Report of Industrial Training 2011

Characterization Study and Utilization of Cameron Highlands Reservoir Sediments as a
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By: Sima Chavoshi & Mahsa Chavoshi Page 1

1. Background Study of Reservoir Sediments:
Sediment is naturally occurring material that is broken down by processes of weathering and
erosion, and is subsequently transported by the action of fluids such as wind, water, or ice,
and/or by the force of gravity acting on the particle itself. Sediments are most often
transported by water (fluvial processes), wind (Aeolian) and glaciers [1]. Sediment is
composed of many materials, including individual primary particles, aggregate, organic
materials, and associated chemicals. Sediment properties impact how each individual or
aggregate particle behaves in flowing water. Size, shape, and density affect the settling
velocity, which in turn affects sediment transport rates and at what point particles deposit.
Sediment is considered to be fully characterized when its shape, size, density, constituent
texture, mineralogy, and stability are known [2].
Most natural river reach are approximately balanced with respect to sediment inflow
and outflow. Dam construction dramatically alters this balance, creating an impounded river
reach characterized by extremely low flow velocities and efficient sediment trapping. The
impounded reach will accumulate sediment and lose storage capacity until a balance is again
achieved, which would normally occur after the impoundment has become filled up with
sediment and can no longer provide water storage and other benefits. Declining storage
reduces and eventually eliminates the capacity for flow regulation and with it all water supply
and flood control benefits, plus those hydropower, navigation, recreation, and environmental
benefits that depend on releases from storage. Storage loss is but one of many sedimentation
problems that can affect reservoirs. Operation of storage reservoirs is severely impacted by
the time half the volume has been sedimented, but severe sediment-related problems can
appear when only a small percentage of the storage capacity has been lost. As reservoirs age
and sediments continue to accumulate, sediment-related problems will increase in severity
and more sites will be affected. At any dam or reservoir where sustainable long-term use is to
be achieved, it will be necessary to manage sediments as well as water. This is not a trivial
challenge [3]. When a river is stilled behind a dam, the sediments it contains sink to the
bottom of the reservoir. The proportion of a rivers total sediment load captured by a dam
known as its "trap efficiency" approaches 100 per cent for many projects, especially those
with large reservoirs. As the sediments accumulate in the reservoir, so the dam gradually
loses its ability to store water for the purposes for which it was built. Every reservoir loses
storage to sedimentation although the rate at which this happens varies widely [4].
Moreover, these sediments contain both organic and inorganic contaminants, which
can end up in drains, rivers, and coastal waters, thus contaminating water resources and
polluting the environment [5]. Thus, sediments have to be treated as waste material.
Therefore, their management has become an environmental and economical concern for a
large number of countries [6]. In recent decades, several types of waste materials have been
assessed as raw materials for brick making, for example lightly contaminated harbour
sediments [7,8], reservoir sediments mixed with fly ash [9], dried sludge collected from
industrial wastewater treatment [10,11], incinerated sewage sludge ash [12,13], fly ash [14],
granite sawing waste materials [15], water treatment residuals with excavation waste soil [16]
and steel dust [17].
Increment of reservoir sediment quantity and reduction of reservoir storage are caused
by the poor soil conservation, frequent typhoons and the unique geography of Taiwan.
According to the annual report on reservoir operation and maintenance in 2006, the average
quantity of reservoir sediment was approximately 23% of the reservoir storage capacity. This
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is a serious deposition problem in Taiwans reservoirs. The total storage capacity of Taiwans
reservoirs was nearly 2000 million tons per year [18]. It was estimated that the quantities of
reservoir sediment produced annually is approximately 460 million tons per year. This is
expected to continue to increase in the future. Sanitary landfills are normally used for
reservoir sediment disposal. The Taiwan Government has a waste management strategy that
aims to reduce landfill disposal and increase beneficial reservoir sediment reuse. Waste
treatment, disposal and resourcification have recently become important public concerns and
environmental issues. To implement and meet the goal of zero waste, the Taiwan government
has established many strategies for waste recovery and recycling. Among these strategies,
non-hazardous inorganic wastes or residues can serve as raw materials for the manufacture of
bricks, aggregates, and other reusable products using thermal treatment technologies [19].
The Yellow River, with a length of 5,464 km and a drainage area of 795,000 km2
(including 42,000 km2 of internal drainage basin), is the second largest river in China, carries
huge amounts of sediment that mostly originate from soil erosion in the Loess Plateau in the
middle reaches [22]. The extremely high sediment load and the ever-changing basin
environment make the sediment transport processes in the lower reaches of the river very
complex, and the sediment transport mechanisms are still poorly understood. So Baosheng
WU, D. S. van MAREN and Lingyun LI figured out Sediment transport formulas for
different benchmarks and did the comparison and normalized the error and found out the total
load concentration and suspended sediments [23].
Over the next 15 years, a volume of 3 millionm3 of river sediments is to be dredged in
the north of France in order to maintain a normal river activity in this region [24]. An
important part of these sediments is actually polluted. This pollution is linked to the industrial
history of the region where certain activities, like iron and steel industries, metallurgy of
nonferrous ores and energy sectors remain polluting. Contamination is mainly due to organic
(PAHs, PCBs, TBT and dioxins) and inorganic (heavy metals: lead, chromium, zinc, copper)
pollutants, which can end up in drains, rivers, and coastal waters, thus contaminating water
resources, soils and polluting the environment. Dredged material has to be managed and since
international and European laws have become more stringent, its management has become an
environmental and economical concern for a large number of countries [25]. Landfilling
requires large spaces and long-term monitoring; however, it is less accepted by the public
opinion (NIMBY). On the other hand treatment processes permit a reduction in toxicity and
volume of dredged material, but in comparison with open-water and upland disposal, the
treatment cost is not yet competitive enough [26]. This underlines the necessity to find
ecological valorization paths for processed material to make these alternatives economically
competitive. Moreover, the beneficial use of polluted sediments offers a practical
contribution to maximising the conservation of traditional brick-making raw materials. The
heterogeneity of clay-based materials accommodates a variety of waste materials, thus the
incorporation of industrial wastes in bricks and tiles is becoming common practice [27,28].
Considering their perpetual availability, particle sizing and their chemical composition,
sediments are regarded as a suitable raw material for brick production [29].
The tropical region of the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia is undergoing rapid
development in the industry sector and urbanization, especially along the coastal areas of the
South China Sea. Industrial effluent, municipal discharge, agricultural runoff and past mining
waste materials may result in contamination of the food chain when entering the river system.
It is, therefore, important to document the prevailing concentrations, distribution and
geochemistry of the elements to monitor any changes caused by anthropogenic activities in
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the future. In Malaysia, there are currently no comprehensive sediment reference values
available to establish levels of potentially toxic elements [30].
The Cameron Highlands Hydroelectric Scheme is situated in the northwest of the state
of Pahang, Malaysia. It was constructed in the period between 1957 and 1964. The scheme
consists of four small run-of-river and one storage hydro projects and has five power stations.
The main features of the storage project beside the 100 MW underground power stations are
a 40-m high concrete buttress dam with gated spillways, four side-stream diversion schemes
of Sg. Plauur, Sg. Kial, Sg. Kodol, and Sg. Telom, some 20 km length of tunnels, the Bertam
Intake and other appurtenant structures. The major specifications and the layout plan of the
scheme are shown in Table 1, Table 2 and Figure 1 [32].
Table 1: Specification of The Soltan Abu Bakar Dam (The Ringlet Reservoir)[32]

Table 2: Specification of Hydro Projects [32]

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Figure 1: Layout Plan of the Cameron Highlands Hydroelectric Scheme [32]
The Ringlet Reservoir is a man-made lake created upstream of the concrete dam on
Sg. Bertam. It impounds the waters of Sg. Bertam and its tributaries and those of Sg. Telom,
Sg. Plauur, Sg. Kodol and Sg. Kial which have been diverted from the Telom catchment
through the Telom Tunnel into the Bertam catchment. The designed gross storage of the
reservoir is about 6.7 million cubic meters, of which, 4.7 million cubic meters is usable
storage. Water from the Ringlet Reservoir is channeled through a tunnel to the Sultan Yussuf
(Jor) Power Station and then is discharged through a tailrace tunnel into the Jor Reservoir of
the Batang Padang Hydroelectric Scheme. The Ringlet Reservoir, which has an estimated
dead storage of 2.0 million cubic meters, would have a useful life of approximately 80 years
[32]. Since Malaysians economic development is at fast paste, there is a large and long-term
market for such block-type construction materials to be used for buildings, fencing, retaining
walls, lining of river banks, gardening and many other possible usage [33].
2. Physical Tests for Characterization of Sediments:
2.1. Sieve Analysis:
A total of 122 sand samples were collected at 12 sandy beaches (Figure 2). Samples
were taken at several cross-shore elevations in transects perpendicular to the shore at
locations with different morphological features (e.g. beach face, surf domain, troughs or
bars). L. Gmez-Pujol et. al. have conducted a study on samples were rinsed with fresh water,
dried 24 h in the oven at 95 C and divided into sub-samples for sieving and settling analysis
[34]. Dry sieve analysis was performed by using a series of sieves ranging in mesh size from
0.063 mm to 4.76 mm. Grain size distributions were determined using the GRADISTAT
package [35].
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Figure 2: Seasonal sediment size distribution at Cala Millor (Ma3) [34].
Moreover, the dried sediments from The Basque Country, located in the Oiartzun
estuary (south eastern Bay of Biscay), Spain, (80 C, 24 h) were passed through a column of
sieves. The percentages of gravel, sand and mud were calculated as: >2 mm fraction, 2 mm
63 m, and <63 m, respectively [36]. Those samples with a high percentage of mud were
analysed by means of a Beckman-Coulter LSTM 13 320. Data were analysed by the
GRADISTAT software, for granulometry distribution characterisation [35].
Table 3: Physico-chemical parameters of sediments and elutriates at the four sampling
stations along the Oiartzun estuary [32].

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2.2. Specific Gravity & Bulk Density:
Kung-Yuh Chiang et. al. have carried out the bulk density of the sintered products of
water treatment plant (WTP) sludge in grams per cubic centimetre is the quotient of its dry
weight (W1) divided by the exterior volume. The exterior volume (V) of the sintered products
in cubic centimetres was calculated by subtracting the suspended weight (W2) from the
saturated weight (W3). The saturated weight of the sintered products was determined while
products were immersed in boiling water for 2 h. The specimens remained immersed in water
for a minimum of 12 h, surface dried and re-weighed (W3). The suspended weight (W2) was
determined after boiling while the specimens were suspended in water. The water absorption
was calculated from the ratio between W3W1 and W1. The open porosity expressed as a
percentage of the relationship between the open pore volume in the sintered products and the
exterior volume, calculated from the ratio between W3W1 and W3W2. The change in
specimen volume after sintering was also determined. The bulk densities of the sintered
samples are given in Figure 3 [37].

Figure3: Sintering temperature effect on the bulk density of specimens [37]
In recent study in Taiwan, Chao-Wei Tang et. al. have reported that based on specific
gravity or bulk density, aggregates can be divided into three categories: lightweight, normal
weight, and heavy- weight [20]. According to the relationship between the particle relative
density and the bulk density of an aggregate sample, the fractional part of bulk volume
occupied by aggregate particles, Va, and the fractional part of bulk volume occupied by voids
between particles, Vv, can be calculated as follows[21]:
=

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Where PDd = dry particle density; PD24 = particle density after 24-h saturation; M =
24-h water absorption by mass; Db = measured dry loose bulk density; the result is illustrated
in Table 4 [47].
Table 4: Physical and mechanical properties of LWA [47].

Theoretically, the cement content only needs to provide enough cement paste to coat
all of the lightweight coarse aggregate particles. To ensure the manufactured the concrete
masonry units (CMU) have adequate strength, an excess amount of cement paste should be
provided to fill the voids between particles. To reduce production cost, slag was used as a
partial replacement for Portland cement by mass and a small amount of fine aggregate was
incorporated into the matrix of the cement paste. A total of twelve mixtures were
proportioned (Table 4). The main test variables and their ranges are listed as follows:
_ Filling ratio of the mortar in Vv (Fv): 1.0, 0.85, and 0.70;
_ Filling ratio of sand in the mortar (Fm): 0%, 15%, and 30%; and
_ Cement replacement level by the slag (Sc): 0%, 15%, and 30% [47].
Table 5: Mix proportions of CMU [47].

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2.3. The Loss of Ignition (LOI):
The organic matter content was determined as percentage loss of ignition (% LOI) at
450 C for 5 h [38]. The difference between dried and ashed weight in comparison to the
initial weight is taken as the organic matter content [37]. Sbastien Bertrand et. al. have
conducted a study on estimating the organic content of the freeze-dried samples from soils
(SP), paleosols (OC), and river sediment (RS) from Puyehue Lake which is one of the large
glacial moraine-dammed piedmont lakes that constitutes the Lake District in SouthCentral
Chile from the part of the lake receives large amounts of sediment through the Golgol and
Lican rivers and the northern sub-basin (NSB) is locked between the bathymetric ridge and
the delta of Lican River, were sieved at 106 m to discard particles coarser than those that
reach the lake [39]. Thus three grams of sediment for each terrestrial and lake sediment
sample was separated for loss-on-ignition (LOI) measurements. LOI was measured after 24 h
at 105 C (LOI 105), after an additional 4 h at 550 C (LOI 550) and after an additional 2 h at
950 C to estimate water content, organic matter content and inorganic carbonate content,
respectively [40]. Because LOI550 is dependent on the sample weight [40], we always used 1
g of dry samples (0.980.09 g). For the PU-II long core, we used the LOI 550 data of [41].
The LOI 550 data were used to optimize the weight of sediment used for carbon and nitrogen
elemental and isotopic analysis (between 15 and 75 mg for PU-II long core) [39].

Figure 4: Comparison of geochemical, paleoecological and sedimentological data
obtained on PU-II long core. The results are plotted versus time, according to the age
depth model of Bertrand et al. (2008a). The fraction of terrestrial carbon (T) is
calculated using the N/C mixing equation, with N/C values of 0.130 for the aquatic
end-member and 0.069 for the terrestrial end-member. See text for details. Negative
values (mainly below 830 cm) have been set to zero. The data from 971 to 935cm
were not included because of their association with a major turbidite. The aquatic
organic carbon data (aqOC) were calculated as TOC (1T). The biogenic silica
index is used to indicate the relative importance of diatoms in the total aquatic
community (dimensionless). The pollen concentration data are from Vargas-Ramirez
et al. (2008). Two data points (159160cm and 179180 cm) have been removed from
the original database because of the presence of a tephra layer in these samples,
leading to extremely low pollen concentrations. The detrital vs. biogenic index is
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issued from Bertrand et al. (2008a). Positive values indicate high terrestrial content
(driven by the sediment content in Ti, Al and magnetic susceptibility), and low values
indicate a high biogenic content of the sediment (driven by biogenic silica, LOI550,
LOI105, and grain-size, which is in turn directly related to the diatom content of the
sediment). The diatom biovolume data are from Sterken et al. (2008). In addition, the
tephra thickness of the most important tephras (10mmthick) is represented according
to Bertrand et al. (2008b). The TOC, aqOC, T, 13C, biogenic silica index and
detrital vs. biogenic index data are represented as 3 points running averages. The
original pollen concentrations and diatom biovolumes data have a lower temporal
resolution (20 cm) and have therefore not been smoothed [39].
Khawar SULTAN and Noor Azhar SHAZILI have stated that the percentage of
organic matter was determined by the weight loss on ignition (LOI%, 5 g, 4 h at 500) of
the oven dried sediment samples from The Terengganu River basin, Malaysia [45]. Organic
matter content (LOI) varied from 0.42 to 9.08% with an average value of 2.68%. Lake
sediment average organic matter content was measured to be slightly higher (LOI2.95%)
than the river sediments (LOI2.56%) [30].
Table 6: Physico-chemical parameters and element concentration data of sediments in
the Terengganu River basin [30].

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3. Chemical Tests for Characterization of Sediments:
3.1. The Chemical Testing and XRD Test:
JENNIFER A. COSTON, CHRISTOPHER C. FULLER, and JAMES A. DAVIS have stated
that the surface chemical properties of sediments may be completely dominated by secondary
minerals or grain coatings, which usually constitute only a minor fraction of the whole
sample [47, 48]. They have used microscopy to describe the composition and distribution of
surface coatings of quartz grains before and after extraction treatments. Both untreated and
extracted quartz was covered with a coating rich in AI, Fe, and Si. The perception of
patchiness in the coverage of the coatings was dependent on the technique used. For example,
the SEM-EDS only detected coatings where they were relatively thick ( >5 m), but the most
sensitive technique, TOF-SIMS, detected A1 and Fe everywhere on the grain surface of both
extracted and untreated quartz. Because of the high sensitivity of TOF-SIMS (limit of
detection at ppm levels for Fe, A1, and Si), all the leached surfaces appeared to be uniformly
coated with Fe and A1, including grains where the visible orange-red hue of the untreated
sand was completely removed (HA-96 hour and HC1 treatments). Moreover, Pb
2+
and Zn
2+

adsorption experiments show that Pb
2+
adsorption decreased

after removal of the
paramagnetic, Fe-bearing mineral fraction, but Zn
2+
adsorption was unaffected. Pb
2+
and Zn
2+

adsorption on mineral separates from the aquifer material compared with metal adsorption on
a purified quartz powder indicated that adsorption of both metal ions was dominated by
coating on the quartz fraction of the sediment. The <1000m fraction is quartz (90-95%) plus
5-10% magnetite, hematite, glauconite, goethite, k-feldspares and the lithic fragments [46].
Table 7: Distribution of grain size fractions and mineralogy for the composite
sediment [46].

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Table 8: Elements dissolved from composite sediment in hydroxylamine-HC1,
dithionite-citrate, and HC1 extractions (all elements reported as moles/g sand) [46].

Considering their perpetual availability, particle sizing and their chemical
composition, sediments are regarded as a suitable raw material for brick production [29].
Mineralogical analysis was undertaken using a Philips PW 1730 diffractometer. The results
of the X-ray diffraction (XRD) are given in Figure 4. They show that treated sediments TS
are composed mainly of quartz which gives them the possibility to fulfil the same role as the
quartz sand. They also reveal a marked presence of iron oxide, calcite with some traces of
feldspar, mica and sulphates. The presence of hematite gives an encouraging support for the
beneficial use of these sediments in brick making, as iron is recognised to possess good
fluxing properties [14,49]. The influence of (TS) addition on the plastic properties of the
mixture has been presented in earlier publication [7], where it has been stated that the
plasticity index is inversely proportional to the amount of added sediments, thus the addition
of treated sediments lowers the plastic nature of the mixture and decreases its bonding ability.
The XRD (Table 9) shows that these sands are composed mainly of quartz; while for natural
clay a marked presence of quartz, mica and feldspar was detected and the clay fraction
(<2m) is composed mainly of Smectite (66%) [29].

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Table 9: Mineralogy of treated sediments and standard brick feedstock (sand 1, 2 and
natural clay) [29].

Kung-Yuh Chiang, Kuang-Li Chien and Sue-Jean Hwang have illustrated that the chemical
composition data expressed as percentage of major oxides for sediments in the drying beds at
Shi-Men Dam in Tao-Yuan County, Taiwan, is shown in Table 10. This indicates that the
main reservoir sediment components were SiO2 (70.14%), Al2O3 (15.45%), Fe2O3 (5.37%),
K2O (5.24%) and MgO (1.64%). Figure 5 gives XRD data for the reservoir sediment. This
shows that silica (SiO2) was the major crystalline phase present. Relatively low intensity
peaks corresponding to those for Al2O3, MgO, K2O, Na2O, CaO and Fe2O3 were also
detected [19].
Table 10: The Toxicity Characteristics Leaching Procedure (TCLP) metal leachate
concentrations of sintered specimens (mg/l) [19].

Table 10 shows that the total TCLP leachate concentrations for all tested metals in the
sintered specimens revealed a decreasing tendency compared to the reservoir sediment
properties. Based on these analysis results, the TCLP leachate concentrations for the tested
metals in all sintered specimens were in compliance with Taiwan EPA regulatory limits (Pb:
5mg/l, Cd: 1mg/l, Cr: 5 mg/l, Zn: 25 mg/l) [19].

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Figure 5: XRD data for the as-received reservoir sediment [19].

Furthermore, Figure 6 shows the X-ray diffraction pattern of the sintered specimens.
XRD result comparisons for the as-received reservoir sediment samples and sintered
specimens at sintering temperature 1150 C with various clay additions indicated that no
significant difference was observed. Table 10 explains the XRD intensities of the major
identified mineral species peaks. The intensities of the major peaks decrease insignificantly
with the amount of added clay increased. XRD analysis results indicated that the major
mineral phases of the sintered specimens present were quartz (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3) and
hematite (Fe2O3) [19].
Figure 6: XRD data for reservoir sediment sintered at 1150 C [19].

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Table 10: The XRD peak intensity of the major peak of crystalline phase identified in
reservoir sediment and sintered specimens at sintering temperature 1150 C [19].

Kathy A. Northcott et. al. have stated that the potential use of potable water cationic
polymer flocculants has raised a number of concerns in treating the sediments analysed in this
investigation were obtained during two different Antarctic summer seasons. Over the 1997
1998 season a Tip composite sample (TVA) was prepared by taking six samples from
different points in the Tip and sieving the combined sample on-site. Whilst anionic and non-
ionic polymer flocculants are generally of low toxicity, the cationic species are known to be
toxic to some aquatic organisms. In significant quantities they can be poisonous to fish,
resulting in gill blockage and suffocation. The major problem associated with polymer
flocculants is residual free monomer in commercial products [50]. Synthetic polymer
flocculants have been banned in Japan and Switzerland due to concerns over monomer
contamination. Other countries use polymer flocculants in moderation but set stringent limits
on their use and maximum allowable levels of residual free monomer [51].
On the other hand, aquifer sediments collected via split-spoon sampling in two new
groundwater wells in the 200-UP-1 operable unit at the Hanford Site were characterized and
showed the bulk, sand-, silt- and clay-sized fractions of each sample was characterized by X-
ray diffraction (XRD). The XRD results for each bulk sample indicated that each core liner
was mineralogically similar. A typical example of an XRD tracing of the bulk sample
(B19140) collected in borehole C4299 (127.7 127.9 m bgs) is provided in Figure 9 along
with the mineral powder diffraction files (PDF) for comparison. Based on previous bulk
XRD analysis, smectite was one of the dominant clay minerals found in the Fe oxide/clay
coatings [52]. See: Figure 7&8.
Figure 9: XRD pattern of B19140 bulk sample collected from borehole C4299 [52].

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Figure 7: Microscopic images of Fe oxide/clay coatings from B19140. (a) FESEM
images with EDS. Arrow indicate the spot measured for EDS spectrum. (b) TEM
Image and electron diffraction pattern of goethite in B19140 [52].

3.2. The SEM & EDS Tests:
For the characterization of sediments, Computer Controlled Scanning Electron Microscopy
(CCSEM) is a powerful method in obtaining chemical data on individual mineral grains and
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modal analysis of the heavy mineral fraction of sediment samples. Ilmenite with high average
TiO2 contents (N58 wt.%) in beach sediments from South Indian coastlines is only found in
samples from south of Aleppey to about 20 km south of the town of Trivandrum. Manganese
in Ilmenite, as averaged for individual samples, relates to TiO2 in the manner illustrated in
Figure 8. Samples from the Chavara coastline with high-TiO2 in ilmenite have low MnO
contents with values less than 0.6 wt.%. Such low MnO contents are also found in ilmenite
from coastal samples around the southern point of India including two samples of Teri sands,
and from all rivers draining the khondalite belt. All samples from northern Kerala, including
both rivers and coastal sediments, and the two samples east of Tuticorin in Tamil Nadu, have
elevated MnO in average Ilmenite, with values between 0.8 and 1.7 wt.%. Magnesium shows
a positive correlation with TiO2, so that average Ilmenite with high-TiO2 contains MgO
higher than 0.8 wt.% Figure 9. The CCSEM analysis also provides a mineral mode of the
analyzed heavy mineral fraction. Of particular interest are the Al-silicates and alusite/kyanite/
sillimanite (collectively referred to as Al-silicates below), which are found mainly in high-
grade gneisses of sedimentary origin [53]. See: Table11.
Table11: Modal composition (in vol.%) of heavy mineral fractions in sediment
samples from southern India [53].

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Figure 8: Concentrations of MnO
in wt.% in average Ilmenite
against their TiO2 in wt.% for
Indian sediment samples. Sample
numbers are given next to their
respective symbols. Note the
consistent low MnO contents of
Ilmenite with elevated TiO2 [53].

Figure 9: Concentrations of MgO
in wt.% in average Ilmenite
against their TiO2 in wt.% for
Indian sediment samples. Ilmenite
with elevated TiO2 have high
MgO while all other samples,
except for those of three
khondalite rivers contain Ilmenite
with MgO<0.8 wt.%. Sample
numbers are given next to their
respective symbols [53].

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The processed binary images are utilized for the determination of grain size and shape
and to control the beam for automated chemical analysis. Clusters of interconnecting pixels
are recognized as individual grains and the electron beam scans across each grain for 10 s in
order to acquire energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) intensities for specified regions of interest
[53].
As JENNIFER A. COSTO et. al. have said, SEM-EDS was used to evaluate the
degree to which grain surfaces remained coated with Fe minerals after extraction.
Handpicked untreated and HA-extracted sand grains were used, as well as thin sections of
untreated grains. Quartz and feldspar grains from the 250-500 m size fractions were
examined after C coating to reduce sample charging. The beam penetration depth was
estimated to be 2-3 m. Compositional data was estimated from backscattered electrons
emitted from approximately 1 m into the sample. Iron, Si, AI, and Mn were detected at
concentrations greater than 0.5% [46]. Grains examined by optical microscopy and SEM-
EDS show evidence of chemical and mechanical weathering. Quartz grains exhibit the
angular sheeting and conchoidal fractures typical of glacial outwash sediments. Both feldspar
and quartz grains surfaces are pitted and the edges of feldspar cleavage planes appear etched.
Other studies of sediment from the same aquifer reported similar observations [54,55,56].
Wooyong Um et. al. also have declared that Energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) also
showed Si, Al, K, Mn, and Fe in the scrapings. These elements suggest the presence of both
aluminosilicate clays and iron oxides combined together in the coatings. The needle-shaped
crystals found attached to platy-shaped clay minerals were considered to be goethite. The
transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of the same Fe oxide/clay coatings showed
a needle-like structure, which is typical for goethite [52]. See: Figure 7.

5. References:
[1]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sediment
[2]: Martin J.P. et. al. (1955), Soil aggregation. Advances in Agronomy, Vol.7, Pp.1-37.
[3]: Gregory L. Morris and Jiahua Fan (2010), Reservoir Sediment Handbook. Design and
Management of Dams, Reservoirs, and Watersheds for Sustainable Use. McGrow-Hill,
ELECTRONIC VERSION: Ver. 1.04.
[4]: http://www.internationalrivers.org/node/1476

[5] Lafhaj et. al. (2008), Polluted river sediments from the North region of France: Treatment
with Novosol process and valorization in clay bricks. Construction and Building Materials,
Vol.22, Pp.755762.
[6]: Marot F. (1998), Caracterisation et traitement de sediments de dragage contenant des
polluants metalliques. BRGM.
[7]: Hamer K. et. al. (1999),Harbour sediments for brick production. Ressourcen-Umwelt-
Management, Schriftenreihe der Gesellschaft fr Umwelt Geowissenschaften (GUG), Kln,
Pp. 22340.
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[8]: Karius V and Hamer K (2001), pH and grain-size variation in leaching tests with bricks
made of harbour sediments compared to commercial bricks. Sci Total Environ, Vol. 278,
Issue.3, Pp.7385.
[9]: Hsu YS , Lee BJ and Liu H. (2003), Mixing reservoir sediment with fly ash to make
bricks and other products. International Ash Utilisation Symposium, Center for Applied
Energy Research, University of Kentucky, Paper#89.

[10]: Liew AG. et. al. (2004), Reusability of sewage sludge in clay bricks. J Mater Cycles
Waste Manage, Vol.6, Pp.4147.

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