Origin of Biopotentials

Origin of Biopotentials


Cell Membrane Potentials
Cell Membrane Potentials

Cell membranes
Cell membranes
in general, and membranes of nerve cells in
in general, and membranes of nerve cells in
particular, maintain a small voltage or "potential" across the
particular, maintain a small voltage or "potential" across the
membrane in its normal or resting state.
membrane in its normal or resting state.

In the rest state
In the rest state
, the inside of the nerve cell membrane is
, the inside of the nerve cell membrane is
negative with respect to the outside (typically about
negative with respect to the outside (typically about
-
-
70 mV).
70 mV).

The voltage arises from
The voltage arises from
differences in concentration
differences in concentration
of the
of the
electrolyte ions K+ and Na+.
electrolyte ions K+ and Na+.

There is a process which utilizes
There is a process which utilizes
ATP
ATP
to pump out three Na+
to pump out three Na+
ions and pump in two K+ ions. The collective action of these
ions and pump in two K+ ions. The collective action of these
mechanisms leaves the interior of the membrane about
mechanisms leaves the interior of the membrane about
-
-
70
70
mV with respect to the outside.
mV with respect to the outside.

If the equilibrium of the nerve cell is disturbed by the arrival
If the equilibrium of the nerve cell is disturbed by the arrival
of a suitable stimulus
of a suitable stimulus

dynamic changes
dynamic changes
in the membrane
in the membrane
potential in response to the stimulus is called an
potential in response to the stimulus is called an
Action
Action
Potential
Potential
.
.

After the action potential the mechanisms described above
After the action potential the mechanisms described above
bring the cell membrane back to its resting state.
bring the cell membrane back to its resting state.

Goals
Goals

Monitoring and Recording many forms of
Monitoring and Recording many forms of
bioelectric phenomena
bioelectric phenomena

ECG
ECG

EMG
EMG

EEG
EEG

ENG
ENG

Biopotentials
Biopotentials

Certain systems of the body create their own "
Certain systems of the body create their own "
monitoring
monitoring
"
"
signals, which convey useful information regarding the
signals, which convey useful information regarding the
functions they represent.
functions they represent.

These signals are the
These signals are the
Biopotentials
Biopotentials

BP
BP

associated with the

associated with the
conduction along the sensory and motor nervous system,
conduction along the sensory and motor nervous system,
muscular contractions, brain activity, heart contractions, etc.
muscular contractions, brain activity, heart contractions, etc.

Biopotentials
Biopotentials
are the result of:
are the result of:
electrochemical activity electrochemical activity occurring in certain classes of cells within occurring in certain classes of cells within
the body which are called the body which are called Excitable Cells Excitable Cells. .

Measurements of these Biopotentials can provide clinicians
Measurements of these Biopotentials can provide clinicians
with valuable
with valuable
diagnostic information
diagnostic information

A. Excitable Cells
A. Excitable Cells

Excitable cells are a class of cells that produce bioelectric
Excitable cells are a class of cells that produce bioelectric
potentials as a result of
potentials as a result of
electrochemical activity.
electrochemical activity.

At any given time, these cells can exist in one of two
At any given time, these cells can exist in one of two
states,
states,
resting
resting
and
and
active
active
.
.

Chemical and electrical
Chemical and electrical
stimuli
stimuli
can force an excitable cell
can force an excitable cell
from the resting to the active state.
from the resting to the active state.

While there are numerous ionic species present both
While there are numerous ionic species present both
inside and outside the cell, only
inside and outside the cell, only
three ions
three ions
(for which the
(for which the
cell membrane in its resting state is permeable)
cell membrane in its resting state is permeable)
play a key
play a key
role in the behavior of these cells:
role in the behavior of these cells:
K
K
+ +
, Na
, Na
+ +
and
and
Cl
Cl
- -
.
.

Typical concentrations
Typical concentrations

Because of the Ionic concentration gradients across

Because of the Ionic concentration gradients across
the cell
the cell

s membrane
s membrane

T
T
ransmembrane
ransmembrane
potential
potential
V
V
m m
,
,

V
V
m m
=
=
V
V
intracellular intracellular
-
-
V
V
extracellular extracellular
Ion species Ion species
[ [Ion] Ion]
i i
( (mM/l mM/l) )
( (millimoles millimoles/liter) /liter)
[ [Ion] Ion]
e e
( (mM/l mM/l) )
Na
Na 12 12 145 145
K
K 155 155 4 4
Cl
Cl 4 4 120 120
F
R
O
G

2. Active State
2. Active State

If a dendrites of a nerve is adequately
If a dendrites of a nerve is adequately
stimulated
stimulated
, either
, either
electrically or chemically, the excitable cell will enter into t
electrically or chemically, the excitable cell will enter into t
he
he
active state.
active state.

The transmembrane potential
The transmembrane potential
V
V
m m
varies with time and
varies with time and
position within the cell in this state, and is called an
position within the cell in this state, and is called an
action
action
potential
potential
.
.
The following sequence of events occurs when the cell
enters the active state:
The chemical or electrical stimuli increases the permeability of The chemical or electrical stimuli increases the permeability of the the
membrane to membrane to Na. Na.
Na Na rushes into the cell due to the large concentration gradient. rushes into the cell due to the large concentration gradient.

2. Active State (cont.)
2. Active State (cont.)

These positively charged ions of sodium entering the cell
These positively charged ions of sodium entering the cell
cause the
cause the
V
V
m m
to become less negative, and eventually slightly
to become less negative, and eventually slightly
positive. This change is often referred to as
positive. This change is often referred to as
depolarization
depolarization
.
.

A short time (10s of microseconds) later the membranes
A short time (10s of microseconds) later the membranes
permeability to
permeability to
K
K
+ +
increases, which results in an outflow of K.
increases, which results in an outflow of K.

The outflow of K
The outflow of K
+ +
causes the transmembrane potential to
causes the transmembrane potential to
decrease (negativity increases). This decrease in potential
decrease (negativity increases). This decrease in potential
causes the membranes permeability to both Na, and
causes the membranes permeability to both Na, and
eventually K, to decrease to their resting levels (
eventually K, to decrease to their resting levels (
-
-
ve
ve
inside the
inside the
cell membrane and +
cell membrane and +
ve
ve
outside the membrane).
outside the membrane).

There is only a relatively small (immeasurable) net flow of
There is only a relatively small (immeasurable) net flow of
ions across the membrane during an action potential. The Na
ions across the membrane during an action potential. The Na
-
-
K pump restores the concentrations (pumps Na out and K in)
K pump restores the concentrations (pumps Na out and K in)
of the ions to their resting levels.
of the ions to their resting levels.

Action Potential
Action Potential

So, in response to the appropriate stimulus, the
So, in response to the appropriate stimulus, the
cell
cell
membrane
membrane
of a
of a
nerve cell
nerve cell
goes through a sequence of
goes through a sequence of
depolarization from its rest state to the active state followed depolarization from its rest state to the active state followed by by
repolarization repolarization to the rest state once again. to the rest state once again.

In the sequence, it actually reverses its normal polarity for a
In the sequence, it actually reverses its normal polarity for a
brief period before reestablishing the rest potential.
brief period before reestablishing the rest potential.

The action potential sequence is essential for neural
The action potential sequence is essential for neural
communication. The simplest action in response to thought
communication. The simplest action in response to thought
requires many such action potentials for its communication
requires many such action potentials for its communication
and performance. For modeling the action potential for a
and performance. For modeling the action potential for a
human nerve cell, a nominal rest potential of
human nerve cell, a nominal rest potential of
-
-
70 mV will be
70 mV will be
used.
used.


The process involves several steps:
The process involves several steps:
1. A stimulus is received by the dendrites of a nerve cell. This causes the
Na+ channels to open. If the opening is sufficient to drive the interior
potential from -70 mV up to -55 mV, the process continues.
2. Having reached the action threshold, more Na+ channels (sometimes
called voltage-gated channels) open.
3. The Na+ influx drives the interior of the cell membrane up to about +30
mV. The process to this point is called depolarization.
4. The Na+ channels close and the K+ channels open. Since the K+
channels are much slower to open, the depolarization has time to be
completed. Having both Na+ and K+ channels open at the same time
would drive the system toward neutrality and prevent the creation of the
action potential.
5. With the K+ channels open, the membrane begins to repolarize back
toward its rest potential.
6. The repolarization typically overshoots the rest potential to about -90 mV.
7. Hyperpolarization prevents the neuron from receiving another stimulus
during this time, or at least raises the threshold for any new stimulus.
8. After hyperpolarization, the Na+/K+ pumps eventually bring the
membrane back to its resting state of -70 mV .


Note that
Note that

During the initial portion of the Action potential
During the initial portion of the Action potential

membrane does not respond

membrane does not respond

Absolute refractory
Absolute refractory
period
period

During the
During the
Relative refractory period
Relative refractory period

RRP
RRP

the
the
action potential takes action
action potential takes action

The refractory period limits the frequency of a
The refractory period limits the frequency of a
repetitive excitation procedure
repetitive excitation procedure

e.g. ARP=1ms => upper limit of repetitive discharge <
e.g. ARP=1ms => upper limit of repetitive discharge <
1000 impulses/s
1000 impulses/s

v: action pot.
Nernst equil. Pot for Na
Nernst equil. Pot for K

How the action is recorded?
How the action is recorded?
Nerve (EC)
The tip is moved to
until the resting pot.
is recorded
A short time later an
electrical stimulus is
delivered for the
period L until recording

Charge distribution of the active region on
Charge distribution of the active region on
an fiber conducting an impulse
an fiber conducting an impulse
Membrane lying ahead of active
region is polarized and in the
resting state
Depolarization happens in the
active zone
Behind active zone membrane is
repolarized
Note: the solenoidal current of
active region
depolarize the membrane ahead
region ahead is activated
self excitatory
action potential propagates
down the fiber
current flowing behind active
region is ineffective because the
membrane behind is in the
refractory state
Direction of
prop. of the
Action potential