A P P E N D I X

Formulae and Physical Constants

Table of Contents
Topic Page
Common Units and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Basic Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Common Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Relative Density (Specific Gravity) of Various Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Greek Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Mathematical Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Applied Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Stress, Strain and Modulus of Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Coefficients of Thermal Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Fluid Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Periodic Table of the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Ion Names and Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
401
997716 AppB p401-428 7/16/03 11:57 AM Page 401
APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 402
Common Units and Abbreviations
foot ft
pound lb
foot pound (work) ftlb
pound foot (torque or moment) lbft
foot (feet) per second ft/s
mile mi
mile per hour mi/h mph
hour h
inch in
inches per minute in/min
second s
revolution per minute r/min rpm
horsepower hp
horsepower hour hph
British thermal unit Btu
yard yd
pounds per square inch psi
ampere A
ampere hour Ah
volt V
watt W
joule J
coulomb C
alternating current AC
direct current DC
997716 AppB p401-428 7/16/03 11:57 AM Page 402
APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 403
Basic Units
U.S. Standard
Distance Conversions:
12 in. 1 ft 1 in. 25.4 mm
3 ft 1 yd 1 ft 30.48 cm
5280 ft 1 mile 1 mile 1.61 km
100 links 1 chain 1 yd 0.914 m
1 m 3.28 ft
Area Conversions:
1 ft
2
144 in.
2
1 in.
2
6.45 cm
2
645 mm
2
1 yd
2
9 ft
2
1 m
2
10.8 ft
2
1 sq mile 640 acre 1 section 1 acre 0.405 ha
1 sq chain 484 sq yds. 1 sq mile 2.59 km
2
1 acre 43,560 sq ft.
Volume Conversions:
1 ft
3
1728 in.
3
1 in.
3
16.4 cm
3
1 yd
3
27 ft
3
1 m
3
35.3 ft
3
1(liquid) U.S. gallon 231 in.
3
1 litre 61 in.
3
4 (liquid) quarts 1 U.S.gal 3.78 litres
1 U.S. barrel (bbl) 42 U.S. gal. 1 U.S. bbl 159 litres
1 imperial gallon 1.2 U.S. gal. 1 litre/s 15.9 U.S. gal/min
Mass and Weight Conversions:
2000 lb 1 ton (short) 1 kg (on Earth) results in a weight of
2.2 lb
1 long ton 2240 lb
Density Conversions:
weight density (on Earth) a mass density of
r
1 is equivalent to a weight density
of 0.0623
Density
In U.S. Standard the quantity is
specific gravity; for solids and
liquids a comparison of weight
density to that of water.
lb
ft
3
kg
m
3
w
V
a
lb
ft
3
b
weight
volume
997716 AppB p401-428 7/16/03 11:57 AM Page 403
APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 404
Common Conversions
1 atmosphere (atmos. press. at sea level) 29.9 ins. mercury
or 760 mm mercury
or 14.696 psi
1 mercury 0.492 psi
1 Imp. gal fresh water 10 lbs
1 cu ft fresh water 62.4 lbs
1 Imp. gal 277 cu ins
1 U.S. gal 231 cu ins
1 Imp. gal 1.2 U.S. gals
1 ft head of water 0.4335 psi
1 psi 2.31 ft head of water
1 Btu 778 ft-lbs of work
1 horsepower-hour (hp-hr) 2545.2 Btu
1 horsepower-minute (hp-min) 42.4 Btu
1 horsepower 33,000 ft-lbs/min
550 ft-lbs/sec
1 horsepower 746 watts
1 watt/min Btu
1 kilowatt/hr
3412 Btu
1 lb steam:
Latent heat of steam,
from and at 212 F 970.3 Btu
Latent heat of fusion of ice 144 Btu/lb
1 ton of refrigeration 144 2000
288,000 Btu
1 ton of refrigeration/24 hrs
12,000 Btu/hr
200 Btu/min
Temperature Scales
Freezing point of water 0 Celsius (Centigrade)
272 Kelvin
32 Fahrenheit
492 Rankine
1 Celsius 1 Kelvin
9/5 Fahrenheit
9/5 Rankine
Velocities
Acceleration due to gravity (g) 32.2 ft/sec
2
60 miles per hr 88 ft/sec
Velocity of sound in air about 1100 ft/sec,
or 750 mph
388,000
24
33,000 60 1000
746 778
33,000
746 778
997716 AppB p401-428 7/16/03 11:57 AM Page 404
APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS
Velocity of light 186,300 miles/sec
Angular Measure
1 revolution 360 degrees
4 right-angles
1 degree 60 minutes
1 minute 60 seconds
1 radian 57 1745 or approx.
57.3
Base of Napierian Logarithms 2.7183
Log
e
(In) 2.3 Log
10
Relative Density (Specific Gravity) of Various Substances
Water (fresh) . . . . . . . . . . 1.00 Mica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9
Water (sea average) . . . . . 1.03 Nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6
Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.56 Oil (linseed) . . . . . . . . . 0.94
Antimony . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.70 Oil (olive) . . . . . . . . . . . 0.92
Bismuth . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.80 Oil (petroleum) . . . . . . . 0.760.86
Brass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.40 Oil (turpentine) . . . . . . 0.87
Brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Paraffin . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.86
Calcium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.58 Platinum . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.5
Carbon (diamond) . . . . . 3.4 Sand (dry) . . . . . . . . . . . 1.42
Carbon (graphite) . . . . . . 2.3 Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6
Carbon (charcoal) . . . . . . 1.8 Silver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.57
Chromium . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Slate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12.8
Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9 Sodium . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.97
Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.361.4 Steel (mild) . . . . . . . . . . 7.87
Cobalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6 Sulfur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.07
Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.77 Tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3
Cork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.24 Tungsten . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.1
Glass (crown) . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Wood (ash) . . . . . . . . . . 0.75
Glass (flint) . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Wood (beech) . . . . . . . . 0.70.8
Gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.3 Wood (ebony) . . . . . . . 1.11.2
Iron (cast) . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.21 Wood (elm) . . . . . . . . . 0.66
Iron (wrought) . . . . . . . . 7.78 Wood (lignum-vitae) . . 1.3
Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4 Wood (oak) . . . . . . . . . . 0.71.0
Magnesium . . . . . . . . . . . 1.74 Wood (pine) . . . . . . . . . 0.56
Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . 8.0 Wood (teak) . . . . . . . . . 0.8
Mercury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6 Zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0
405
997716 AppB p401-428 7/16/03 11:57 AM Page 405
Greek Alphabet
Alpha Iota Rho
Beta Kappa Sigma ,
Gamma Lambda Tau
Delta Mu Upsilon
Epsilon Nu Phi ,
Zeta Xi Kai
Eta Omicron Psi
Theta Pi Omega ,
APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 406
Mathematical Formulae
Algebra
1. Expansion Formulae
(x y)
2
x
2
2xy y
2
(x y)
2
x
2
2xy y
2
x
2
y
2
(x y) (x y)
(x y)
3
x
3
3x
2
y 3xy
2
y
3
x
3
y
3
(x y) (x
2
xy y
2
)
(x y)
3
x
3
3x
2
y 3xy
2
y
3
x
3
y
3
(x y) (x
2
xy y
2
)
2. Quadratic Equation
If ax
2
bx c 0,
Then x
Trigonometry
1. Basic Ratios
Sin A , cos A , tan A
2. Pythagoras Law
x
2
y
2
h
2
3. Trigonometric Function Values
Sin is positive from 0 to 90 and positive from 90 to 180
Cos is positive from 0 to 90 and negative from 90 to 180
Tan is positive from 0 to 90 and negative from 90 to 180
y
x
x
h
y
h
b 2b
2
4ac
2a
997716 AppB p401-428 7/16/03 11:57 AM Page 406
APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS
4. Solution of Triangles
a. Sine Law
b. Cosine Law
c
2
a
2
b
2
2 ab Cos C
a
2
b
2
c
2
2 bc Cos A
b
2
a
2
c
2
2 ac Cos B
a
Sin A

b
Sin B

c
Sin C
407
Geometry
1. Areas of Triangles
a. All Triangles
Area
Area
and,
Area
where, s is half the sum of the sides, or s
b. Equilateral Triangles
Area 0.433 side
2
2. Circumference of a Circle
C pd
3. Area of a Circle
A pr
2
d
2
0.7854d
2
4. Area of a Sector of a Circle
A
A r
2
( angle in degrees)
A ( angle in radians)
r
2
2

360
arc r
2
p
4
circumference r
2
a b c
2
2s(s a)(s b)(s c)
bc Sin A
2

ab Sin C
2

ac Sin B
2
base perpendicular height
2
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APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 408
5. Area of a Segment of a Circle
A area of sector area of triangle
Also approximate area h
2
6. Ellipse
A Dd
Approx. circumference
7. Area of Trapezoid
A h
8. Area of Hexagon
A 2.6s
2
where s is the length of one side
9. Area of Octagon
A 4.83s
2
where s is the length of one side
10. Sphere
Total surface area A 4r
2
Surface area of segment A
s
dh
Volume V r
3
Volume of segment
V
s
(3r h)
V
s
(h
2
3a
2
) where a radius of segment base
h
6
h
2
3
4
3
a
a b
2
b
(D d)
2

4
A
d
h
0.608
4
3
997716 AppB p401-428 7/16/03 11:57 AM Page 408
APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS
11. Volume of a Cylinder
V d
2
L where L is cylinder length
12. Pyramid
Volume
V base area perpendicular height
Volume of frustum
V
F
A a where h is the
perpendicular height, A and a
are areas as shown
13. Cone
Area of curved surface of cone:
A
Area of curved surface of frustum
A
F

Volume of cone:
V
Volume of frustum:
V
F

Applied Mechanics
Scalar a property described by a magnitude only
Vector a property described by a magnitude and a direction
Velocityvector property equal to
The magnitude of velocity may be referred to as speed or
Speed of sound in dry air is 1085.7 at 32F and increases by about 1.4 for
each F rise
ft
s
ft
s
mi
h
ft
s
displacement
time
perpendicular height (R
2
r
2
Rr)
3
base area perpendicular height
3
(D d)L
2
DL
2
B
2Aa A
h
3
1
3

4
409
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APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 410
Accelerationvector property equal to
Acceleration due to gravity, symbol g, is 32.2
Linear Velocity and Acceleration
u initial velocity
v final velocity
t elapsed time
s displacement
a acceleration
Angular Velocity and Acceleration
angular displacement (radians)
angular velocity (radians/s);
1
initial,
2
final
angular acceleration (radians/s
2
)

2

1
t
t

1
t
1
/2 t
2

2
2

1
2
2
linear displacement, s r
linear velocity, v r
linear, or tangential acceleration, a
T
r
Tangential, Centripetal and Total Acceleration
Tangential acceleration a
T
is due to angular acceleration
a
T
r
Centripetal (Centrifugal) acceleration a
c
is due to change in direction only
a
c
v
2
/r r
2
Total acceleration, a, of a rotating point experiencing angular acceleration is
the vector sum of a
T
and a
c
a a
T
a
c
Force
Vector quantity, a push or pull which changes the shape and/or motion of an
object
The unit of force is the pound lb

1

2
2
ft
s
2
ft
s
2
change in velocity
time
v u at
s t
s ut at
2
v
2
u
2
2 as
1
2
a
v u
2
b
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APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 411
Weight
The gravitational force of attraction between a mass, m, and the mass of the
Earth
The mass of an object (rarely used), in slugs, can be calculated from the known
weight in pounds
m g 32.2
Newtons Second Law of Motion
An unbalanced force F will cause an object of weight w to accelerate a, accord-
ing to:
F a, where w is weight
Torque Equation
T where T is the acceleration torque, I is the moment of inertia
in lb ft
2
and is the angular acceleration in radians/s
2
Momentum
Vector quantity, symbol p,
p v, where w is weight
Work
Scalar quantity, equal to the (vector) product of a force and the displacement
of an object. In simple systems, where W is work, F force and s distance
W F s ft-lb
Energy
Energy is the ability to do work, the units are the same as for work; ft-lb
Kinetic Energy
Energy due to motion
E
k
v
2
where w is weight
w
2g
w
g
Ia
g
w
g
ft
s
2
Weight
g
997716 AppB p401-428 7/16/03 11:57 AM Page 411
APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 412
Kinetic Energy of Rotation
E
R
k
2

2
where k is radius of gyration, is angular velocity in rad/s
or
E
R
I
2
where I k
2
is the moment of inertia
Centripetal (Centrifugal) Force
F
C
where r is the radius
or
F
C

2
r where is angular velocity in rad/s
Potential Energy
Energy due to position in a force field, such as gravity
E
p
w h
where w is weight, and h is height above some specified datum
Thermal Energy
The units of thermal energy are British Thermal Units (Btu)
Conversions: 1 Btu 778 ftlb
Electrical Energy
The unit of electrical energy is the kWh
Conversions: 1 kWh 3,412 Btu 2.66 10
6
ftlb
Power
A scalar quantity, equal to the rate of doing work
The units are:
Mechanical Power , horsepower hp
Thermal Power
Electrical PowerW, kW, or hp
Conversions: 746 W 1 hp
1 h.p. 550 ,
1 kW 0.948
Btu
s
ftlb
s
Btu
s
ftlb
s
w
g
wv
2
gr
w
g
1
2
w
g
1
2
997716 AppB p401-428 08/05/03 2:33 PM Page 412
APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 413
Pressure
A vector quantity, force per unit area
The basic unit is the pound per square inch, psi
Atmospheric Pressure
At sea level atmospheric pressure equals 14.7 psi
Pressure Conversions
Pressure may be expressed in standard units, or in units of static fluid head.
Common equivalencies are:
1 kPa 0.294 in. mercury 7.5 mm mercury
1 kPa 4.02 in. water 102 mm water
1 psi 2.03 in. mercury 51.7 mm mercury
1 psi 27.7 in. water 703 mm water
1 m H
2
O 9.81 kPa
Other pressure unit conversions:
1 bar 14.5 psi 100 kPa
1 kg/cm
2
98.1 kPa 14.2 psi 0.981 bar
1 atmosphere (atm) 101.3 kPa 14.7 psi
Simple Harmonic Motion
Velocity of P
Acceleration of P
2
x
The period or time of a complete oscillation
seconds
General formula for the period of S.H.M.
T 2
Simple Pendulum
T 2 T period or time in seconds for a double swing
L length in feet
A
L
g
A
displacement
acceleration
2

1R
2
x
2
997716 AppB p401-428 7/16/03 11:57 AM Page 413
APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 414
The Conical Pendulum
R/H tan F
c
/W
2
R/g
Lifting Machines
W load lifted, F force applied
M.A.
V.R. (velocity ratio)
efficiency
1. Lifting Blocks
V.R. number of rope strands supporting the load block
2. Wheel & Differential Axle
Velocity ratio
2 R
Or, using diameters instead
of radii,
Velocity ratio
3. Inclined Plane
V.R.
4. Screw Jack
V.R.
circumference of leverage
pitch of thread
length
height
2D
(d d
1
)
2R
r r
1
2R
2(r r
1
)
2
M.A.
V.R.
effort distance
load distance
W
F
load
effort
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APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 415
Indicated Horse Power
I.H.P. where I.H.P. is power in W, P
m
is mean or average effec-
tive pressure in psi, A is piston area in in
2
, L is length of
stroke in ft and N is number of power strokes per min
Brake Horse Power
B.H.P. T
for prony brake D w is weight on rim
s is balance reading
on other side
Stress, Strain and Modulus of Elasticity
Direct stress
Direct strain
Modulus of elasticity
E
Shear stress
Shear strain
Modulus of rigidity
G
Thermodynamics
Temperature Scales
C (F 32) F C 32
R F 460 (R Rankine) K C 273 (K Kelvin)
Sensible Heat Equation
Q wcT
w is weight
c is specific heat
T is temperature change
9
5
5
9
shear stress
shear strain
x
L
force
area under shear
PL
A/
P/A
//L
direct stress
direct strain
extension
original length

/
L
load
area

P
A
(w s) (speed of rim in ft per min)
33000
P
m
A L N
33000
997716 AppB p401-428 7/16/03 11:57 AM Page 415
APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 416
Latent Heat
Latent heat of fusion of ice 144 Btu/lb
Latent heat of steam from and at 212F 1,207,385 Btu/lb
1 ton of refrigeration 31,753 Btu/day
220 Btu/min
Gas Laws
1. Boyles Law
When gas temperature is constant
PV constant or
P
1
V
1
P
2
V
2
where P is absolute pressure and V is volume
2. Charles Law
When gas pressure is constant, constant
or , where V is volume and T is absolute temperature
3. Gay-Lussacs Law
When gas volume is constant, constant
Or , where P is absolute pressure and T is absolute temperature
4. General Gas Law
constant
P V w R T where P absolute pressure (lb/ft
2
)
V volume (ft
3
)
T absolute temp (R)
w weight (lb)
R characteristic constant (ftlb/lbR)
P
1
V
1
T
1

P
2
V
2
T
2
P
1
T
1

P
2
T
2
P
T
V
1
T
1

V
2
T
2
V
T
997716 AppB p401-428 08/05/03 2:33 PM Page 416
APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 417
Efficiency of Heat Engines
Carnot Cycle
Air Standard Efficiencies
1. Spark Ignition Gas and Oil Engines (Constant Volume Cycle or
Otto Cycle)
1 where r
v
compression ratio

2. Diesel Cycle
1 where r ratio of compression
R ratio of cut-off volume to clearance volume
3. High Speed Diesel (Dual-Combustion) Cycle
1
where r
v

k

volume at end of constant P heating (combustion)
clearance volume
absolute pressure at end of constant V heating (combustion)
absolute pressure at beginning of constant V combustion
cylinder volume
clearance volume
k

1
r
v
1
[(k 1) k(b 1)]
(R

1)
r
v
1
(R 1)
specific heat (constant pressure)
specific heat (constant volume)
cylinder volume
clearance volume
1
r
v
(1)
where T
1
and T
2
are absolute temperatures of
heat source and sink
T
1
T
2
T
1
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APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 418
997716 AppB p401-428 7/16/03 11:57 AM Page 418
APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 419
4. Gas Turbines (Constant Pressure or Brayton Cycle)
1
where r
p
pressure ratio
Heat Transfer by Conduction
Q
where Q heat transferred in Btu
thermal conductivity or coefficient of heat transfer in
A area in ft
2
t time in hr
T temperature difference between surfaces in F
d thickness of layer in ft
Btu ft
ft
2
n F
AtT
d
compressor discharge pressure
compressor intake pressure
1
r
p
a
1

b
Coefficients of Thermal Conductivity
Material Coefficient of
Thermal Conductivity
Aluminum 230
Brick 0.4
Concrete 0.54
Copper 398
Cork 0.026
Felt 0.03
Glass 0.5
Glass, fiber 0.63
Iron, cast 60
Tin 20
Wood 0.20
Wallboard, paper 0.034
Btu ft
(nft
2
)(F/ft)
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APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 420
Thermal Expansion of Solids
Increase in length L (T
2
T
1
)
where L original length
coefficient of linear expansion
(T
2
T
1
) rise in temperature
Increase in volume V (T
2
T
1
)
Where V original volume
coefficient of volumetric expansion
(T
2
T
1
) rise in temperature
coefficient of volumetric expansion coefficient of linear expansion 3
3
997716 AppB p401-428 7/16/03 11:57 AM Page 420
APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 421
Chemical Heating Value of a Fuel
Chemical Heating Value Btu/lb of fuel 145000 C 53400 4000 S
C is the mass of carbon per lb of fuel
H
2
is the mass of hydrogen per lb of fuel
O
2
is the mass of oxygen per lb of fuel
S is the mass of sulfur per lb of fuel
Theoretical Air Required to Burn Fuel
Air (lb per lb of fuel)
Air Supplied from Analysis of Flue Gases
Air in lb per lb of fuel
C is the percentage of carbon in fuel by weight
N
2
is the percentage of nitrogen in flue gas by volume
CO
2
is the percentage of carbon dioxide in flue gas by volume
CO is the percentage of carbon monoxide in flue gas by volume
Boiler Formulae
Equivalent evaporation
Factor of evaporation
Boiler efficiency
where mass flow rate of steam
h
1
enthalpy of steam produced in boiler
h
2
enthalpy of feedwater to boiler
mass flow rate of fuel w
#
f
w
#
s
#
w
s
(h
1
h
2
)
#
w
f
calorific value of fuel
(h
1
h
2
)
970.3 Btu/lb
#
w
s
(h
1
h
2
)
970.3 Btu/lb
N
2
33 (CO
2
CO)
C
c
8
3
C 8aH
2

O
2
8
b Sd
100
23
aH
2

O
2
8
b
997716 AppB p401-428 7/16/03 11:57 AM Page 421
APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 422
Fluid Mechanics
Discharge from an Orifice
Let A cross-sectional area of the orifice (/4)d
2
and A
c
cross-sectional area of the jet at the vena contracta = ((/4)
then A
c
C
c
A
or C
c

where C
c
is the coefficient of contraction
At the vena contracta, the volumetric flow rate Q of the fluid is given by
Q area of the jet at the vena contracta actual velocity
A
c
v
or Q C
c
AC
v
The coefficients of contraction and velocity are combined to give the coefficient
of discharge, C
d
i.e. C
d
C
c
C
v
and Q C
d
A
Typically, values for C
d
vary between 0.6 and 0.65
Circular orifice: Q 0.62 A
Where Q flow (ft
3
/s) A area (ft
2
) h head (ft)
Rectangular notch: Q 0.62 (B H)
Where B breadth (ft) H head (ft above sill)
Triangular Right Angled Notch: Q 2.635 H
5/2
Where H head (ft above sill)
22gh
2
3
22gh
22gh
22gh
A
c
A
a
d
c
d
b
2
d
2
c
997716 AppB p401-428 7/16/03 11:57 AM Page 422
APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 423
Bernoullis Theory
H h
H total head (ft) w specific weight (lb/ft
3
)
h height above datumlevel (ft) v velocity of water (ft per second)
P pressure (lb/ft
2
)
Loss of Head in Pipes Due to Friction
Loss of head in meters f
L length in ft v velocity of flow in ft per second
d diameter in ft f constant value of 0.01 for large pipes to 0.02
for small pipes
Note: This equation is expressed in some textbooks as
Loss 4f where the f values range from 0.0025 to 0.005
Electricity
Ohms Law
I
or E IR
where I current (amperes)
E electromotive force (volts)
R resistance (ohms)
Conductor Resistivity
R
where specific resistance (or resistivity) (ohm inches, in)
L length (inches)
a area of cross-section (square inches)
Temperature correction
R
t
R
o
(1 t)
where R
o
resistance at 0C ()
R
t
resistance at tC ()
L
a
E
R
L
d

v
2
2g
L
d

v
2
2g
P
w

v
2
2g
997716 AppB p401-428 7/16/03 11:57 AM Page 423
APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 424
temperature coefficient which has an average value for copper of
0.004 28 (/C)
R
2
R
1
where R
1
resistance at t
1
()
R
2
resistance at t
2
()
Dynamo Formulae
Average e.m.f. generated in each conductor
where Z total number of armature conductors
c number of parallel paths through winding between positive and
negative brushes where c 2 (wave winding), c 2p (lap winding)
useful flux per pole (webers), entering or leaving the armature
p number of pairs of poles
N speed (revolutions per minute)
Generator Terminal volts E
G
I
a
R
a
Motor Terminal volts E
B
I
a
R
a
where E
G
generated e.m.f.
E
B
generated back e.m.f.
I
a
armature current
R
a
armature resistance
Alternating Current
R.M.S. value of sine curve 0.707 maximum value
Mean value of sine curve 0.637 maximum value
Form factor of sinusoidal
Frequency of alternator cycles per second
Where p number of pairs of poles
N rotational speed in r/min
pN
60
R.M.S. value
Mean value

0.707
0.637
1.11
2NpZ
60c
(1 t
2
)
(1 t
1
)
Values /C
copper 0.00428
platinum 0.00385
nickel 0.00672
tungsten 0.0045
aluminum 0.0040
997716 AppB p401-428 7/16/03 11:57 AM Page 424
APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 425
Slip of Induction Motor
100
Inductive Reactance
Reactance of AC circuit (X) 2fL ohms
where L inductance of circuit (henries)
Inductance of an iron cored solenoid henries
where T turns on coil
magnetic permeablility of core
A area of core (square centimeters)
L length (centimeters)
Capacitance Reactance
Capacitance reactance of AC circuit ohms
where C capacitance (farads)
Total reactance ohms
Impedence (Z)

Current in AC Circuit
Current
Power Factor
p.f.
also p.f. cos , where is the angle of lag or lead
Three Phase Alternators
Star connected
Line voltage phase voltage
Line current phase current
Delta connected
Line voltage phase voltage
Line current phase current 23
23
true watts
volts amperes
impressed volts
impedance
A
R
2
a2fL
1
2fC
b
2
ohms
2(resistance)
2
(reactance)
2
a2fL
1
2fC
b
1
2fC
1.256T
2
A
L 10
8
Slip speed of field speed of rotor
Speed of field
997716 AppB p401-428 7/16/03 11:57 AM Page 425
APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 426
Three phase power
P E
L
I
L
cos
E
L
line voltage
I
L
line current
cos power factor
23
997716 AppB p401-428 7/16/03 11:57 AM Page 426
APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 427
997716 AppB p401-428 7/16/03 11:57 AM Page 427
APPENDI X B FORMULAE AND PHYSI CAL CONSTANTS 428
Ion Names and Formulae
Monatomic Polyatomic
Ag

silver ion BO
3
3
borate ion
Al
3
aluminum ion C
2
H
3
O
2

acetate ion
Au

and Au
2
gold ion ClO

hypochlorite ion
Be
2
beryllium ion ClO
2

chlorite ion
Ca
2
calcium ion ClO
3

chlorate ion
Co
2
and Co
3
cobalt ion ClO
4

perchlorate ion
Cr
2
and Cr
3
chromium ion CN

cyanide ion
Cu

and Cu
2
copper ion CO
3
2
carbonate ion
Fe
2
and Fe
3
iron ion C
2
O
4
2
oxalate ion
K

potassium ion CrO

4
2
chromate ion
Li

lithium ion Cr
2
O
7
2
dichromate ion
Mg
2
magnesium ion HCO
3

hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate ion

Na

sodium ion H
3
O

hydronium ion
Zn
2
zinc ion HPO
4
2
hydrogen phosphate ion
H
2
PO
4

dihydrogen phosphate ion

HSO
3

hydrogen sulfite or bisulfite ion

HSO
4

hydrogen sulfate or bisulfate ion

MnO
4

permanganate ion
N
3

azide ion
NH
4

ammonium ion
NO
2

nitrite ion
NO
3

nitrate ion
O
2
2
peroxide ion
OCN

cyanate ion
OH

hydroxide ion
PO
3
3
phosphite ion
PO
4
3
phosphate ion
SCN

thiocyanate ion
SO
3
2
sulfite ion
SO
4
2
sulfate ion
S
2
O
3
2
thiosulfate ion
997716 AppB p401-428 7/16/03 11:57 AM Page 428