natural disasters, such as floods, hurricanes, and earthquakes,
for as long as can be remembered. Disasters from nuclear power stations, toxic chemicals,
and other potentially dangerous technologies have been added to the calculation of
societal risks since the industrial age. The risk equation has been further complicated in
recent years by the threat of terrorism, for which the variety of agents and targets areas
cannot always be identified before the event. The increasingly interdependent nature of
our world means that localized natural or human-made disasters affect people around the
globe.

The concept of vulnerability offers a useful way to organize knowledge, plan effective
responses, and guide ongoing efforts to reduce the negative consequences of disasters.
Oliver-Smith and Button (2005) define vulnerability as a ratio of risk to susceptibility.
The idea of vulnerability is grounded in distributive justice (Soliman & Rogge, 2002).
The vulnerability concept was first introduced in the 1970s (O'Keefe, Westgate, &
Wisner, 1976) but has recently resurfaced as an encompassing idea that is flexible and
capable of integrating the wide spectrum of issues and challenges involved in reducing
the casualties and damage from disasters (Cutter, 2006; McEntire, 2005; Villagran De
Leon, 2006).
Disaster Definitions, Types, and Effects
There are many definitions of disaster. Frequently cited definitions view disasters as the
prevention of essential functions (Fritz, 1961), the need to respond with exceptional
measures (Carter, 1992), collective stress (Barton, 1969), and crisis situations
(Quarantelli, 1998). According to Britton (1987), disasters differ from emergencies and
accidents in two ways: disasters affect many people at the same time, while the degree of
involvement and disruption is great. Disasters involve significant hardships and losses.
Barton's explanation of disasters as collective stress is the most general, and thus the most
useful, definition for guiding social work theory and practice. Stress theory classifies
consequences according to disaster type, demands on the system and duration (Dodds &
Nuehring, 1996). These properties fit with Barton's (1969) typology of collective stress
situations and subsume all types of disaster, including conflict situations.

Disasters are classified as natural, technological, and synergistic. Natural disasters are
defined by disruptions of physical agents. Examples of natural disaster include
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tornados (Wijkman & Timberlake, 1984; Wisner,
Blaikie, Cannon, & Davis, 2003). Technological disasters are defined by harm to people
or damage to property from human-made materials or conditions. Technological disasters
include hazardous material releases, transportation accidents, civil unrest or riots, and war
(Cutter, 1991; Collier & Sambanis, 2003; Peek & Sutton, 2003; Perrow, 1984).
Synergistic disasters are defined as two or more agents that together produce harm or
damage not possible by any one of the agents independently. Synergistic disasters include
drought, desertification, and famine (Middleton & Thomas, 1997; Walker, 2005).
Particular disasters can involve a mix of these types, referred to as complex disasters,
which occur most often in developing parts of the world (Aptekar, 1994).

In collaboration with the U.S. Office of Disaster Assistance and the Belgium government,
the World Health Organization's Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters
tracks 15 types of disasters with about 50 subtypes, reporting the time and location of
disasters; number of people killed, injured, and displaced; the estimated cost of damage
and reconstruction; and the amount of aid contributed (http://www.em-dat.net/). Using
the EM-DAT data, Guha-Sapir, Hargitt, and Hoyois (2004) summarize 30 years of the
world's disasters and their consequences.

Disaster losses result from interactions among the physical environment, social and
demographic characteristics, and the buildings, roads, bridges, and other parts of the
constructed environment (Mileti, 1999). These systems and their interactions are
becoming increasingly complex (Gillespie, Robards, & Cho, 2004). Each year, many
people are killed or injured and many others suffer income and property losses. In 2006,
Indonesia had 5,778 persons killed by an earthquake, while a typhoon and landslide
combination in the Philippines caused 2,511 deaths (Centre for Research on the
Epidemiology of Disasters, 2007). The price tag of disasters has climbed to staggering
heights; the worldwide estimated annual cost from all types of disaster has increased
from about 1.1 billion U.S. dollars in 1960 to over 78.4 billion U.S. dollars in 2006.
Case Studies of Three Disasters


Indian Ocean Tsunami (2004)The Indian Ocean tsunami of 26 December 2004 was the
world's largest natural disaster in 40 years, unprecedented in both deaths and damage
(U.S. Agency for International Development, 2005). In response to estimates of 283,000
deaths, 14,000 missing and 1,130,000 displaced across the 14 directly affected countries
(U.S. Geological Survey, 2005), the relief effort included a major international
humanitarian response. While the tsunami's devastation was not discriminatory, certain
groups were more affected than others. Children were particularly endangered because of
the locations of impact and their limited ability to survive in the force of the water
(Birkmann et al., 2006; Cosgrave, 2007). Moreover, Oxfam International (2005) raised
concerns regarding the tsunami's impact on women. In Indonesia, for example, women
have had to assume greater workloads in caring for extended families, and may be
encouraged to marry earlier than in the past because of a post-tsunami gender imbalance.
In India, the loss of assets, homes, and family members have contributed to greater
gender inequality between men and women (Tata Institute of Social Sciences, 2005).
Overall, evaluations have highlighted shortcomings in ensuring participation and
consultation with affected communities, competition between agencies, housing
reconstruction, and exclusion of the most vulnerable sectors of society, including the
aged, women, children, and people with a disability (Tata Institute of Social Sciences,
2005).

Hurricane Katrina (2005)On 29 August 2005, Hurricane Katrina struck the north-
central Gulf Coast of the United States, resulting in the deaths of more than 1,800 people,
the displacement of more than one million and billions of dollars of damage from a
combination of floods and winds. The majority of those who died from the disaster were
elderly (Knabb, Rhome, & Brown, 2005). Katrina affected 90,000 square miles of land,
extending from southern Louisiana to the AlabamaFlorida border. The storm surge
destroyed many towns in the southern states of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama, and
the devastating breaching of levees in New Orleans resulted in the flooding of 80% of the
city. It is estimated that the hurricane and the resulting flooding destroyed more than
300,000 single-family homes (U.S. House of Representatives, 2006).

The cost of repairs for the U.S. government from Hurricane Katrina has been estimated as
of July 2006 to be over 107 billion U.S. dollars (Liu, Katz, & Fellowes, 2006). Private
insurance costs are not published. The total economic impact depends on how long the
recovery period persists. Although the economic losses had a relatively small impact on
the U.S. economy as a whole, the hurricane destruction devastated many local economies,
causing the loss of thousands of jobs and disrupted oil refining activities in the Gulf of
Mexico for several months (Knabb et al., 2005). As a result of Hurricane Katrina, the
population of New Orleans was dispersed across the southeast United States and other
parts of the country, and the State of Louisiana experienced a significant population loss
following the hurricane. The disaster response especially from the Federal government
has been sharply criticized for being slow and ineffective. The reasons are many,
including lack of presidential leadership, inadequate prevention and preparation by the
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), extensive coordination problems
between federal, state, and local response efforts, and an overall lack of capacity of
responders (Basham, 2005). This lack of capacity was made apparent through media
coverage in New Orleans at the Superdome serving as a shelter, where thousands suffered
from lack of water, food, space, and restroom facilities. There have been accusations of
blatant racism in the government's response as well as adamant denials that race played
any role at all. Henkel et al.'s (2006) discussion of institutional discrimination, subtle
biases, and racial mistrust explains why these issues continue to surface and some fear
that it could happen again.

Civil Unrest, War, and Genocide in Darfur, Sudan (2003 to Present)Violence in
Darfur, Sudan, has led to a conservative estimate of 200,000 deaths (Hagan & Palloni,
2006) and 2.5 million displacements, including those living in internal refugee camps and
others fleeing to Chad (Guha-Sapir & Degomme, 2006; Vasagar & MacAskill, 2005).
The citizens of Darfur were pawns in the Sudanese political peace process, with the
Junjaweed, a Sudanese military group, beginning a full-scale campaign against them. The
conflict has been presented as a war between the Arab Muslim North and African
Animist and Christian South, but Ylonen (2005) explains how culturally and regionally
political, economic, and social marginalization and its effects lead to the conflict. The
Junjaweed has eradicated whole villages, destroyed wells and fields, and stolen or ruined
anything of value to the people of Darfur. The affected populations are suffering
widespread disease and starvation, and many humanitarian organizations have been
unable to serve the region because of the ongoing violence, ineffective security, and lack
of access, as the Sudanese government continues to restrict international aid efforts. In
addition to the government blocking humanitarian assistance, the Junjaweed have sealed
off displacement camps and refuse to let necessary supplies be delivered. In Khartoum
(the capital of Sudan), aid provisions are not released to agencies. On the few roads that
exist in Darfur, roadblocks and hijackings occur regularly. The Junjaweed, together with
the Sudanese military, have continued to systematically commit acts of mass murder,
rape, torture, and mutilation in Darfur (Cheadle & Prendergast, 2007).
Responses to Disaster
I nternational: Most major disasters are problems of international magnitude. All nations
have hazards, although the range of disasters varies widely in various parts of the world.
The Indian Ocean tsunami directly affected 14 countries and indirectly impacted many
others. The genocide in Darfur is creating severe refugee problems in surrounding
countries. Oliver-Smith (1994) notes that the policies and activities of one nation can
increase risk in other nations. However, some progress is being made by countries
working together to solve mutual concerns and challenges (Slaughter, 2004) and through
dedicated efforts of global institutions such as the United Nations International Decade
for Natural Disaster Reduction, the Yokohama Strategy, International Strategy for
Disaster Reduction, and the Hyogo Declaration (Nates & Moyer, 2005).

U.S. Government: The terrorist attacks on September 11 , 2001, resulted in profound
policy changes in the United States. This led to the creation of a major new agency. The
Homeland Security Act of 2002 and the Homeland Security Presidential Directive Five,
entitled Management of Domestic Incidents, issued in 2003, authorized a radical
change in the American government's approach to disasters. This approach is spelled out
in the National Response Plan (NRP), implemented through the National Incident
Management System (NIMS). The NRP specifies that extensive training is necessary for
those operating in the system. The NRP is a complex, formal preparedness, and response
plan intended to provide a comprehensive policy framework for coordinating federal,
state, and local governments, as well as nongovernmental organizations and private
sector resources (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2004). Nongovernmental and
voluntary organizations are directed to collaborate with governmental first responders at
all levels. The American Red Cross and National Voluntary Organizations Active in
Disaster, which includes 39 national voluntary organizations, are mentioned explicitly as
serving the emergency support function of mass care, housing, and human services. The
NRP/NIMS represents a topdown management system, centrally coordinated by the
Department of Homeland Security. Adjustments are being made to the NRP/NIMS as a
result of the many problems surfacing during the government's response to Hurricane
Katrina. Some question the viability of a top-down approach, arguing that the complex
nature of disasters demand a fluid, open, and adaptive organizational system (Pearce,
2003).
Social Work Roles in Disaster: Emergency Relief and Reducing
Vulnerability
The disaster field is organized overall around a cycle of four stages: mitigation,
preparedness, response, and recovery (National Governors' Association, 1979).
Mitigation and preparedness take place before disasters strike, and response and recovery
take place after disasters have happened (Banerjee & Gillespie, 1994). Social workers
have played major roles professionally and as volunteers in disaster work at the micro
and macro levels. Social workers have traditionally been involved during the response
and to some extent the recovery period (Zakour, 2006). Gillespie and Banerjee (1993)
argue that effective response requires expanded involvement of social workers in all four
stages.

Rogge (2003) points out that disaster social work is concerned with intervention in the
social and physical environments of individuals and groups as a means of preventing
serious long-term emotional, spiritual, and mental health problems after a disaster.
Consistent with the complex nature of disaster, social work deals with problems at the
individual, family, group, organization, community, and structural or institutional levels
(Streeter & Murty, 1996). With community connections and knowledge of local values
and norms, social workers can be involved with disaster mitigation, including mobilizing
communities to support land-use planning and management, lobbying for stronger
building codes and standards, expanding the use of disaster insurance, creating improved
disaster warning systems, and working toward safer infrastructure (lifelines) to reduce
vulnerability (Mileti, 1999).

Social workers also facilitate access to those in need, linking vulnerable populations to
services and creating connections across service systems to improve distribution of
resources (Gillespie & Murty, 1994). Some of the earliest social work research in the
disaster field is on organizations and interorganizational networks (Gillespie, 1988;
Gillespie, 1990; Gillespie, Colignon, Banerjee, Murty, & Rogge, 1992; Gillespie,
Sherraden, Streeter, & Zakour, 1986). Zakour and Gillespie (1999) point out the
advantages of linking government and nonprofit organizations in disaster preparedness
networks, for example, the integration of government resources with the knowledge of
community needs of local nonprofits.

Social workers are also integral to the disaster preparedness team, as they frequently
provide traumatic stress services. These services include psychological debriefing to help
victims understand typical stress responses, teaching useful coping mechanisms (Miller,
2003), and coordinating community resources (Gillespie, 1991; Gillespie, Colignon,
Banerjee, Murthy, & Rogge, 1993). After the Oklahoma City bombing, Callahan (2000)
found that debriefing by social workers helped police and fire fighters process their losses.
Similarly, in Kosovar refugee camps, Drumm, Pittmann, & Perry (2003) found individual
counseling helped refugees manage stress and emotional problems.

International social work organizations, including The International Federation of Social
Workers and Commonwealth Organisation for Social Work, played a central role in the
wake of the Indian Ocean tsunami. The organization launched the Families and Survivors
of Tsumani Project (FAST, http://www.fastproject.net), which was designed to support
the recovery of children, youth, and families who were impacted by the tsunami. FAST's
goal was to ensure socialemotional support, advocacy, and planning and capacity
building for family and community recovery.

The most important role for social work in disasters is reducing community and
individual levels of vulnerability. Recent work on vulnerability focuses on changing the
system (Cutter, 1996), and is highly consistent with social work values and practice
(Gillespie, 2007; McEntire, 2004). These strategies for changing the system involve (a)
using existing environmental laws to challenge construction and operating permits,
decisions about locating or transporting hazardous materials, discharge permit violations,
and underenforced statutes, (b) writing new legislation focused on environmental justice,
(c) filing toxic torts where people claim injuries to their health or property, and (d)
mobilizing grass roots activism focused on systemwide opposition to racism, poverty,
and injustice. In addition to the relevance of social work, there are good reasons to make
use of the vulnerability perspective. First, there is not much we can do to affect natural
hazards, but we can reduce vulnerabilities. Second, vulnerability relates to every kind of
hazard and disaster. Third, vulnerability takes into account both positive and negative
features (capabilities or liabilities), thus incorporating individual and community
resiliency. Fourth, vulnerability is a function of many variables representing different
disciplines. Fifth, levels of vulnerability are continuously changing and must be
periodically reappraised. Sixth, there are things that can be done during each phase of
disaster to reduce vulnerability. The vulnerability perspective offers social work a way to
build on its roots, contribute significantly to the disaster field, and reduce the human and
material losses from disaster.
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