NON-ALI GNMENT

I N
ANAGE
OF
ALI GNMENTS
A.W. SI NGHAM&
SHI RLEYHONE
Non- al i gnment
i n an
Age of
Al i gnment s
A. W. Si ngham
and
Shi r l ey Hune
Non- al i gnment i n an
age of
al i gnment s was
f i r st
publ i shed i n 1986
by:
I n t he
UK
Zed
Books Lt d.
57 Cal edoni an
Road,
London Nl
9BU
I n t he
USA
Lawr ence
Hi l l &Co.
520
Ri ver si de
Avenue, West por t ,
Connect i cut
06880
I n
Zi mbabwe
The
Col l ege
Pr ess ( Pvt ) Lt d
.
P. O.
Box 3041,
Har ar e
GA
. W. Si nghant
and Shi r l ey
Hune 1986
.
Cover desi gned by
J acque
Sol omons .
A! 1
r i ght s r eser ved
.
Pr i nt ed
i n Zi mbabwe
by
LI THO
SERVI CES
( PVT)
LTD.
P. O.
Box 3625
Har ar e
I SBN
0 86925 700 5
Foreword
Thi s i s a val uabl e
book on an i mport ant and t opi cal
subj ect . Archi bal d
WSi nghamandShi rl ey
Hunehavea prof ound underst andi ng
of t hesubj ect
havi ng at t ended al l t he maj or
meet i ngs of t he Non- Al i gned
Movement
(NAM)
si nce 1975. They areact i vi st s i n
t hePan- Af ri can, Pan- Asi an
andPan-
Ameri can
soci al movement s whi ch i nspi red
t he f oundat i on of NAMi n
1961
andi t s
st eady growt h andexpansi on si nce
. Theresearch work f or t he
book i s
det ai l ed,
t he anal ysi s met i cul ous, showi ng
a f i rmgrasp of t he cent ral
i ssues
and
obj ect i ves of NAM.
Besi des t hei r grasp of t he cent ral
i ssues of non- al i gnment ,
t he aut hors are,
most i mport ant l y, persons commi t t ed
t o t he l i berat i on of Thi rd
Worl d
peopl es, and
t he soci al t ransf ormat i on
of t heexi st i ngorder i n t he
i nt ernat i on-
al pol i t i cal
andeconomi c syst ems . Thei r
voi ces areat onceaut hori t at i ve
and
aut hent i c ; t he
concerns of NAMareal so
t hei r personal l y f el t concerns
. The
Thi rdWorl d
needs commi t t edschol ars
of t hi s ki ndwhowri t eout of
t ruecon-
vi ct i on andnot
t hosewhoact as t he
mout hpi eceandt ransmi ssi on bel t
of t he
vi ews andval ues
of West ern Europe and
Nort h Ameri ca.
Thebook has
beenpubl i shedat t heri ght
t i meas NAMi s hol di ng i t s
ei ght h
summi t i n Harareas
wel l as cel ebrat i ng t he
t went y- f i f t h anni versary
of i t s
f oundi ng; t he bi rt h
of NAMi n Bel grade i n 1961
t ook pl ace at t he hei ght
of
t hest ruggl eagai nst col oni al i sm
wi t h newi ndependent
st at es appeari ng on
t he
worl dscene every year.
Theyoke of col oni al i sm
was broken i n Af ri ca
and
Asi a andat t he same
t i mesuper- power ri val ry
andi mperi al i smwere maki ng
t hemsel ves f el t i n al l
t hecorners of t he worl d.
Theseel ement s t oget her
wi t h
t het hreat - of nucl ear war
posedprobl ems f or
t he movement .
NAMhas gone
t hrough many cri ses andf aced
many di f f i cul t i es . As mem-
ber st at es havet ri ed
t oprot ect t hei r soverei gnt y
andi ndependence, t hey
have
f aced
mi l i t ary t hreat s of
i nvasi on f romhost i l e
react i onary and i mperi al i st
count ri es
. Equal l y, i nt er- t erri t ori al
di sput es andwars
bet ween member st at es
have
t hreat enedt o dest roy t he
movement . Ef f ort s ai med
at col l ect i vesel f - rel i -
ance i n
devel opment among Thi rd
Worl dcount ri es have
been t hwart ed by
t hemachi nat i ons
of i mperi al i st
powers . Themovement ' s
cal l f or newworl d
orders i n
t heareas of economy, t rade
andi nf ormat i on has
f al l en on deaf ears
andeven
i nvi t ed puni t i ve
measur es
. But
NAMhas sur vi ved
andgr own
f r om
st r engt h t o
st r engt h.
However ,
t he movement
now
f aces a ver y
danger ous
i nt er nat i onal
si t uat i on.
Ri ght - wi ng
r eact i onar y
soci al
f or ces have
capt ur ed
posi t i ons of
power i n t he
USA, t he
UKand
West Ger many,
and t hey
ar e usi ng
t hat power
t o assaul t
t he pr ogr essi ve
movement
ever ywher e
. Thi s
assaul t i s a
mani f est at i on
of t he
cont r adi ct i ons
and
conf l i ct bet ween
non- al i gnment i t sel f
and
i mper i al i smi n
whi ch t he
f or mer has scor ed
some
successes .
The i mper i al i st
count r i es,
l edby
t he USA
under
Pr esi dent
Ronal d Reagan,
ar e ont he
of f ensi ve
i n a sust ai ned
ef f or t
t o hal t and
evenr ever se
t he gai ns
made by
Thi r dWor l d
peopl es i n
t he
l ast
25 year s i n
t he soci al ,
cul t ur al ,
pol i t i cal and
economi c
f i el ds . I n f act ,
so
t hor oughl y has
t he movement
exposed
t he f al l aci es,
i r r at i onal i t y
and
cal l ous-
ness of t he
cur r ent
i nt er nat i onal
or der , t he
cor ner st one of
i mper i al i sm,
t hat
t hese
i mper i al i st count r i es
ar e
pani cki ng; t hey
ar e now
r esor t i ng t o
f or ce t o
si l ence t he
voi ce of r eason
r epr esent ed
by
NAM.
Amer i can
Aggr essi on
and
Of f ensi ves
Si nce
1961, NAM
has been
a maj or
cat al yst i n
br i ngi ng about
changes i n
i n-
t er nat i onal
r el at i onshi ps
. The
mul t i l at er al
di pl omacy
of NAM
has beensuc-
cessf ul ,
especi al l y
at t he
UN, wher e
i t has
co- or di nat ed
and codi f i ed
t he
appr oach
of t he
count r i es of
Asi a, Af r i ca,
t he Mi ddl e
East ,
Car r i bean r egi on,
and
Lat i n
Amer i ca on
bur ni ng quest i ons
of mut ual
i nt er est .
Because of
i t s
pr i nci pl ed st and
on such
quest i ons,
t he movement
i s becomi ng
mor e
and
mor e
ef f ect i ve
and r espect ed
i nt er nat i onal l y
. Due
t o t hi s success,
t he i mper i al -
i st count r i es
have now
mount ed an
assaul t on
t he UNsyst em,
st ar t i ng
wi t h
UNESCO
mai nl y
because of i t s
st and on
t he new
i nt er nat i onal
i nf or mat i on
and
communi cat i on
or der , and
t he I LO.
The USA
andUKwi t hdr awal
f r om
UNESCO
i s par t of
a gener al
at t ack on
t he UNsyst em
because of t he
al l eged
gr owi ng
i nf l uence
of NAM
count r i es
i n t he UN
i t sel f . I n r eal
t er ms, t hat
wi t hdr awal
i s par t
of a
gener al pol i cy adopt ed
by t he
t wdcount r i es
and t hei r
al l i es
i nt ended t o
coer ce Thi r d
Wor l d
count r i es i nt o
suppor t i ng t hei r
pol i ci es
at al l
i nt er nat i onal
f or a.
The open
Amer i can
aggr essi on on
t he smal l i sl and
of Gr enada
i n 1982 si g-
nal l ed t he end
of t he er a of
qui et
di pl omacy and
showed t he
ext ent t o whi ch
t he bi g power s
wer e
pr epar ed t o go
t o f or ce
t he weak andt he
smal l nat i ons
t o
t oe t hei r
par t i cul ar
l i ne. The
Amer i can
gover nment has pur sued
t hi s l i ne
of
act i on t o
gr eat l engt hs
by set t i ng
asi de
mi l l i ons of dol l ar s and
mi l i t ar y
equi p-
ment t o
suppor t
bandi t and
di ssi dent
or gani sat i ons t hat
ar e f i ght i ng
agai nst
t he
l egal l y const i t ut ed
gover nment s
of Angol a
andNi car agua
. That open
sup-
por t as
wel l as
aggr essi on i s a
ser i ous t hr eat t o
al l t he
gover nment s and
or gan-
i sat i ons
wi t hi n
NAM; i t al so
const i t ut es a
danger t o
wor l d peace and
secur i t y.
The aut hor s
demonst r at e
t hat i nt er nal
and r egi onal
conf l i ct s
can qui ckl y
becomegl obal i ssues, i nvol vi ng super - power s . Theyshowi n t hei r anal ysi s
of
t he conf l i ct s bet ween t he Tami l s and t he gover nment
of
Sr i
Lanka, howt hat
conf l i ct i s dr awi ng i n, and onopposi t e si des, t he bi g count r i es of
Asi a and t he
super - power s.
Even at t he economi c l evel , t he posi t i on of NAMi s under sever e
at t ack and
st r ai n f r omt he Reagani t es and That cher i t es .
The Thi r d Wor l d count r i es ar e
f aci ng economi c
pr obl ems of
f al l i ng
gr owt h, hi gh i nf l at i on, budget def i ci t s,
f or ei gn exchange shor t ages and heavy f or ei gn debt s al l of whi ch
have been
br ought about l ar gel y by ext er nal f act or s beyond t hei r cont r ol . The cur r ent
wor l d economi c or der r ei nf or ced by t he conser vat i ve f i scal pol i ci es of
Pr esi dent Reagan and Pr i me Mi ni st er That cher i s t he r oot cause of manyof
t hese pr obl ems; i t gi ves devel opi ng count r i es no chance t o moveout of t he
vi ci ous ci r cl e of under - devel opment . Ther e i s t hus a need t o adopt a new
appr oacht ot he management of t he wor l d economy
f or
t he benef i t of al l coun-
t r i es . Thi r d Wor l d l eader s havemadenumer ous cal l s t o t hi s ef f ect but t hey
have been unheeded.
Economi c Cr i ses and St agnat i on
The
Nor t h- Sout hdi al ogue i nt ended t o nar r owt he gap bet ween t he r i ch and
poor count r i es and shar e
t he
wor l d' s r esour ces
mor e
equi t abl y has vi r t ual l y
comet o
a hal t
.
West er n count r i es
have
r ef used
t o
abandon
t hei r "or t hodox"
or conser vat i ve economi c
pol i ci es
whi chpr ot ect t hei r i nt er est s at t he expense
of
t he
devel opi ng
count r i es
.
They st i l l
pur sue
r est r i ct i ve
t r ade pol i ci es and
i mpose hi gh i nt er est
r at es
whi ch ar e det r i ment al
t o
Thi r d Wor l d
count r i es .
Because of t he West ' s i nt r ansi gence, t he est abl i shment of t henewi nt er nat i on-
al economi c or der whi ch had sucha pr omi si ng st ar t at t he Al gi er s Summi t ,
Al ger i a, i n 1973
i s
now f ur t her and f ur t her away. I nst ead t he
ol d
or der
of
dependency i s bei ng r ei nf or ced byt he cr i ppl i ng debt s of Thi r d Wor l d coun-
t r i es;
Reagani t es and That cher i t es woul d l i ke
t o sust ai n
t hi s
dependency i n
or der t o weaken i f not dest r oy t he
pol i t i cal
i ndependence of t heThi r d Wor l d
count r i es and f or ce t hemt o t oe
t hei r l i ne
.
Even
t he
Heavens
ar e maki ng t he
poor est of t he poor
poor er , wi t h t he
sever e dr ought
i n
most of Af r i ca.
The Wor l d Bank and t he I nt er nat i onal Monet ar y Fund make an al r eady
bad si t uat i on wor se by i mposi ng condi t i ons of bor r owi ng t hat ar e so har sh
t hat
t he debt s of t he poor count r i es j ust get bi gger and bi gger . The
st andar d
sol ut i ons of deval uat i on, di smi ssi ng excess st af f , r emovi ng subsi di es, and r e-
duci ng gover nment spendi ng, ar e si mpl y a debt t r ap; t hey f uel pol i t i cal and
soci al unr est i n t he Thi r d Wor l d count r i es . Pr ogr ammes of economi c r ecov-
er y f or mul at ed by t he West f ai l t o r edr ess t he economi c si t uat i on of Thi r d
Wor l d count r i es . The onl y economi c or f i nanci al i ni t i at i ves of NAMt hat
have made an i mpact on t he i nt er nat i onal si t uat i on, ar e t hose i n whi ch t hey
r el i ed on
t hei r own
act i on
and r esour ces
. Fol l owi ng
t he
sol i dar i t y demonst r a-
t ed by
t he Gr oup
of 77
nat i ons,
t he aut hor s
descr i be t he
successf ul
ef f or t s of
OPECt o cont r ol
and
r ai se t he
pr i ces of
oi l pr oduct s
i n 1973, as wel l
as t he
ef f or t s
t o
pr omot e
Sout h- Sout h
co- oper at i on
. The t wo
i ni t i at i ves can
be dupl i -
cat ed
sever al
t i mes over
and
expanded t o
i ncl ude
ot her commodi t i es
. The
speci al sessi on
of t he
Gener al
Assembl y of
t he UN
whi ch met i n
May 1986, t o
di scuss
t he
Af r i can
economi c
cr i si s, ser ved
onl y t o
r e- i nf or ce
t he need f or
gr eat er Sout h- Sout h
co- oper at i on
and common
act i on
oncommodi t y
pr i ci ng.
Sout her n
Af r i ca
and
Wor l d War
The
ei ght h summi t
i n
Har ar e has
br ought t he
f ocus of
NAMt o
Sout her n
Af r i ca and t he
maj or st r at egi c,
mi l i t ar y, economi c
and
soci al i ssues
and i nt er -
est s
i n t he r egi on
. The
Lusaka summi t
i n
1970 al er t ed
NAMt o
t he gr owi ng
t ensi ons i n
Sout her n
Af r i ca and
especi al l y
t he evi l s of
t he syst em
of apar t hei d .
The aut hor s
show
cl ear l y t he
ear l y
commi t ment of
NAM
agai nst
i mper i al -
i sm,
col oni al i sm,
and r aci sm.
I ndeed
one of t he
condi t i ons
of member shi p
of
NAM
was and st i l l
i s
" consi st ent l y
suppor t i ng
t he
movement s f or nat i onal
i ndependence" ,
as
wel l as
opposi t i on t o
r aci smas
a st at e
doct r i ne . The
Har ar e
summi t
has
r e- emphasi sed
t hi s
commi t ment and
cal l ed
f or pr act i cal
act i on
agai nst
t he evi l
syst emof
apar t hei d .
The i ssues
r ai sed i n
Sout her n Af r i ca
ar e a
gr ave
t hr eat t o
i nt er nat i onal
peace and
secur i t y .
The r ul er s of
r aci st
Sout h Af r i ca
wer e r epor t ed
by
t he Emi nent
Per sons
Gr oup(EPG)
sent t o
Sout h Af r i ca
by t he
Commonweal t h
of Nat i ons
i n 1986,
t o
be
uncompr omi si ng
i n t hei r
det er mi nat i on
t o keep
power i n
t he hands of
t he r ul i ng
whi t e mi nor i t y
by
sheer br ut al
f or ce and
genoci dal
act i ons agai nst
t he bl ack
maj or i t y.
I n or der t o
under l i ne
t hei r
mi l i t ar i st i nt ent i ons,
whi l e
t he
EPG
was i n Sout h
Af r i ca,
t hey l aunched
mi l i t ar y
at t acks on
t he nei ghbour i ng
st at es
of Bot swana,
Zambi a
and
Zi mbabwe . Al l
i ndi cat i ons
ar e t hat t hi s t ype
of st at e
t er r or i sm
wi l l
cont i nue unt i l
t he
apar t hei d r egi me
i s def eat ed
and
el i mi nat ed . The
st at e
t er r or i sm of
t he Sout h
Af r i can
r egi me has t he
t aci t
appr oval and/ or
encour agement
of
t he USA
and UK
gover nment s .
Needl ess
t o say t he
st at e t er r or i sm
of t he
apar t hei d
r egi me i s a
vi ol at i on of
ever y t enet
of
i nt er nat i onal l aw
; i f i t
cont i nues, i t
wi l l l ead t o a
wor l d war .
The
i nt r ansi gence
of t he
apar t hei d
r egi me i s
mor e t han
mat ched
by t he
det er mi nat i on
of
t he masses
of Sout h
Af r i ca and
Nami bi a t o
r egai n t hei r
i nde-
pendence,
sover ei gnt y, and
nat i onal i t y
; t hey ar e
no l onger
af r ai d t o
di e f or t he
cause t hey
know
t o be j ust .
Al t hough
over t wo
t housand
bl ack Sout h
Af r i cans
have
been ki l l ed
i n t he
l ast year
al one, t hei r
r esi st ance
t o apar t hei d
cont i nues
unabat ed.
Thei r
or gani sat i on
agai nst
apar t hei d i s
i nt ensi f yi ng,
despi t e
i n-
cr easi ng
di f f i cul t i es
. They
no l onger
want t o be
r ul ed by
t he Boer s .
They ar e
cal l i ng
out f or suppor t
f r om
t he
Fr ont l i ne St at es,
t he OAU,
and NAM
. Thei r
voi ces
ar e l oud
and cl ear
l i ke someone
whohas
seen t he
pr omi sed
l and . The
aut hor s t el l us t hat f or NAM, t he at t ai nment
of pol i t i cal i ndependence i n t he
f or mer col oni es or neo- col oni es i s f undament al . The
l i t mus t est f or t he Har ar e
summi t i n t he annal s of t he hi st or y of NAMwi l l
be t he concr et e st eps t aken
t o r esol ve t he pr obl ems of Sout h Af r i ca, and t o at t ai n t he
pol i t i cal i ndepend-
ence of t he st r uggl i ng peopl e i n Nami bi a and Sout h Af r i ca.
No one can have
any
i l l usi ons about t he magni t ude of t hat assi gnment i n wor l d hi st or y.
I t i s
i ndeed a maj or t hr eshol d i n man' s quest f or f r eedom.
Over t he next t hr ee year s, NAMwi l l need i deol ogi cal di r ect i on
and a gr eat
sense
of ur gency and mi l i t ancy i n or der t o f ul f i l t he daunt i ng t asks
ahead; i t
shoul d have t hat i n t he dynami c l eader shi p
of Zi mbabwe' s
Rober t G. Mugabe . The aut hor s r ecount t he l ast i ng
cont r i but i ons of t he
f oundi ng f at her s- J osi p Ti t o, J awahar l al Nehr u, Gammal Abdul
Nasser ,
Kwame Nkur umah, and Soukar no- and t he addi t i ons of t he var i ous summi t s
t o t he body of pr i nci pl es and pr act i ces of NAM. Gi ven t he hi st or y of
Zi mbabwe,
and t he si t uat i on i n our r egi on descr i bed above, Zi mbabwe' s con-
t r i but i on
coul dbe
i n
ext endi ng t he f r ont i er s of l i ber at i on. The t ask ahead i s t o
make Nami bi a and Sout h Af r i ca " l i ber at ed
zones" i n our r egi on. NAMhas
t he commi t ment , t he r esour ces, and now t he
br eadt h of di pl omat i c exper i -
ence, t o pr ovi de t he much needed i ni t i at i ve and pol i cy
t hr ust t owar ds achi ev-
i ng t hi s goal .
Fi nal l y, we ar e gr at ef ul t o Si nghamand Hune f or wr i t i ng an
al most
def i ni -
t i ve st udy on NAM. Thi s book can be r ead by bot h schol ar and l ayman
; i t i s
wr i t t en i n si mpl e r eadabl e l anguage, and shor n of di f f i cul t concept s and scen-
ar i os . I t s appear ance, on t he ver y eve of t he ei ght h summi t hel d i n Har ar e i n
Sept ember
1986, i s bot h t i mel y, and a f r esh l i t er ar y r eaf f i r mat i on of t he
st r engt h of t he movement .
The aut hor s have t r aced t he
hi st or y of NAMf r om i t s ear l y or i gi n when
hesi t ant st eps wer e made by
i t s f ounder s ami d wi l d cr i t i ci smf r omespeci al l y
t he i mper i al i st count r i es t o
t oday, when t he movement can t r ul y be sai d t o
have acqui r ed a l ast i ng
and si gni f i cant f or ce i n t he conduct of i nt er nat i onal
r el at i ons .
Backed by compr ehensi ve document ar y and ar chi val evi dence, t he aut hor s
have
pr ovi ded us not onl y wi t h t he most aut hent i c pr esent at i on of t he move-
ment ' s hi st or y, but t hey
have al so gi ven us deep i nsi ght s i nt o i t s dynami cs and
st r engt h. They have made an anal ysi s f r om
t he
onl y
per spect i ve f r omwhi ch i t
coul d have been made, i . e . t he per spect i ve of commi t t ed schol ar shi p .
And
hence what emer ges f r omt he pages of t hi s book i s not a dr y Ol ympi an
" obj ect i ve" anal ysi s, devoi dof passi on and f eel i ng, but an i nsi der ' s eval uat i on
of NAM' s
cont r i but i on, i n t he l ast t hi r t y,year s of a t ur bul ent wor l d, t owar ds
t he st r uggl es of t he peopl es
of t he Thi r d Wor l d t o gai n r espect abi l i t y i n t he
counci l s of i nt er nat i onal di pl omat i c
ar enas, and l i ber at i on f r omt he domi na-
t i on of t he bi g power s .
Ther e i s no quest i on t hat NAMwi l l pr ove t o be r esi l i ent . Anot her chapt er
wi l l soon open i n t he annal s
of t he movement
f ol l owi ng i t s Har ar e summi t
when
i t s st r engt h and
pr i nci pl es wi l l be put t o t est on
t he quest i on of t he l i b-
er at i on
of Nami bi a and
Sout h Af r i ca, wi t hout t hem
becomi ng pawns i n t he
super - power pol i t i cs of
hegemoni sm.
NM
SHAMUYARIRA
Mi ni st er of
Inf or mat i on,
Post s and Tel ecommuni cat i ons
Har ar e,
1986
Contents
Dedi cati on
Acknowl edgements
I ntr oducti on 1
PARTI : OVERVI EW 11
1. Pr i nci pl es of Non- al i gnment 13
Peace 15
I ndependence: Sel f - deter mi nati on and Raci al Equal i ty 19
Economi c Equal i ty : theDemand f or a NewI nter nati onal
Economi c Or der 22
Cul tur al Equal i ty : the Sear ch f or a NewWor l d I nf or mati on
and Communi cati ons Or der 25
Uni ver sal i sm
and
Mul ti l ater al i sm: the Non- al i gned
Movement and i ts Suppor t f or theUni ted Nati ons 27
2. Str uctur eand Or gani zati on 33
Cr i ter i a f or Member shi p 39
Code of Conduct 42
US Codeof Conduct f or Non- al i gned Countr i es 47
Rol e of theChai r 51
3. Antecedents and Or i gi ns of theNon- al i gned
Movement 57
The
Bandung
Conf er ence: APr el ude 65
Pr epar ator y Meeti ng f or the Conf er ence of Uncommi tted
Countr i es 71
PARTI I : THENON- ALI GNED
MOVEMENTI N
I NTERNATI ONALHI STORY
:
THEPOLI TI CS OF
COLLECTI VERESI STANCE
77
4.
TheFi r st, Second andThi r d Summi ts: theFor mati ve
Year s
79
TheSummi t Conf er ence as a Uni t of Anal ysi s
79
F i r s t Summi t Conf er ence of
Non- al i gned Count r i es ,
Bel gr ade, 1- 6 Sept ember 1961
81
F r omBel gr ade t o Cai r o 86
Second Summi t Conf er ence of Non- al i gned
Count r i es ,
Cai r o, 5- 10 Oct ober 1964
89
F r omCai r o t o Lus aka
94
Thi r d
Summi t Conf er ence of Non- al i gned Count r i es ,
Lus aka, 8- 10
Sept ember 1970
101
F r omLus aka t o
Al gi er s
109
5. F our t h Summi t
Conf er ence of Non- al i gned
Count r i es : Cons ol i dat i on
and Act i vi s m
119
F r omAl gi er s t o
Col ombo
132
F i f t h Conf er ence of
Mi ni s t er s of F or ei gn Af f ai r s of
Non- al i gned Count r i es ,
Li ma, 25- 30 Augus t 1975
138
6. F i f t hSummi t
Conf er ence of Non- al i gnedCount r i es :
The
Begi nni ngs of
I ns t i t ut i onal i zat i on and Des t abi l i zat i on
148
Pol i t i cal Concer ns
152
Economi c Concer ns
158
Res ol ut i ons and Res er vat i ons
161
The Co- or di nat i ng Bur eau
162
I nt er nal St r ai ns
163
7. F r omCol ombo t o Havana:
Des t abi l i zat i on i n Pr act i ce
167
The NewDel hi Bur eau
Meet i ng, 7- 11 Apr i l 1977
172
The Havana Bur eau
Meet i ng, 15- 20 May1978
173
The Bel gr ade F or ei gn
Mi ni s t er s Meet i ng, 26- 30 J ul y 1978 178
Maput o Ext r aor di nar y
Bur eau Meet i ng, 26J anuar y- 2
F ebr uar y 1979
193
The Col ombo Bur eau
Meet i ng, 4- 9 J une 1979 194
8.
Si xt h Summi t Conf er ence of
Non- al i gned Count r i es :
Conf r ont at i on andRes ol ut i on
210
9. F r om
Havana t o NewDel hi : Pr obl ems of
Tr ans i t i on 233
Conf er ence of
F or ei gn Mi ni s t er s of Non- al i gned
Count r i es ,
NewDel hi ,
9- 13 F ebr uar y 1981
235
Havana Bur eau
Meet i ng, 31 May- 5J une 1982
237
Managua
Ext r aor di nar yBur eau Meet i ng, 10- 14 J anuar y
1983 246
PART I I I :
THE POLI TI CS OF LI BERATI ON
253
10. I nt r oduct i on
255
11. The Non- al i gned
Movement and t he Ques t i on of
Pal es t i ne
261
Concl us i ons
277
12. TheNon- al i gned
Movement and the Questi on of
Nami bi a
281
Concl usi ons 298
PARTV:
CONCLUSIONS
303
13. SeventhSummi t
Conf erenceof Non- al i gned
Countri es:
TheNew
Begi nni ngs
305
TheChal l enge
f rom`Li ke- mi nded Countri es'
310
Af ghani stan
315
Egypt' s
Membershi p
316
The
Search f or Peaceand Independence
throughLi nki ng
Di sarmament
and Devel opment
317
Indi a' s
Rol e as Chai r
330
The Conf erence
of Forei gn Mi ni sters of
Non- al i gned
Countri es,
Luanda, Angol a, 4- 8 September
1985 336
14. ThePri ce
of Non- al i gnment
341
Hegemony as an
Expl anatory Vari abl e i n Internati onal
Rel ati ons
341
I . Nucl ear
Hegemony
345
II . Pol i ti cal
Hegemony
346
III .
Economi c Hegemony
347
IV.
Cul tural Hegemony
348
The
Internati onal i z ati on of the Garri son
State 354
War
Zones i n the Non- al i gned Worl d
355
Interventi on
357
Non- al i gnment
: Retrospects and Prospects
Wi thi n a Gl obal
Context
364
Appendi x I : Non- al i gnment: Theori es
and
Expl anati ons
379
Appendi x II : Membershi p of
theNon- al i gnedMovement
as of theSeventhSummi t
403
Bi bl i ography
405
Index
416
Dedi cat i on
Thi s st udy
i s dedi cat ed
wi t h gr at i t ude
t o t he peopl e of
t he non-
al i gned
count r i es, especi al l y
f or gi vi ng
t he movement
l eader s who
have st r uggl ed
agai nst
domi nat i on and
f or l i ber at i on .
I t i s especi al l y
dedi cat ed
t o t he peopl e
of Gr enada
who gave t he
movement
Maur i ce
Bi shop and pai d
t he hi ghest
pr i ce f or non-
al i gnment
.
Acknowl edgements
Thi s has beena ver y di f f i cul t book to
wr i te. Ther esear ch f or thi s study was
begunby A. W. Si nghami n 1975andtookten
year s tocompl ete. Tobegi nwi th
we had ver y l i ttl e
f i nanci al suppor t to under take the r esear ch. The Uni ted
Nati ons
I nsti tute f or Tr ai ni ng and Resear ch under the di r ector shi p of Dr
Davi dsonNi col pr ovi ded a smal l seedgr ant of $4, 500f or the
study i n 1976. I t
was al sowr i ttenwhi l e both of us had f ul l - ti me teachi ng
posi ti ons. I naddi ti on,
gi ven the hosti l i ty to and/ or i gnor ance of our subj ect
matter , most of our
appl i cati ons f or f i nanci al assi stance wer e r ej ected. We
thus had to r esor t to
one of the maj or str ategi es devi sed by non- al i gned
countr i es f or thei r own
devel opment, namel y, that of col l ecti ve sel f - r el i ance.
Shi r l ey Huneagr eedto
postpone her ownwor k on mi gr ati on andj oi ned
Si nghamonthe pr oj ect i n
1979. What wel acked i n f i nanci al r esour ces, wemor e
than gai ned i n human
r esour ces thr ough the i ntel l ectual and techni cal
assi stance gi ven to us by the
non- al i gned wor l d.
Wewant to thank the
host gover nments of non- al i gned meeti ngs f or thei r
enor mous assi stance, especi al l y
i nar r angi ngf or i nter vi ews wi thheads of states
andseni or of f i ci al s .
These i ncl ude theseni or member s of the gover nments of
I ndi a, Yugosl avi a,
Cuba, Sr i Lanka, Al ger i a andNi car agua. Weal so
thankthe
l i ber ati on
movements and thei r r epr esentati ves at the Uni ted Nati ons
f or
pr ovi di ngus wi th var i ous documents and anal yses al ong wi th oppor tuni ti es f or
i nter vi ews
dur i ng our f i el dwor k.
Thi s
r esear ch gave us anoppor tuni ty to meet wi thsomeof the f i nest
mi nds
f r om
the Thi r d Wor l d. The str uggl e f or i ndependence
and l i ber ati on
pr oduces unusual per sonal i ti es wi th gr eat theor eti cal
sophi sti eati onandmany
of themhave assumed r esponsi bi l i ti es f or r epr esenti ng
thei r countr i es abr oad.
The ambassador s at the Uni ted Nati ons and a
number of del egates l i ter al l y
became our tutor s thr oughout thi s
per i od. Recogni zi ng our pl i ght, var i ous
gover nment of f i ci al s andacademi ci ans
f r omnon- al i gned countr i es pr ovi ded
us wi th i nval uabl e assi stance and
the gener osi ty of thei r ti me. They gave us
advi ce onhowto obtai n
i nexpensi ve ti ckets to attend the maj or non- al i gned
meeti ngs. Many an ambassador
pr ovi ded techni cal assi stance as they of f er ed
us l i f ts i n thei r l i mousi nes
ei ther to or f r omnon- al i gned meeti ngs and the
Non- al i gnment
i n an Age
of Al i gnment s
hot el ,
t hus enabl i ng
us t o
i nt er vi ew
t hemdur i ng
t hat pr ocess
. Pr obabl y
t hei r
most
i mpor t ant
cont r i but i on
was
t o i nvi t e
us t o
t hei r
cockt ai l par t i es,
l uncheons
anddi nner s
wher e we
had an
oppor t uni t y t o
have
i mmedi at e access
t o
manyof
t he pr i nci pal
par t i ci pant s
. We
knowt hat
i f t hey had
t he t i me
and
t he
oppor t uni t y t hey
woul d
have
pr oduced a
f ar bet t er
book on
t he
subj ect
.
I n
addi t i on,
we t hank
many of
our
f or mer st udent s,
especi al l y
f r om
t he
Car i bbean
and Af r i ca,
who now
hol d
hi gh posi t i ons
i n t hei r
r espect i ve
count r i es .
Theyof t en
t ook pi t y on
t hei r
f or mer t eacher s
and
qui ckl y
pr ovi ded
document s
and ot her
necessar y
pi eces
of
i nf or mat i on t o
conduct
t hi s
r esear ch.
We
ar e al so
gr at ef ul t o a
number of
i nst i t ut i ons,
schol ar s and
ot her
i ndi vi dual s
i n
non- al i gned
count r i es
who
or gani zed
semi nar s and
meet i ngs
wher e
we made
i ni t i al
pr esent at i ons
on di f f er ent
aspect s
of t he
st udy. Thei r
i nt el l ect ual and
col l egi al
suppor t hel ped
t o
shar pen our
anal ysi s
. We woul d
especi al l y l i ke
t o t hank,
i n Lat i n
Amer i ca and
t he Car i bbean
: t he
Uni ver si t y
of
Havana i n
Cuba; The
I nst i t ut e f or
Publ i c
Admi ni st r at i on
( FESP)
under
t he
di r ect or shi p
of Dr
Theot oni o Dos
Sant os i n
Br azi l ;
t he
Commi t t ee f or
t he
I ndependence
of Nami bi a
and t he
Er adi cat i on
of
Apar t hei d i n
Ar gent i na
; El
Col egi o and
t he Aut onomous
Uni ver si t y of
Mexi co i n
Mexi co;
t he Uni ver si t y
of t he West
I ndi es i n
Mona, J amai ca
; and t he
Uni ver si t y
of
Sur i name. I n
Asi a,
we woul d
l i ke t o
t hank: i n I ndi a,
t he
J awahar l al
Nehr u
Uni ver si t y i n
New
Del hi ,
and t he
Cent r e f or
Resear ch i n
Rur al and
I ndust r i al
Devel opment
i n
Chandi gar h,
especi al l y i t s
di r ect or , Rashpal
Mal hot r a
; and
i n Sr i
Lanka, t he
Soci al
Sci ence
Associ at i on
dur i ng t he
Col ombo
Summi t . I n
Af r i ca,
we t hank
t he
I nst i t ut e
f or I nt er nat i onal
Af f ai r s
i n Lagos,
Ni ger i a,
and of f i ci al s
i n
t he
gover nment of
Al ger i a
f or ar r angi ng
f or us t o
meet wi t h
speci al i st s
on non-
al i gnment . I n
Eur ope,
we t hank Dr
Ranko
Pet kovi c
and t he
I nst i t ut e
of
I nt er nat i onal
Pol i t i cs
and Economi cs
i n
Yugosl avi a
f or
gi vi ng us
an
oppor t uni t y
t o meet
l eadi ng i nt el l ect ual s
t hr oughout
t he
non- al i gned
wor l d
i n
t hei r
now
f amous
Pet r ovar adi n
semi nar s .
Fi nal l y, i n t he
Uni t ed
St at es we
ar e
gr at ef ul t o t he
i nst i t ut e
f or Wor l d
Or der , I nc . ,
especi al l y
Pr of essor
Ri char d
Fal k, who
assi st ed us
wi t h
super power
not i ons of
non- al i gnment
.
On
many
occasi ons
we at t ended
and
cover ed t he
meet i ngs
of t he
Non-
al i gned
Movement as
schol ar s/ j our nal i st s
.
Thi s pr oved
t o be
an
i nval uabl e
exper i ence
especi al l y
si nce most
of t he
cr eat i ve and
i mpor t ant
wor k on
non-
al i gnment
has been
under t aken
by
j our nal i st s f r om
t he
non- al i gned
wor l d.
We ar e
gr at ef ul t o
t he
j our nal i st s who
i nt r oduced
us t o
some of t he
ski l l s of
t hei r
t r ade,
par t i cul ar l y how
t o
i nt er vi ew
l eadi ng
per sonal i t i es
i n wor l d
pol i t i cs
and how
t o wr i t e
succi nct l y.
Our
j our nal i st i c
r ol e
of t en meant
t hat we
had t o
pr oduce
qui ck f i ndi ngs
ei t her
i mmedi at el y
bef or e
or af t er a
meet i ng.
We ar e
par t i cul ar l y
gr at ef ul i n
Acknowl edgement s
I ndi a t o Mai nst reamand i t s edi t or Ni khi l Chakravart t y
and t o T. N. Kaul and
P. N. Haksar, chi ef edi t or, of Man &Devel opment who
i nsi st ed t hat we st op
usi ng
Ameri cansoci al sci ence j argonandwri t e si mpl y andcl earl y
f or t he non-
al i gned
worl d. I n Sri Lanka, we t hank Mervyn De Si l va and
S . P.
Amarasi ngam,
edi t ors of t he Lanka Guardi an and Tri bune respect i vel y.
I n t he
Uni t ed St at es,
The Nat i on magazi ne and i t s edi t or Vi ct or Navasky,
and
PACI FI CA radi o wi t h Samori Marksman const ant l y support ed
our
endeavours.
Members
of t he Uni t ed Nat i ons st af f were al so support i ve. They not onl y
provi ded many
document s whi ch were di f f i cul t t o obt ai n, but most
i mport ant l y gave us
an opport uni t y t o part i ci pat e i n t he pol i cy process by
i nvi t i ng us f romt i me t o t i me
t o become consul t ant s . Dr Luci l l e Mai r, t he
f ormer Secret ary- General f or t he
UNI nt ernat i onal Conf erence on t he
Quest i on of Pal est i ne, appoi nt ed Si ngham
as her advi ser on non- al i gned
mat t ers whi ch resul t ed i n hi s at t endi ng t he Sevent h
Summi t as an observer/
del egat e. The Counci l f or Nami bi a al so provi ded
opport uni t i es f or us t o
part i ci pat e i n t he di f f i cul t i ssues rel at i ng t o t he sout hern
Af ri can st ruggl es and
t he rol e of t he Non- Al i gned Movement t here.
Whi l e we recei ved l i t t l e f i nanci al backi ng f or t hi s
st udy i n t he Uni t ed
St at es, t he moral , pol i t i cal and i nt el l ect ual support
of vari ous l i berat i on
support groups and t he peace movement f ar out wei ghed any
we coul d have
recei ved f romf oundat i ons . These soci al movement s i n t he
Uni t ed St at es
const ant l y
demanded f romus wri t t en st at ement s, t al ks and endl ess
meet i ngs
whi ch
hel ped us t o ref i ne many of our i deas . Thei r l ove and generosi t y
were
i ndi spensabl e
t o our compl et i ngt hi s st udy. There i s onegroup, however, t hat
we woul d l i ke t o t hank
speci f i cal l y. For Si ngham, si nce 1952, when he f i rst
part i ci pat ed i n t hei r summer i nt ern
programme and, more recent l y, si nce
Hune' s opport uni t y t o observe t he
Uni t ed Nat i ons t hrough t he work of t he
Quaker Uni t ed Nat i ons Of f i ce, t he
Soci et y of Fri ends has been a const ant
source of i nspi rat i on.
We woul d l i ke t o express our t hanks
t o t wo unusual publ i shers i n t he
West ernworl d: ZedBooks Lt d and
Lawrence Hi l l &Co. , and especi al l y our
edi t ors, Robert Mol t eno andLarry Hi l l respect i vel y
. Thei r commi t ment t o t he
st ruggl e of oppressed peopl e reveal s
once agai n t hat t he pri nci pl es of non-
al i gnment are not dependent onrace, cl ass, or nat i onal
ori gi ns . Thei r capaci t y
t o make avai l abl e t o t he peopl es of t he Thi rd Worl d
t he works of schol ars
f rombot h t he non- al i gned and Fi rst worl ds est abl i shes
t hemamong t he
pi oneers who are at t empt i ng t o creat e t he new i nt ernat i onal
i nf ormat i on
order
.
Then t here
was our dear f ri end and t he grand l ady of Cari bbean st udi es,
Vera Rubi n, who coul d
never underst and how one coul d gi ve up wri t i ng
about t he Cari bbean and yet
who grudgi ngl y accept ed non- al i gnment as a
l egi t i mat e
ar ea of st udy,
pr ovi ded t he
Car i bbean peopl e
wer e i nvol ved
i n i t .
Fi nal l y,
t her e i s our
dear est and
l ovi ng f r i end
Fel i pe Ri ver a
who kept
r emi ndi ng us t hat
i t was t i me t o
t ake a br eak.
A.
W. Si ngham
and S. Hune
Non- al i gnment i n an Age of Al i gnment s
I ntroducti on
The Non- al i gned
Movement i s a coal i ti on of s mal l andmi ddl e- s i zed s tates ,
mos tl y f ormer
col oni es anddevel opi ng countri es , f romthe Thi rdWorl d. I t
was f ormedi n 1961 wi th
25 s tates andhas grownto morethan 100 members .
Non- al i gned countri es have devel oped
a f l exi bl e organi zati onal s tructure and
meet f romti me to ti me i n thei r di f f erent
regi ons of the worl dto coal es ce
around s peci f i c i s s ues and to promote thei r
obj ecti ves . For a quarter of a
century, the Non- al i gnedMovement has
f uncti oned as a s oci al movement i n
the i nternati onal s ys tem, ai mi ng to change
exi s ti ng gl obal s tructures and
create a morej us t, equal andpeacef ul worl d
order
.
I t i s , i n es s ence, ananti -
i mperi al i s t peace movement.
TheNon- al i gned Movement pres ents maj or theoreti cal
andmethodol ogi cal
probl ems f or contemporary s tudents of i nternati onal
rel ati ons . The f i el d of
i nternati onal
rel ati ons has beendomi natedby s oci al s ci enti s ts whos e
pri mary
concern has
been to s tudy rel ati ons between nati on s tates or i nternati onal
organi zati ons
.
Thi s has
l ed toan emphas i s oncomparati vef orei gn pol i ci es and
mul ti l ateral pol i ti cs
.
More
recentl y, s chol ars have devotedgreater attenti onto
exami ni ngthe
rel ati ons hi p betweena nati on' s domes ti c pol i cy andi ts f orei gn
pol i cy. Thei nteres t
of pol i ti cal s ci enti s ts i npower anal ys i s l edto an emphas i s
on the rol e of maj or powers i n
worl dpol i ti cs . The i mpact of the Col dWar
contri buted
to s tudi es
on
thedomi nant rol e of theUSandUSSRi nthe gl obal
s ys temand
rel ati ons hi ps betweenthe s uperpowers . I n addi ti on, there was a
growi ng
methodol ogi cal i nteres t i n quanti tati veres earchwhi chl ed a number
of s chol ars to concentrate on
meas uri ng power rel ati ons andonas s es s i ng the
i nf l uence of one
parti cul ar s tate uponanother, whi l e thos e who s tudi ed the
acti vi ti es of i nternati onal organi zati ons ,
i ncl udi ngtheUni tedNati ons , tended
to merel y des cri be thei r s peci f i c
f uncti ons i n great detai l .
Themaj or i mpetus i n thes tudy of i nternati onal
rel ati ons has comef romthe
Wes t . I t i s onl y natural , theref ore, to f md i ts s chol ars
pri mari l y concerned
wi th the i nternati onal pol i ti cal s ys temas a ref l ecti on
of the nati onal i nteres ts
of thei r own i ndi vi dual s tates . Thi s emphas i s on meas uri ng i nternati onal
pol i ti cal i nteracti ons , es peci al l y war, has al s o hadanunf ortunate
ef f ect
on
the
s tudy
of i nternati onal rel ati ons both i n Wes tern i ntel l ectual ci rcl es and
Non-al i gnment i n anAge
of Al i gnments
thr oughout
the Thi r d Wor l d. I nter nati onal
r el ati ons became an ar i d and
abstr act
sci ence wi th i ncr easi ngl y
l i ttl e r el ati onshi p to the r eal
wor l d of
i nter nati onal pol i ti cs. Someschol ar s
whohavebecomedi senchanted
wi th the
study
of i nter nati onal or gani zati ons,
model constr ucti on and
quanti tati ve
studi es have tur nedthei r
attenti onto `wor l d or der ' and
`futur es' studi es. Yet
these
conventi onal appr oaches
i ni nter nati onal pol i ti cs do
not encompass or
take
ser i ousl y a tr ansnati onal
or gani zati on such as the
Non-al i gned
Movement
.
Students of i nter nati onal
economi cs have not escaped
the pr obl ems
exper i enced by students
of i nter nati onal pol i ti cs. I nter nati onal
economi sts i n
the West have
tended to concentr ate on tr ade
r el ati ons, notabl y the
compl exi ti es of
the wor l d mar ket system.
Methodol ogi cal l y, they too
devel opedver y
sophi sti cated model s of thewor l dtr ade
systemwhi ch hadl ess
and l ess to do
wi th the wor l d of economi c
r eal i ty
.
Recentl y, thefi el dof i nter nati onal
r el ati ons hasdevel opedanew
i nter est i n
pol i ti cal
economy . Thi s has come fr om
students of i nter nati onal pol i ti cal
r el ati ons and i nter nati onal economi c
r el ati ons whower edi senchanted
wi th
tr adi ti onal concer ns andwhower e
i nfl uenced by thewor ks of schol ar s fr om
theThi r d Wor l d. Theseschol ar s,
especi al l y i nLati nAmer i ca, Afr i caand
Asi a,
wer e
i nspi r ed by thedemand for a
NewI nter nati onal Economi c Or der
fr om
non-al i gned countr i es and have
tur ned thei r attenti on to
questi ons of
expl oi tati on, unequal exchange
and i mper i al i sm. These studi es ar e
at the
semi nal stageand ar epr ovi ngtobe
excepti onal l y useful for an
under standi ng
of the contempor ar y gl obal
economi c and pol i ti cal r eal i ty .
Students of conventi onal
i nter nati onal pol i ti cal and
economi c r el ati ons
havegener al l y had
consi der abl edi ffi cul ty i nunder standi ng
theemer genceof
theNon-al i gned
Movement i nwor l dpol i ti cs. I nstudyi ng
non-al i gnment, one
i s for cedto
exami neaphenomenonthat i s gl obal
i nchar acter and doesnot fi t
i nto
tr adi ti onal uni ts of anal ysi s uti l i zedby students
of i nter nati onal r el ati ons
.
Fur ther mor e, the Non-al i gned Movement i s
not another r egi onal `Thi r d
Wor l d'
or gani zati on, as some have attempted
to char acter i ze i t, but i s
a
tr ansnati onal uni ver sal or gani zati on. Ther ear e
thosewhohavetendedto vi ew
the
or gani zati onas another `bl oc' i nwor l d
pol i ti cs. However , thi s Movement
has
sel f-consci ousl y i denti fi ed i tsel f as
bei nganti -bl oc and seeks to
extr i cate
the
wor l d fr omdomi nati on by a
var i ety of power bl ocs.
TheNon-al i gnedMovement i s an
unusual phenomenoni nwor l dpol i ti cs
. I t
i s a coal i ti on of states whose
gover nments agr ee oncommonpr i nci pl es
for
changi ng the exi sti ng unj ust
and unequal wor l d or der . I t
cal l s i tsel f a
Movement and i t i s l ocated
i n the i nter nati onal r eal mwher e
non-al i gned
countr i es takeonsomeof
thechar acter i sti cs of asoci al
movement as defi ned
i nthefi el d of soci ol ogy.
That i s, they havegoal s, member shi p
r equi r ements, a
mi ni mal or gani zati onal
str uctur e and a degr ee of conti nui ty
. They ar e al so
I nt r oduc t i on
ac t i on- or i ent ed, t owar ds ef f ec t i ng c hange i n opposi t i on t o t he est abl i shed
soc i al or der , and, i n t ur n, ar e i nf l uenc ed by soc i al c hanges i n t he l ar ger
soc i et y, i n t hi s c ase t he i nt er nat i onal syst em. Mor eover , t he Movement i s
dynami c and modi f i es i t s pr i nc i pl es and obj ec t i ves, st r uc t ur e and
or gani zat i on,
as wel l as i t s i nt er est s and ac t i vi t i es ac c or di ng t o i t s own needs
and
i nt er nat i onal event s . However , whi l e i t s behavi our woul d l ead one
t o
c har ac t er i ze i t as a soc i al movement , i t al so possesses el ement s
t hat
do
not
f ul f i l some of t he vi t al c har ac t er i st i c s of a soc i al movement ; namel y, i n bei ng a
st at e- c ent r ed movement . Non- al i gned c ount r i es have
wel l - est abl i shed
i nst i t ut i onal f or ms wi t hi n t hei r own soc i et i es and i t i s onl y i n
t hei r
i nt er nat i onal r el at i ons t hat t hey f unc t i on as a movement .
I n shor t , suc h a movement c annot be under st ood
wi t hi n t he c onf i nes of t he
t r adi t i onal appr oac hes i n i nt er nat i onal
pol i t i c s, i nt er nat i onal ec onomi c s,
i nt er nat i onal or gani zat i ons or soc i ol ogy. I t
i s nec essar y t o c onsi der al l t hese
var i abl es t oget her wi t hi n a
hi st or i c al c ont ext . We have c hosen t o st udy t he
Non- al i gned Movement
wi t hi n t he c ont ext of t he gl obal syst em. Thi s st udy
t hen
vi ews
t he
Non- al i gned Movement as an i nt egr al par t of c ont empor ar y
i nt er nat i onal hi st or y
and exami nes i t s r ol e wi t hi n t hat hi st or y.
Unf or t unat el y,
t he f i el d of i nt er nat i onal hi st or yhas been gr ossl y negl ec t ed
byhi st or i ans and soc i al
sc i ent i st s who have t ended t o c onc ent r at e on nat i onal
hi st or i es. Soc i ol ogi st s
who have st udi ed soc i al st r at i f i c at i on have al so
negl ec t ed t o i nt egr at e
t hi s ar ea wi t h t he f i el d of i nt er nat i onal r el at i ons.
I ndeed, ver y
l i t t l e wor khas been done, f or exampl e, on t he i mpac t of t he
i nt er nat i onal
syst emon t he pol i t i c al and soc i al st r at i f i c at i on bet ween st at es
and
wi t hi n st at es . Si nc e t he Non- al i gned Movement f unc t i ons as an
i nt er nat i onal soc i al movement , i t i s nec essar y t o anal yse t he spec i f i c
ac t i vi t i es
of t he Movement f r omt he per spec t i ve of i nt er nat i onal soc i al and
pol i t i c al
st r at i f i c at i on .
The phenomenon of i nt er nat i onal st r at i f i c at i on
i s c l osel yl i nked wi t hr ec ent
devel opment s i n t he st udy of
i nt er nat i onal pol i t i c al ec onomy. The
i nt er nat i onal i zat i on of c api t al and l abour
have had sever e c onsequenc es f or
t he ec onomi c devel opment of Thi r d Wor l d
c ount r i es as wel l as f or t he
i nt er nal c l ass st r uc t ur es of nat i ons
wi t hi n t he Non- al i gned Movement . I t i s
appar ent t hat whi l e t he Non- al i gned
Movement has c onc ent r at ed i t s ef f or t s
on c hangi ng soc i al r el at i ons
bet ween st at es, i t has negl ec t ed soc i al / ec onomi c
r el at i ons wi t hi n st at es .
The pur pose of t hi s
st udy i s t o exami ne and desc r i be t he evol ut i on and
ac t i vi t i es of t he
Non- al i gned Movement wi t hi n t he c ont ext of i nt er nat i onal
hi st or y. The
st udyi s gl obal i n per spec t i ve and i nt er di sc i pl i nar y i n appr oac h. I t
emphasi zes t he Non- al i gned Movement as an agent of soc i al c hange i n t he
i nt er nat i onal c ommuni t y f r om 1961 t o 1985. Non- al i gned c ount r i es ar e
vi ewed as maj or ac t or s, t hat i s, t he subj ec t s of hi st or y and not mer el y i t s
Non- al i gnment i n an Age
of Al i gnment s
obj ect s. Hence, t hey
do not mer el y
r eact t o event s
and t r ends, but ar e
act i ve
i ni t i at or s of event s
andt r ends. To
f ul l y under st and
i t andi t s l i mi t at i ons,
one
must f i r st r ecogni ze
t hat t he
Movement i s not an
aut onomous
act or on t he
wor l d' s st age. I t
i s i nf l uenced by
i nt er nat i onal
event s and maj or
soci al ,
economi c
and pol i t i cal
t r ends i mposed upon
i t s member s by t he
maj or power s .
Fur t her mor e,
even wi t hi n t he
Movement , t her e
ar e di f f er ences of
emphasi s .
Whi l e member s
ar e i n gener al
agr eement on
t he basi c pr i nci pl es
of non-
al i gnment and
t her ef or e hol d
uni ver sal and
i nt er nat i onal vi ewpoi nt s,
one
must al so r ecogni ze
t hat i ndi vi dual
st at es st i l l
ul t i mat el y emphasi ze
t hei r own
nat i onal i nt er est s
.
The per i od
f r om t he
Fi r st Summi t
Conf er ence of heads
of st at e or
gover nment
of non- al i gned
count r i es hel d i n
Bel gr ade i n 1961
t o t he Four t h
Summi t
i n Al gi er s i n 1973
wer e t he ear l y
year s i n whi ch t he
Movement was
t aki ng
f or mand est abl i shi ng
i t sel f as a
coal i t i on. I t i s di scussed
her e i n br i ef
as
t hi s
hi st or y has been
pr evi ousl y st udi ed
by ot her schol ar s
andst andar d
wor ks
ar e
avai l abl e. We do
r e- exami ne t hi s
per i od, however ,
i n t he cont ext of
r ecent
i nt er nat i onal hi st or y.
Af t er 1973, t he
Movement ent er s
a per i odof hi gh
i nt er nat i onal act i vi t y
and
becomes a maj or
i nf l uence i n
wor l d pol i t i cs by
chal l engi ng
exi st i ng
appr oaches t o
i nt er nat i onal pol i t i cal
and economi c
st r at egi es. I n t he pr ocess
of
ef f ect i ng soci al
change gl obal l y,
non- al i gned
count r i es i ndi vi dual l y
and
col l ect i vel y
at t r act ed opponent s
and di ssent er s,
pr i mar i l y f r omout si de
but
al so f r om
wi t hi n i t s own
or gani zat i on, whi ch
sought t o l i mi t t he
ef f ect i veness
of t he Movement
. Yet t her e i s
no compr ehensi ve
st udy of t he
Movement ' s
act i vi t i es i n
i t s second decade.
Thi s i s
al so t he per i od i n
whi ch t he
aut hor s conduct ed i nt ensi ve
pr i mar y
r esear ch
i n t he f i el d. Fr om
1976 unt i l
1983, one or bot h of
t he aut hor s
at t ended
t he maj or
meet i ngs of t he
Non- al i gnedMovement
i n var i ous par t s of
t he
wor l dandwer e
par t i ci pant obser ver s at
i t s gat her i ngs. The
Fi f t h, Si xt h and
Sevent h
Summi t s hel d
r espect i vel y i n
Col ombo i n 1976, i n
Havana i n 1979,
andi n
NewDel hi i n 1983
ar e di scussedher e
i n some det ai l . The
anal ysi s of t he
pol i t i cal
pr ocesses i s based
onempi r i cal
r esear ch under t aken by
t he aut hor s at
t hese
and ot her meet i ngs
of t he Movement
and on ext ensi ve
i nt er vi ews wi t h
r epr esent at i ves f r om
non- al i gned
count r i es at t he Uni t ed
Nat i ons .
The st udy t r i es t o
pr ovi de a hi st or y
of t he Movement by
i nt egr at i ng t he
document ar y sour ces
of t he Movement
wi t h f i el d
r esear ch at i t s meet i ngs,
usi ng i nt er vi ews
and par t i ci pant
obser vat i on. Met hodol ogi cal l y,
we dr ew
on
f our di sci pl i nes
i n t he soci al sci ences
. We al so chose t he
summi t conf er ences
of non- al i gned
count r i es as maj or
event s i n t he
dynami cs of t he Movement
andt r eat ed
each conf er ence
l ocat i on as a
pr i mar y uni t of anal ysi s .
Shi r l ey
Hune as a soci al
hi st or i an exami ned t he
pr i mar y document s
of t he
Movement .
These i ncl uded
t he speeches made by
non- al i gnedl eader s
at t hei r
I nt r oduc t i on
gat her i ngs. Dec l ar at i ons and c ommuni ques of t he Movement adopt ed at
t hei r maj or meet i ngs, and var i ous ot her non- al i gned and gover nment
publ i c at i ons . Whi l e c yni c s may di smi ss t he speec hes of t he heads of st at e or
f or ei gn
mi ni st er s at t he summi t s as i r r el evant and desi gned f or home
audi enc es, i t i s our vi ewt hat a c ar ef ul r eadi ng of t he speec hes does r eveal t he
basi c t hemes t hat c onc er n non- al i gned c ount r i es and does pr ovi de a c omposi t e
pi c t ur e of t he wor l d vi ewof t he Movement at a gi ven t i me. The speec hes al so
di sc l ose f undament al i deol ogi c al di f f er enc es, espec i al l y as t hey af f ec t t he
f or ei gn
pol i c y of a gi ven c ount r y . Fur t her mor e, speec hes enabl e nat i ons t o
speak out on gl obal quest i ons over whi c h t hey knowt hey have no c ont r ol .
Agai n c yni c s wi l l r espond
by
i ndi c at i ng
t hat t hi s i s yet anot her exampl e of t he
i mpot enc e
of
non- al i gned
c ount r i es i n wor l d pol i t i c s, but t hi s i s pr ec i sel y what
t hey want t o c hange. That i s, non- al i gned st at es
seek a r ol e i n i nt er nat i onal
pol i c y- maki ng. The summi t i s al so an oc c asi on when a gi ven
head of st at e c an
use a speec h t o f l oat a t r i al bal l oon. On Mi ddl e East quest i ons
at
t he
Sevent h
Summi t , f or exampl e, a c ar ef ul exami nat i on r eveal s var i ous shi f t s and c hanges
by gover nment s f r omt hat r egi on . Fi nal l y, i n exami ni ng t he speec hes as a
whol e one c an devel op a hi st or i c al sense of t he c hanges t hat have oc c ui r ed
bet ween summi t s.
The var i ous ver si ons of t he Dec l ar at i ons at a non- al i gned meet i ng ar e
c ompar ed and c ont r ast ed t o det ec t shi f t s i n emphases . The f i nal Dec l ar at i ons
ar e al so c ompar ed wi t h t hose of pr evi ous meet i ngs t o r eveal t r ends,
i nnovat i ons or r ever sal s . Ot her gover nment al and non- al i gned doc ument s,
suc h as pr oposal s and c ommi t t ee r epor t s, al so pr ovi de val uabl e i nf or mat i on .
Thi s
doc ument ar y anal ysi s i s t hen r e- exami ned wi t hi n t he c ont ext of t he
pol i t i c al ,
ec onomi c and soc i al i ssues and event s t hat wer e t aki ng pl ac e i n t he
wor l d syst emat t hat t i me
. I n addi t i on, we c ol l ec t ed t he l oc al nat i onal
newspaper s and anal ysed t he t r eat ment gi ven
t o a non- al i gned meet i ng by
t hose i n t he host c ount r y and
c ompar ed t hem wi t h West er n pr ess
c over age.
Si nghamsuppl ement ed t he hi st or i c al
and doc ument ar y anal ysi s by ut i l i z i ng
t he i nt er vi ewmet hods of t he soc i al
sc i enc es . He hel d ext ended i nt er vi ews
wi t h par t i c i pant s who wr ot e t he doc ument s
and wi t h t hose who di sagr eed
wi t h some sec t i ons and sought amendment s dur i ng
t he meet i ngs . Thi s meant
t r ac i ng t he c ount r i es whi c h expr essed t hei r obj ec t i ons
t o c er t ai n dr af t s and
i nt er vi ewi ng t hei r r epr esent at i ves f or an assessment as
t o whet her t hey had
ei t her suc c eeded or f ai l ed i n i nt r oduc i ngt he amendment s . Si nghamdepended,
heavi l y on t he ant hr opol ogi c al t ec hni que of f i el d not es r at her t han t he f or mal
quest i onnai r es empl oyed by pol i t i c al sc i ent i st s and soc i ol ogi st s. He t hen
pr epar ed c opi ous not es at t he end of t he day af t er c onduc t i ng i nt er vi ews and
maki ng obser vat i ons
of t he var i ous pr oc eedi ngs .
At eac h
of
t he
non- al i gned meet i ngs we at t ended, we al so i dent i f i ed t he
Non- al i gnment i n an
Age of Al i gnment s
maj or i ssues
and made a l i st
of t he count ri es
most cl osel y
i nvol ved and t he
part i ci pant s
who needed t o
be i nt ervi ewed.
Many of t hese
i nt ervi ews were
hel d
whi l e t he
part i ci pant s were
ei t her movi ng
i nt o or out of t he
conf erence si t e.
Si nghamal so
covered speci f i c
meet i ngs
t hat were open
t o t he publ i c and
prepared a l ong
descri pt i on of
t he pol i t i cal
processes wi t hi n
t hese meet i ngs . At
t he concl usi on
of a meet i ng,
Si nghamwoul d
t hen conduct
i nt ervi ews wi t h
del egat es of t he
host count ry
and i dent i f y t he
cent ral persons
who coul d gi ve
t hei r eval uat i on
of t he meet i ng.
Thi s summary
woul d t hen be
suppl ement ed
by
sel ect i ng
cert ai n count ri es
whi ch pl ayed an
act i ve rol e at
t he conf erence,
but t hese
i nt ervi ews were
general l y conduct ed
l at er at t he
Uni t ed Nat i ons
.
Fort unat el y,
most of t he
of f i ci al s who at t end
t he
non- al i gned meet i ngs
are
al so t hei r
count ri es'
represent at i ves at
t he Uni t ed
Nat i ons . I n addi t i on,
Si ngham
and Hune
at t ended press
bri ef i ngs and press
conf erences
by non-
al i gned
l eaders and shared
i n t he react i ons
of t he
j ournal i st s f romt he
al i gned
and
non- al i gned worl ds
. Throughout
our f i el d
research, we
al so- benef i t ed
f rom t he
i nsi ght s of
soci ol ogi cal t heory
on soci al
movement s
and soci al
change.
As many
a f i el d researcher
knows, t he
great est di f f i cul t y
emerges
when one
has t o
di st i ngui sh bet ween
t he part i cul ar
i nt erpret at i on
of a respondent
and
t he concret e
empi ri cal
si t uat i on.
Represent at i ves and
of f i ci al s are al so
capabl e,
on occasi on,
of ei t her
exaggerat i ng t hei r
own rol e
or, more
dangerousl y,
`di si nf ormi ng'
t he i nt ervi ewer
. Thus f i el dwork
i n i nt ernat i onal
pol i t i cs i s
ri ddl ed
wi t h
enormous met hodol ogi cal ,
empi ri cal
andet hi cal
di f f i cul t i es,
especi al l y at
t he f i el d
si t e. I t was cl ear
t o us t hat many
t radi t i onal soci al
sci ence
t echni ques,
especi al l y
survey research
t echni ques,
were seri ousl y
l i mi t ed
met hods f or
el i ci t i ng
i nf ormat i on
about t he
i nt ri caci es of
i nt ernat i onal pol i t i cal
behavi our .
Theref ore, we rel i ed
ont he t echni ques
of part i ci pant
observat i on
associ at edwi t h
ant hropol ogi st s
. Our part i ci pant
observat i on
over a t en- year
peri odof at t endi ng
non- al i gned meet i ngs
i n al l regi ons
of t he worl d
and i n meet i ngs
wi t h del egat es
at
t he Uni t ed
Nat i ons gave us
access t o ri ch
mat eri al and
reveal ed cert ai n
pat t erns
of pol i t i cal
behavi our,
i n spi t e of i t s
obvi ous l i mi t at i ons
.
I n
addi t i on,
Si nghamat t ended
t he Sevent h
Summi t i n New
Del hi as an
observer/ del egat e
i n conj unct i on
wi t h servi ng as
an advi ser on
non- al i gned
mat t ers
t o t he
Secret ary- General
f or t he UN
I nt ernat i onal
Conf erence ont he
Quest i on of
Pal est i ne. Thi s gave
hi ma rare
opport uni t y t o
observe at f i rst
hand t he i nt ernal
pol i t i cal
processes of a
summi t conf erence
.
The
i nt egrat i on of t hese
met hodol ogi cal
approaches of
t he vari ous soci al
sci ences, i . e.
hi st ory, pol i t i cal
sci ence,
soci ol ogy and
ant hropol ogy, proved
usef ul , but
except i onal l y
di f f i cul t t o achi eve,
especi al l y
wi t hout adequat e
support i n
t he f i el dwork. I f
one were t o
undert ake such
a vent ure agai n,
i t
woul dbe best
done by a t eam
of speci al i st s
f romt he
non- al i gnedworl d
wi t h
an agreed
concept ual f ramework
and
met hodol ogi cal
t echni ques .
I nt r oduct i on
Onever y i mpor t ant ar ea i n whi cht he
f i el d of i nt er nat i onal st udi es has not
devel oped any
sophi st i cat ed mechani smi s t he
anal ysi s of t hedr af t i ng pr ocess
of conf er ence
document s . Weobser ved t hat t he
dr af t i ng pr ocess at non-
al i gned meet i ngs
ser ves as an exer ci sei n pol i t i cal bar gai ni ng
. To t heout si der ,
i t may appear
as si mpl e qui bbl i ng over wor ds, but
t her e ar e t i mes when
f undament al
debat es occur over t he di r ect i on of t he
Movement or over
cer t ai n i ssues .
At t heSevent hSummi t , f or exampl e, t he
Economi c Decl ar at i on
r esul t ed i n
a sophi st i cat ed debat e about t he al t er nat i ve
st r at egi es f or deal i ng
wi t h t he gr owi ng
debt cr i si s . Af r i can del egat es f ound
t he Lat i n Amer i can
i nt er vent i ons
i nval uabl e f or devel opi ng t hei r own
st r at egi es t o deal wi t h
i nt er nat i onal f i nanci al
or gani zat i ons, l i ke t he I nt er nat i onal
Monet ar y Fund
( I MF) .
The dr af t i ng sessi on of t he
Pol i t i cal Decl ar at i on of t he Sevent h Summi t
r eveal ed
how compl i cat ed and del i cat e
wer e t he negot i at i ons over t he
changes .
I ndeed, t he ent i r e dr af t i ng pr ocess
i s a hi ghl y compl i cat ed and
di f f i cul t
ent er pr i se. Fi r st , t her ei s t hequest i on of whi ch
count r y i nt r oduces t he
amendment s
. I f a gi ven count r y want s t o i nt r oduce
a change, i t may ei t her
i nt r oducei t
i t sel f , or choosea count r y t hat has a hi ghr eput at i on
t o pr esent i t i n
t hehopes
t hat t hi s wi l l ensur esuccess. Somet i mes t he
r eal debat es t akepl aceat
r egi onal
meet i ngs and a car ef ul pl an i s wor ked
out at t hat l evel . The
per sonal i t y
of t he par t i ci pant , especi al l y t he head of
del egat i on, al so has an
i mpor t ant
i nf l uenceon whet her a gi ven amendment wi l l
beaccept ed . Cer t ai n
ambassador s and
mi ni st er s wi t h hi gh r eput at i ons, even f r om
ver y smal l
count r i es, ar e l i kel y
t o be successf ul i n i mpl ement i ng changes. The
r ever se
al so hol ds t r ue; t hat i s, an
i ndi vi dual wi t h a bad r eput at i on cannot i mpl ement
changes however good t he r ecommendat i ons
.
I t was our or i gi nal i nt ent i on t o i ncl ude
a whol e chapt er on conf er ence
pol i t i cs
whi ch woul d di scuss i n some det ai l
t he dr af t i ng pr ocess, but we
deci ded
t o el i mi nat ei t as i t woul d det r act f r om
t hemaj or t hr ust of t hest udy. I t
i s sur pr i si ng,
however , t hat af t er al l t heseyear s
of mul t i l at er al di pl omacy and
i nt er nat i onal
conf er ences t her e ar e so f ewst udi es
on t he pol i t i cal pr ocesses
wi t hi n
conf er ences. Thef i el d of i nt er nat i onal
or gani zat i onal t heor y needs t o
under t ake st udi es
si mi l ar t o t hose execut ed by
st udent s of l ar ge- scal e
or gani zat i ons i n
nat i onal pol i t i cal syst ems .
Whi l et hedi pl omat i c
wor l d i s t o a l ar geext ent t r ai ned
and pr oduced by t he
domi nant cul t ur al t r adi t i ons,
i . e. t hose of Eur opeand t he
Uni t ed St at es, i t i s
necessar y f or any cr oss- cul t ur al
and t r ansnat i onal st udy of t hi s
ki nd t o pay
at t ent i on t o t he i mpor t ance of
cul t ur al aspect s i n i nf l uenci ng behavi our ,
especi al l y i n a gr oupi ng l i ke t hat of t he
Non- al i gned Movement . Ther e
i s a
gr eat danger , as wehave f ound i n our
own st udy, i n l umpi ng count r i es
t oget her as ei t her I Lusophone' , or `Fr ancophone'
or `Angl ophone' . Dur i ng
t he
l ast 25 year s, a number of t hese count r i es
have devel oped t hei r own
Non- al i gnment
i n an Age
of Al i gnment s
par t i cul ar
cul t ur al
and phi l osophi cal
or i ent at i on
t owar ds
wor l d pol i t i cs
and
t hey can
no l onger be
so nar r owl y
or si mpl y
def i ned i n
t er ms of t he
l anguage
of
t hei r f or mer
col oni al mast er
.
The
st udy i s
di vi ded i nt o f our
maj or
par t s. Par t I
pr ovi des an
over vi ewof
t he
Non- al i gned
Movement wi t h
chapt er s on
i t s pr i nci pl es,
or gani zat i on
and
st r uct ur e,
and pr ehi st or y
. Par t I I
cover s t he
hi st or y of
t he Movement
f r om
1961 t o
1985, f r omsummi t
meet i ng
t o summi t
meet i ng. I t
i s bot h an
i nt er nal
hi st or y of
t he Movement
and an
exami nat i on
of i t s r ol e
and i mpact
on
i nt er nat i onal
hi st or y. Par t
I I I cont ai ns
t wo
empi r i cal case
st udi es on
nat i onal
l i ber at i on.
I t descr i bes i n
det ai l how
t wo of
t he most di f f i cul t
i ssues i n
wor l d
pol i t i cs t oday -
t he
quest i onof
Pal est i ne and
t he quest i on
of Nami bi a-
ar e
vi ewed by
t he Movement
and,
i n t ur n, how
non- al i gned
count r i es
have
suppor t ed
t hese i ssues
and
t r ansf or med
t hemi n t he
i nt er nat i onal
ar ena,
speci f i cal l y
at t heUni t ed
Nat i ons
. I nPar t I V,
weconcl ude
wi t h a
di scussi on of
t he
i nt er nat i onal
si t uat i on as
vi ewed by
t he Non- al i gned
Movement
at i t s
most
r ecent summi t ,
t he Sevent h
Summi t
i n NewDel hi ,
andwi t h an
anal ysi s
of t he
consequences
of a
pol i cy of
non- al i gnment
f or member s
of t he
Movement
. Reader s
wi l l f i nd a
r evi ew of
l i t er at ur e i n
Appendi x
I , Non-
al i gnment
: Theor i es
and
Expl anat i ons .
Appendi x I I
compr i ses a l i st
of t he
member
count r i es of
t he Movement
as of
t he Sevent h
Summi t i n
1983.
Thi s
st udy, wehope,
wi l l encour age
ot her
schol ar s i nt he
non- al i gned
wor l d
t o expl or e
some of
t he f undament al
i ssues
we have r ai sed. I t
i s, at
best , an
over vi ewof t he
Movement ' s
hi st or y, al t hough
wehavet r i ed
t oshow
some of
i t s
compl exi t i es.
The most
i mpor t ant aspect
t hat r emai ns
negl ect ed
i n t hi s
st udy
i s t he l i nk
bet ween
t he domest i c
pol i t i cs and
i nt er nat i onal
pol i t i cs of
non- al i gned
count r i es. We
have not
addr essed t he pr obl em
of how
some non-
al i gned
count r i es
have been
`r evol ut i onar y
abr oad' ,
whi l e bei ng
`r eact i onar y
at
home' . I f f ut ur e
st udi es of
t heMovement
ar et obe
conduct ed,
t hi s i s anar ea
t hat
deser ves
car ef ul
at t ent i on. Schol ar shi p
i s nei t her
neut r al
nor ' non-
al i gned'
and
schol ar s, l i ke
t hei r pol i t i cal
count er par t s,
must t ake
a st and and
det er mi ne whi ch
si de t hey
ar e onandwhy.
Thr oughout
t he st udy,
i t wi l l be
obvi ous
t hat we
havest at ed
nor mat i ve and
pol i cy
pr ef er ences ona
gi veni ssue
or set of
i ssues. By
st at i ng
our own
nor mat i ve
pr ef er ences wehope
t hat t he
r eader
wi l l be abl e
t oassess
howt hese
nor mat i veval ues
have af f ect ed
t he f i nal
empi r i cal
out come
.
I t
has beenour
i nt ent i ont o
anal yse
anddescr i be
t he hi st or y and
act i vi t i es of
t hi s
i nt er nat i onal
soci al
movement
wi t hi n t he
cont ext of t he
r eal i t y of non-
al i gned count r i es
. We have
r el i ed
heavi l y upon
t he eyes, voi ces
and wr i t i ngs
of t he Movement
. Thi s
st udy
at t empt s t o
expl ai n how
t he Non- al i gned
Movement
sees i t sel f i n
wor l dhi st or y
andnot
howot her s,
especi al l y i t s
cr i t i cs
andopponent s,
woul d
l i ke t he
Movement t obe
andt obehave
. Ther ewi l l ,
no
doubt , be
t hosewho
wi l l announce
t he demi se
of t he
Movement at i t s
Ei ght h
I nt r oduc t i on
Summi t i n
Zi mbabwe. But t heNon- al i gned
Movement has pr oved t hr ough i t s
own i nt er nal
or gani zat i on and hi st or y
t o have sur vi ved pr evi ous di r e
pr edi c t i ons .
I t r emai ns one of t he most
i mpor t ant ant i - i mper i al i st peac e
movement s i n
wor l d pol i t i c s t oday.
Thef mal edi t i ng
of t hemanusc r i pt was done
i n Ant i guai n t heCar i bbean . I t
was one of t he
ear l y st ops of Col umbus
whose t r i ps event ual l y l ed t o t he
c ol oni zat i on
of t he Thi r d Wor l d. I r oni c al l y,
Ant i gua was one of t he
l ast
c ol oni es t o
gai n i ndependenc e ( 1981) and
has begun t he l ong pr oc ess
of
r ec onst r uc t i ng
t hewor l d t hat Col umbus
and hi s suc c essor s dest r oyed
. I n
so
doi ng, i t has
had t o deal wi t h al l t he
i ssues r ai sed by t he Non- al i gned
Movement t o
pr ot ec t i t s i ndependenc e.
Ec onomi c al l y, i ndependenc e
br ought
a massi ve
i ndebt edness t o t heI MFand t he
wor l d' s t r ansnat i onal banks,
as wel l
as dependenc e on
t he t r ansnat i onal t our i st
c or por at i ons whi c h r epl ac ed t he
ol d Eur opean sugar
c ompani es . Pol i t i c al l y,
i ndependenc e r esul t ed i n t he
si gni ng of at r eat y wi t h
asuper power t o house
ext ensi ve el ec t r oni c mi l i t ar y
i nst al l at i ons, t hus br i ngi ng
t he Col d War t o i t s
door st eps . Cul t ur al l y, i t
r esul t ed i n t he housi ng
of r el ay st at i ons f or t wo
of t heWest er n wor l d' s most
power f ul
c ommuni c at i ons net wor ks, t he Voi c e
of Amer i c a and t he BBC
;
f ac i l i t at i ng t he
c ul t ur al penet r at i on and
domi nat i on of Lat i n Amer i c a
and
Af r i c a. The
quest i on r emai ns as t o how
an i sl and nat i on of 364 squar e
ki l omet r es and 77, 000
peopl ec an r esi st t hese
power f ul f or c es . I t has gi nger l y
begun i t s c our sei n
wor l d pol i t i c s by bec omi ng
amember and st r ongsuppor t er
of t he Uni t ed Nat i ons
and an obser ver of t he
Non- al i gned Movement , t hus
par t i c i pat i ng i n t he
onl y t wo or gani zat i ons t hat
c an pr ot ec t i t s sover ei gnt y and
aut hent i c i t y.
Di c kenson
Bay
Ant i gua, West I ndi es
J anuar y 1986
Par t
I
Over vi ew
1
. Pri nci pl es
of Non-al i gnment'
Thestudy
of i nternati onal rel ati ons has pri mari l y been astudy of rel ati onshi ps
between
nati on states and, more speci fi cal l y, the forei gn pol i ci es of modern
nati ons. Si nce
Worl d War I I , there have been i ncreased efforts to exami ne
i nternati onal rel ati ons
wi thi n a gl obal perspecti ve and these efforts have
resul ted i n a number of
studi es onregi onal and i nternati onal organi zati ons .
Very few studi es, however,
have attempted to exami ne transnati onal
groupi ngs, especi al l y those
seeki ng to transform worl d pol i ti cs and
economi cs. The Non-al i gned
Movement i s the most si gni fi cant i nternati onal
movement to emerge i n contemporary
hi story. Thi s Movement has been
i gnored by thedomi nant i ntel l ectual
tradi ti on i ntheworl d today, namel y, the
Western tradi ti on, for both pol i ti cal and
i ntel l ectual reasons . Hence, i f the
Non-al i gned Movement i s to assume i ts
ri ghtful pl ace as a genui ne and
i mportant i nternati onal soci al movement then
i t i s i mperati ve that the
schol arl y tradi ti on wi thi n the non-al i gned countri es
undertake the task of
devel opi ngnot onl y a body of empi ri cal studi es, but
al so a seri es of general
theoreti cal
proposi ti ons that expl ai n the character of the
Movement.
The
20th century has been marked by two maj or revol uti ons
that have
transformed the
ol d i nternati onal order . The fi rst was i n 1917 when the
Bol shevi ks took power i n
Russi a and created a soci al i st system. The second
revol uti on was the decol oni zati on
process i n Asi a, Afri ca and the Cari bbean
that occurred after Worl d War
I I . Whi l e the 1917 revol uti on resul ted i n the
emergence of a si ngl e maj or
power, the Afro-Asi an anti -col oni al revol uti on
brought i ntoexi stence amyri ad
of states, most ofwhi chwere smal l or mi ddl e-
si zed, underdevel oped and pol i ti cal l y
weak. Thei r peopl es were fragmented
i nternal l y. They al sohadthetwi ntasks
of creati ngnewpol i ti cal structures and
di ssol vi ngtradi ti onal feudal i nsti tuti ons.
As fragi l e soci eti es, they have been
tryi ng to escape fromunderdevel opment
for the past 30 years. I t i s these
nati ons whose governments have j oi ned together
as the Non-al i gned
Movement .
The
Non-al i gned Movement ori gi nated under the
l eadershi p of Nehru of
I ndi a,
Ti to of Yugosl avi a, Soekarno of I ndonesi a,
Nkrumahof Ghana, and
Nasser
of Egypt . Thei r remarkabl e achi evement has
been the creati on of a
1 3
Overvi ew
coal i t i on of s t at es
f romAs i a,
Af ri ca, Europe,
t he Arab worl d,
and Lat i n
Ameri ca and t he
Cari bbean
whi ch has grown
f romi t s ori gi nal
25t o over
100
members . A
maj or charact eri s t i c
of t he
Movement has been
t hat t hef ounders ,
who havebeen
t he
pract i t i oners of
non- al i gnment ,
are al s o i t s f oremos t
t heoret i ci ans
. Nehru was
t he bes t
exampl eof t hi s
phenomenon. A
caref ul
exami nat i on
of hi s wri t i ngs
reveal s t hat
he art i cul at ed
t he phi l os ophi cal
premi s s es of
non- al i gnment
as earl y as
1927 i n hi s
report t o t he Al l
I ndi a
Congres s .
Nehru was pri mari l y
concerned
wi t h t heri ght of
s el f - det ermi nat i on
and t he
capaci t y of newl y
i ndependent
s t at es t o ret ai n
t hei r s overei gnt y,
es peci al l y
under condi t i ons
of bi g- power
pol i t i cs and
war. Ti t o was
i nt eres t ed
i n peace
and s ought a
reduct i on of t ens i ons
bet ween t he
USandt he
USSRi n
order t o
avoi d t he
pos s i bi l i t y of a
nucl ear
conf ront at i on . Nas s er
rai s ed
ques t i ons
about f orei gn
i nt ervent i on
and ext ernal
i nf l uences i n t he
Mi ddl e
Eas t . He
was al s o
concerned about
t he f ut ure of
di s pos s es s ed
Pal es t i ni ans .
Soekarno
was a s t aunch
ant i - col oni al i s t
and
radi cal nat i onal i s t
. Hewas
concerned t hat newl y
i ndependent
s t at es beabl e
t o choos et hei r
own s oci al ,
economi c and pol i t i cal
rel at i ons ,
i ncl udi ng t he
ri ght t o f orm
l i nks wi t h
communi s t s t at es s uch
as Chi na.
Nkrumah was
concerned about
raci s mand
t he
decol oni zat i on of
t he Af ri can
cont i nent and
s ought an end t o
t he whi t e
raci s t
regi mes i n s out hern
Af ri ca.
Si nce t he
f oundi ngyears , Ben
Bel l a and
Boumedi enne of
Al geri a and Cas t ro
of Cuba
have al s o made
s i gni f i cant
cont ri but i ons . They
have i nf l uenced
t he Movement
t hrough t hei r
emphas es
on
nat i onal l i berat i on
and t he need
f or economi c
i ndependence
.
I n 1961, t he
l eaders of 25
non- al i gned
count ri es s hari ng
a number of
common
concerns met t oget her
t o creat e
an i ndependent
pat h i n
worl d
pol i t i cs t hat
woul d not
res ul t i n t hei r
becomi ng pawns
i n t he s t ruggl es
bet ween
t he maj or powers
. They recogni zed
t hat any
i nt ernat i onal
coal i t i on
had t o be
hi ghl y f l exi bl e
. Theref ore, t hey
res i s t ed creat i ng
f ormal
s t ruct ures
of a
hi erarchi cal nat ure.
They al s o chos e
cons ens us as a
met hod of
deci s i on-
maki ng
f or t hei r
organi zat i on. Thi s
has enabl ed
count ri es wi t h
di f f erent
i deol ogi cal
pers uas i ons
t o j oi n t he
Movement . Thei r
common
concerns
became
t he f undament al
pri nci pl es upon
whi ch non- al i gned
count ri es
bas e
t hei r
deci s i ons and
act i vi t i es . They
are a commi t ment
t o :
0 peace
and di s armament ,
es peci al l y t he
reduct i on of
t ens i ons bet ween
t he
maj or
powers ;
" i ndependence,
i ncl udi ng
t he ri ght of
s el f - det ermi nat i on of
al l col oni al
peopl es and
t he ri ght of
equal i t y bet ween
al l races ;
economi c equal i t y,
wi t h an
emphas i s on
res t ruct uri ng t he
exi s t i ng
i nt ernat i onal
economi c order,
part i cul arl y wi t h
res pect t o t he
growi ngand
pers i s t ent i nequal i t y
bet ween
ri ch and poor
nat i ons ;
"
cul t ural
equal i t y, wi t h an emphas i s
on res t ruct uri ng
t heworl d
i nf ormat i on
14
Pr i nc i pl es of Non- al i gnment
and c ommuni c at i ons or der , and oppos i ng c ul t ur al i mper i al i s m and t he
Wes t er n monopol y of i nf or mat i on s ys t ems ; and
0uni ver s al i s mand mul t i l at er al i s m t hr ough s t r ong s uppor t f or t he Uni t ed
Nat i ons s ys t em- whos e pr i nc i pl es ar e al s o non- al i gned pr i nc i pl es - as
t he mos t appr opr i at e bodyt o deal wi t h al l gl obal i s s ues . Cons equent l y, t he
Movement has r es i s t ed ef f or t s wi t hi n i t s own or gani zat i on t o c r eat e
al t er nat i ve s t r uc t ur es at t he expens e of t he UN.
Thes e pr i nc i pl es of non- al i gnment have been gener al l yunder s t oodwi t hi n t he
Movement t hr oughout i t s hi s t or y and no at t empt was made t o f or mal l y
enunc i at e t hemunt i l t he Si xt h Summi t i n Havana i n 1979. No under s t andi ng
of t he Non- al i gned Movement i s c ompl et e wi t hout an appr ec i at i on of i t s
i deol ogi c al pr emi s s es or pr i nc i pl es . We t her ef or e begi n wi t h a br i ef
expl anat i on of eac h of t he f undament al pr i nc i pl es . Thes e pr emi s s es ar e
per c ei ved byt he Movement as uni ver s al andt he bas i s of i t s s ear c h f or a new
wor l d or der .
Peac e
One of t he f i r s t pr i nc i pl es of non- al i gnment i s peac e and di s ar mament .
Hi s t or i c al l y,
t he Movement has
s ought
t o r educ e t ens i ons bet ween t he maj or
power s .
Fr om i t s i nc ept i on,
t he
Movement has been oppos ed t o t he
devel opment of
mi l i t ar y
bl oc s and
t o
t he at t empt s
by t he maj or power s t o
c ompar t ment al i ze t he wor l d i nt o
s pher es
of i nf l uenc e
. Af t er Wor l dWar I I
andt he ons et of t he Nuc l ear
Age
andt he Col dWar , t he Movement
f ear ed
t hat t he c r eat i on of mi l i t ar ypac t s woul dr es ul t i n t he di vi s i on of t he wor l d
i nt o
oppos i ng c amps , denyi ng ot her nat i ons , es pec i al l ynews t at es , t he oppor t uni t y
t o make i ndependent pol i c y dec i s i ons about wor l dpr obl ems . Cons equent l y,
t he Movement adopt ednon- i nvol vement i n mi l i t ar ypac t s as one of i t s c r i t er i a
f or member s hi p .
I n es s enc e, non- al i gnedc ount r i es ar e at t empt i ng t o c r eat e c er t ai n bas i c r ul es
of c onduc t f or nat i on s t at es wi t hi n t he i nt er nat i onal s ys t em. The exi s t i ng
pr ac t i c e of i nt er nat i onal r el at i ons wher e a f ewmaj or power s domi nat e, t hey
ar gue, does not r ef l ec t t he pr es ent r eal i t yi n whi c h news mal l andmi ddl e- s i zed
s t at es have j oi ned t he wor l dc ommuni t yi n gr owi ng number s wi t h r el at i vel y
l i t t l e power i n det er mi ni ng wor l d pol i t i c s . I n ot her wor ds , t he i nc r eas ed
number of nat i on s t at es s i nc e Wor l d War I I , and c onc omi t ant l y t he
emer genc e
of t wo s uper power s wi t h t he mi l i t ar yc apac i t yt o des t r oyt he ent i r e
gl obal
c ommuni t y, nec es s i t at es t he `democ r at i zat i on of i nt er nat i onal
r el at i ons ' , par t i c ul ar l ys o t hat
nat i ons whi c h do not have nuc l ear weapons c an
par t i c i pat e meani ngf ul l y i n gl obal pol i t i c s .
At
t he
s ame t i me, t he Movement
per s i s t ent l y s eeks nuc l ear di s ar mament and
an endt o t he ar ms r ac e .
15
Over vi ew
At i ts
s ummi t meeti ngs , the Movement attempts i n i ts
thr ee- year per i odi c
s ur veys
of the i nter nati onal s i tuati on toi denti f y
cr i s i s ar eas that coul d es cal ate
i nto
a conf l i ct between the maj or power s , and
hence r es ul t i n a nucl ear war
and gl obal anni hi l ati on. Non- al i gned countr i es
have exami ned di s ar mament
and
peace theor eti cal l y and have di s ti ngui s hed
between var i ous types of
conf r ontati on wi thi n the gl obal communi ty: ( 1) the
conf r ontati on between
the maj or
nucl ear power s ; ( 2) war s of s el f - deter mi nati on
and i ndependence;
( 3) i nter nal
ci vi l war s r es ul ti ng f r ompol i ti cal s eces s i oni s t
movements ; and ( 4)
ar med conf l i cts
between non- al i gned member s tates that
coul d l ead to a
conf r ontati on
between the maj or power s . They have
ar r i ved at thes e
di s ti ncti ons
over the year s . i n r es pons e to each conf l i ct
on an i ndi vi dual bas i s .
However ,
l i ttl e theor eti cal wor khas been under taken to
di s ti ngui s h between
thes e var i ous types of war s i n wor l d pol i ti cs , and
par ti cul ar l y howi ndi vi dual
s tates ar r i ve at thei r deci s i on to ei ther s uppor t
or oppos e a par ti cul ar war .
Wi th r egar d to the conf r ontati on
between the maj or power s , non- al i gned
countr i es have tended tor el y on the
Uni ted Nati ons to devel op both s tr ategi c
and pr acti cal ways to avoi d
conf l i cts . They have al ways i ns i s ted that the
Uni ted Nati ons s er ve as the
or gani zati onal body f or a r es ol uti on of conf l i ct
between the maj or power s and wer e
l ar gel y r es pons i bl e f or i ni ti ati ng the cal l
f or the Speci al Ses s i ons on Di s ar mament
to dr aw attenti on to the ar ms
r ace.
Non- al i gned countr i es have made
a s peci f i c l i nkbetween the s tr uggl e f or
i ndependence and nati onal
l i ber ati on and the r i ght of s el f - deter mi nati on and
r aci al equal i ty. Thei r di s cus s i ons
f r equentl y centr e on the r i ght of a peopl e to
r es i s t col oni al i s mi n al l i ts
f or ms . The Movement, however , di s ti ngui s hes
between di f f er ent types
of ar med conf r ontati on. I t makes as peci f i c di s ti ncti on
betweenj us t and
unj us t war s . I t has cons i s tentl y ar gued that war s of nati onal
l i ber ati on and war s
of i ndependence ar e j us ti f i abl e, and ther ef or e s houl d
be
s ancti oned and
s uppor ted. Fur ther mor e, non- al i gned countr i es ar gue that
war
was of ten the
onl y method by whi ch nati onal popul ati ons coul d
r es i s t
conti nued col oni al
domi nati on. Thi s emphas i s on the r i ght to take up ar ms to
r es i s t col oni al i s mcl ear l y
di f f er enti ates the Movement f r omthe commonl y
hel d vi ewof paci f i s m
or neutr al i s mi n wor l d pol i ti cs . Fr omi ts i ncepti on, the
Movement has been
nei ther paci f i s t nor neutr al . I ns tead i t s ugges ts cer tai n
nor mati ve and
ethi cal cr i ter i a by whi ch i ndi vi dual s and nati ons can i ndi cate
thei r s uppor t
f or cer tai n j us t war s and thei r oppos i ti on to cer tai n
unj us t
war s
.
The Movement has thus def ended war s of i ndependence
and nati onal
l i ber ati on movements gl obal l y, notabl y the s tr uggl es i n
Al ger i a, Vi etnam, the
f or mer Por tugues e
col oni es i n Af r i ca, and Souther n Af r i ca. I t has al s o
cons i s tentl y s uppor ted the r i ghts of the Pal es ti ni an
peopl e, i ncl udi ng thei r
r i ght to a homel and, and of the peopl es of
s outher n Af r i ca to oppos e the
1 6
Pr i nci pl es of Non- al i gnment
apar t hei d mi nor i t y gover nment s i n t he r egi on,
wi t h ar med st r uggl e i f
necessar y.
I n
t he cur r ent conf l i ct s i n Cent r al Amer i caand t he Car i bbean, non-
al i gned count r i es r ecogni ze t hat neo- col oni al i smr esul t s i n a new t ype of
nat i onal l i ber at i on movement . The cont empor ar y war f or nat i onal l i ber at i on
i n t hi s r egi on i s a st r uggl e not agai nst a col oni zi ng power , but agai nst a
domest i c r ul i ng cl ass whi ch has t i ed i t sel f t o a nei ghbour i ng power and t hus
l ost t he economi c, cul t ur al and pol i t i cal sover ei gnt y of t he count r y. Thi s i s
why non- al i gned count r i es have suppor t ed r evol ut i ons i n Cuba, Ni car agua
and Gr enada.
The sel ect i on of j ust war s and t he i dent i f i cat i on of f act i ons t o suppor t i s
not
achi eved wi t hout consi der abl e debat e and of t en some
di vi si on wi t hi n t he
Movement . I n t he case of sout her n Af r i ca, a maj or i t y of
nat i ons have no
di f f i cul t y i n i dent i f yi ng t hemsel ves wi t h t he
br oad mass of t he Bl ack
popul at i on. I n ot her si t uat i ons, such as t he
t hi r d t ype of conf l i ct , ci vi l war s
i nvol vi ng secessi oni st movement s, t he
consi der at i ons ar e mor e compl i cat ed,
and t hese ar e i ssues t hat even t he Uni t ed
Nat i ons t ends t o avoi d. As t hese
conf l i ct s necessi t at e i dent i f yi ng t he speci f i c
f act i on or gr oup i t wi shes t o
suppor t , t he Non- al i gned Movement has f ound t hese
deci si ons mor e di f f i cul t .
Nat i on st at es ar e al so sensi t i ve
t o t he char ge of i nt er vent i on i n t he i nt er nal
af f ai r s of sover ei gn st at es . Mor eover , one of t he maj or concer ns
of t he
Movement has been t o mai nt ai n t he nat i onal i nt egr i t y of t he
maj or i t y of i t s
member nat i ons, i ncl udi ng t he capaci t y of exi st i ng nat i on st at es t o
r esi st
secessi oni st and di vi si ve movement s . However ,
non- al i gned count r i es
r ecogni ze t hat i nt er nal conf l i ct s such as t hese cannot be i gnor ed
because t hey
can be easi l y t r ansf or med
i nt o l ar ger conf l i ct s and i nvol ve ot her st at es . They
wi l l t her ef or e have
di scussi ons on t hembut wi t hhol d t aki ng a posi t i on unt i l
t her e i s consensus .
A
f our t h t ype of war , conf l i ct bet ween member nat i ons, whi ch of t en occur s i n
t he f or mof bor der di sput es, i s t he most pr essi ng i ssue wi t hi n t he Movement
t oday. We have seen at l east f our maj or mani f est at i ons of t hese conf l i ct s
r ecent l y, namel y, t ensi ons bet ween Somal i a and Et hi opi a, bet ween Vi et namand
Kampuchea,
bet ween Uganda and
Tanzani a,
and bet ween I r aq and I r an. The
l at t er
di sput e was ser i ous enough t o cause t he Sevent h Summi t t o be movedf r om
Baghdad
t o NewDel hi and t o be post poned f or sever al mont hs. Recogni zi ng
t hat
conf l i ct s bet ween non- al i gned st at es const i t ut e a t hr eat t o peace, a speci f i c
ef f or t
was made at t he Col ombo Bur eau meet i ngi n 1979t o devi se amechani sm
t hat
non- al i gned count r i es coul d use t o r esol ve bor der conf l i ct s and ot her
concer ns
pr i or t o t hei r becomi ng a maj or i ssue of gl obal at t ent i on . Cont i nui ng
ef f or t s
and f or mul as wer e devi sed at t he Havana Summi t i n 1979and t he New
Del hi Summi t i n 1983. These i ncl ude bi l at er al consul t at i ons and t he `good
of f i ces' of t he chai r of t he Movement . However , no
speci al i nst i t ut i onal f or ms
have been devel oped t o addr ess t hi s cr i t i cal
i ssue bet ween non- al i gned count r i es .
17
Overvi ew
The maj or di f f i cul t y
about support i ng wars
of nat i onal l i berat i on and
i ndependence or
i nt ernal wars or border
di sput es i s t he danger t hat such
conf l i ct s coul d
qui ckl y be convert ed i nt o a
war bet ween t he maj or powers
.
The
Non- al i gned Movement recogni zes
t hat t he di vi si on bet ween t he
maj or
powers i n
i nt ernat i onal pol i t i cs has of t en
resul t ed i n t hei r seeki ng t o
expl oi t
t hei r di f f erences
wi t h t he possi bl e
consequence of a gl obal
conf ront at i on
bet ween t he
maj or powers . Furt hermore,
many non- al i gned
count ri es have
di scovered t hat
i ndi genous di vi si ons
wi t hi n a st at e, e. g. t he
exi st ence of
vari ous
nat i onal i t i es, have been
syst emat i cal l y expl oi t ed t o di vi de
nat i ons and
dest roy
t hei r nat i onal i nt egri t y . The
pai nf ul l essons of t he creat i on of
Nort h
and Sout h
Korea. and t he at t empt
t o di vi de Vi et namremai n
i ssues of maj or
concern
. Thus t hroughout i t s
del i berat i ons, t he Movement
has caut i oned
agai nst t he vi ewt hat al l wars
arej ust . They have
seen
how
somewars coul d
easi l y resul t i n t he f ormat i on
of mi l i t ary al l i ances
l i nki ng smal l er nat i ons wi t h
l arger nat i ons i n vi ol at i on
of one of t he pri nci pl es
of non- al i gnment . Hence,
t he Non- al i gned
Movement has sought t o
reassert t he pri nci pl e t hat
t he
nat i onal i nt egri t y of
st at es, especi al l y t hei r
boundari es, shoul d be mai nt ai ned
because border and
boundary probl ems
coul d
be
used f or t he dest ruct i on
of
t he st at e and t he
Bal kani zat i on of cont i nent s
.
I t i s cl ear f romt he
above t hat t he
whol e quest i on of war and peace,
part i cul arl y t he l i nki ng
of di f f erent t ypes
of wars wi t h one anot her, has
not
recei ved t he t heoret i cal
at t ent i on of most
soci al sci ent i st s andt hei nt ernat i onal
communi t y .
The maj or concern of
soci al sci ent i st s has been over
i ssues of
di sarmament and
peace research. I f
t here
i s
goi ng t o be a proper
assessment
and reduct i on
of t ensi ons bet ween
nat i ons, i t i s i mperat i ve t hat
t he di f f erent
t ypes of
war be exami ned i n
conj unct i on wi t h t he prol i f erat i on
of nucl ear
weapons
and t he emergence of
an armament s cul t ure.
Non- al i gned count ri es
have not ed t hat exi st i ng
t ensi ons i n t he gl obal
syst em
have resul t ed i n t he
evol ut i on of a worl d weapons
cul t ure i n whi cht he
purchase, product i on and
promot i on of arms as a panacea
f or l ocal , nat i onal
and
i nt ernat i onal probl ems
have t aken on a
moment umof t hei r own.
Furt hermore, t he si mpl e- mi nded
di vi si on of t he worl d
i nt o t wo `armament
camps' needs t o be re- exami ned
as newcent res of
power emerge. The
pot ent i al of Chi na and t he
growi ng economi c power
of West Germany,
J apan, Brazi l , I srael and Sout h
Af ri ca and t hei r
part i ci pat i on as part ners i n
t he
arms t rade shoul d be st udi ed .
The expansi on of t he
armament s i ndust ry and
t he evol ut i on of a
weapons
cul t ure not onl y t hreat en
worl d peaceand
cont ri but e t o t he possi bi l i t y
of war,
but di vert l arge
proport i ons of nat i onal budget s
t owards t he purchase
of arms
t hat count ri es do not
need. Whi l e t he arms
race has wreaked
havoc on t he
Fi rst and
Second Worl ds by cont ri but i ng
t o spi ral l i ng i nf l at i on
and
unempl oyment
i n advanced market economi es
and t o t he decel erat i on
of t he
1 8
Pr i nci pl es of Non- al i gnment
abi l i t y t o pr ovi de cons umer goods i n cent r al l y pl anned economi es , t he i mpact
on devel opi ng count r i es has been cat as t r ophi c . The i ncr eas i ng dependence of
devel opi ng count r i es on t he gl obal ar mament s economy and t he
s pendi ng
of
har d- ear ned i ncome on weapons t hr eat en t o
condemn Thi r dWor l d count r i es
t o per manent pover t y. Non- al i gned
count r i es ,
t her ef or e, have
begun
t o
ar gue
t hat i f t he i s s ue of di s ar mament i s t o be pr oper l y addr es s ed
i t has
t o
be
cons i der ed wi t hi n t he cont ext of a wor l d devel opment s t r at egy.
I n s ummar y, peace wi t h di s ar mament r emai ns a bas i c pr i nci pl e of non-
al i gnment . I n i t s ef f or t s t o f ur t her t hi s pr i nci pl e, t he Non- al i gned Movement
has br oadened our under s t andi ng of war s , expanded t he cont ext of t he
di s ar mament debat e, and i s at t empt i ng t hr ough i t s act i vi t i es t o cont r i but e t o
t he t heor et i cal devel opment of i nt er nat i onal r el at i ons andt he achi evement of
peace . However , i n s pi t e of
t hei r mas s i ve ef f or t s , non- al i gned count r i es have
been uns ucces s f ul
i n a number of peace- r el at ed i s s ues , es peci al l y i n t hei r
at t empt s t o
l i nk di s ar mament wi t h devel opment and t o es t abl i s h zones of
peace i n var i ous r egi ons of t he wor l d. Fur t her mor e, t he ar ms r ace i s
accel er at i ng r at her t han decl i ni ng, wi t h t he Thi r d Wor l d becomi ng maj or
pur chas er s and, i n s ome cas es , pr oducer s of s mal l ar ms . The Movement has
s t r i ven t o ens ur e t hat s mal l , mi ddl e- s i zed, devel opi ng and non- nucl ear
count r i es have an act i ve par t t o pl ay i n t he di s ar mament pr oces s . I n t hi s
manner , i t has t ol d t he wor l d t hat di s ar mament i s a gl obal mat t er and not
s i mpl y
an
ar ea f or agr eement bet ween t he maj or power s .
I ndependence : Sel f - det er mi nat i on and Raci al Equal i t y
As econdbas i c pr i nci pl e of non- al i gnment i s t he r i ght of s el f - det er mi nat i on of
al l col oni al peopl es and t he r i ght of equal i t y bet ween al l r aces . St r uggl es
agai ns t col oni al i s mand f or r aci al equal i t y pr edat e t he f or mat i on of t he Non-
al i gned Movement andcont r i but ed t o i t s cr eat i on and gr owt h. At Bandung i n
1955 a number of As i an nat i ons wer e l i nked wi t h a f ewAf r i can nat i ons . By
1961, at t he Fi r s t Non- al i gned Summi t , Af r o- As i an nat i ons wer e l i nked wi t h
t he nat i ons of Lat i n Amer i ca and Eur ope . I n t he 1960s and 1970s , newl y
i ndependent s t at es , es peci al l y i n Af r i ca and t he Car i bbean, j oi ned t he
Movement , f ur t her expandi ng i t s member s hi p. I n t he l at e 1970s and ear l y
1980s , we s ee t he gr eat er i nvol vement of Lat i n Amer i can count r i es , not abl y
t hos e of Cent r al Amer i ca, wher e l ocal popul at i ons s t r uggl e not agai ns t
col oni al i s m but neo- col oni al i s m. I n i t s Decl ar at i ons and act i vi t i es , t he
Movement has per s i s t ent l y s uppor t ed s t r uggl es agai ns t col oni al i s m,
i mper i al i s m
and r aci s mi n al l t hei r f or ms and i n ever y par t of t he gl obe .
The pol i t i cal i ndependence of
col oni es i s f undament al
t o
non- al i gnment .
The exi s t ence
of
a
gl obal
s oci al movement l i ke t he Non- al i gned Movement
gr eat l y
hel ped
many f or mer col oni es
t o become
i ndependent . The Movement
19
Over vi ew
pr ovi des a f or umf or col oni al
t er r i t or i es
t o
pr esent t hei r case i nt er nat i onal l y.
Pr i or t o Al ger i a, Vi et nam,
Angol a and Zi mbabwe acqui r i ng t hei r i ndepen-
dence, f or exampl e, i t
r ecogni zed t hei r nat i onal l i ber at i on movement s,
accept ed t hei r
pr ovi si onal gover nment s as member s, and wel comed t hei r
l eader s as
heads
of
st at e
.
The Movement , t her ef or e, has pr ovi ded l egi t i macy
t o newst at es
as
t hey
ent er wor l d pol i t i cs . I t has set a pr ecedent i n i nt er nat i onal
r el at i ons by
t r eat i ng l i ber at i on movement s as of f i ci al r epr esent at i ves of t hei r
peopl e pr i or t o i ndependence . The
Movement al so r ecogni zes t he Sout h West
Af r i ca Peopl e' s
Or gani zat i on (SWAPO) and t he Pal est i ne Li ber at i on
Or gani zat i on (PLO)
as
f ul l
member s . I t has gone on r ecor d as suppor t i ng t he
r i ght of Puer t o
Ri co
t o
become i ndependent . These ar e some i l l ust r at i ons of
how non- al i gned
pr i nci pl es of sel f - det er mi nat i on and r aci al equal i t y have
cont r i but ed t o
t he decol oni zat i on pr ocess . I t i s not sur pr i si ng t hen t o f i nd
newl y
i ndependent st at es j oi ni ng t he Movement as a f i r st st ep i n
est abl i shi ng
f or ei gn r el at i ons.
Non- al i gned pr i nci pl es have l ed i t s member s t o suppor t t wo
maj or st r uggl es
f or
sel f - det er mi nat i on and r aci al equal i t y i n cont empor ar y
hi st or y . The
Movement has gi ven l egi t i macy t o t he ef f or t s t o l i ber at e
t he Af r i can
cont i nent . Much
of t he Af r i can cont i nent , f r omAl ger i a i n t he
nor t h
t o
Angol a
and Mozambi que
i n t he sout h, achi eved i ndependence l ar gel y
t hr ough t he
ar med
st r uggl e
of
t he popul at i on bol st er ed by i nt er nat i onal suppor t
. The most
bl at ant vi ol at i on of
t he pr i nci pl es of sel f - det er mi nat i on and r aci al
equal i t y i n
Af r i ca t oday i s i n sout her n Af r i ca wher e t he Republ i c of
Sout h Af r i ca r ef uses
t o
gi ve
up
i t s col ony i n Nami bi a, i nvades near by st at es t o
put down l i ber at i on
ar mi es, i s act i vel y i nvol ved i n t he physi cal
dest r uct i on of non- al i gned
member s, t he f r ont - l i ne st at es, and cont i nues t o
oppr ess i t s maj or i t y Bl ackand
Col our ed popul at i ons i n vi ol at i on of t he
Uni t ed Nat i ons Char t er . Thus non-
al i gned count r i es have sought t he
i ndependence of Nami bi a, t he pr ot ect i on of
t he f r ont - l i ne st at es, and an end t o
t he apar t hei d r egi me i n Sout h Af r i ca.
The apar t hei d syst emi s under st andabl y
al most uni ver sal l y condemned. The
non- al i gned suppor t f or t he maj or i t y
popul at i on i n t he Republ i c of Sout h
Af r i ca
i s, t her ef or e, cl ear . Thei r suppor t f or
t he Pal est i ni an peopl e i s l ess so i n
t he
gl obal communi t y. The Non- al i gned
Movement has i nsi st ed t hat t her e i s a
cor r el at i on bet ween t he exper i ences of t he
Bl ack Af r i can popul at i on of
sout her n- Af r i ca and t he di senf r anchi sement
of t he peopl e of Pal est i ne . They
dr awpar al l el s bet ween t he si t uat i ons
i n Pal est i ne andSout h Af r i ca wher e t wo
set t l er st at es have adopt ed pol i ci es
t hat have r esul t ed i n t he , domi nat i on,
expl oi t at i on and segr egat i on
of t he i ndi genous popul at i ons . I n
t hei r
decl ar at i ons and act i vi t i es at
t he Uni t ed Nat i ons, non- al i gned
count r i es have
at t empt ed t o br i ng t he
r i ght s of t he i ndi genous peopl e of
Pal est i ne and of
sout her n Af r i ca t o t he
at t ent i on of t he gl obal communi t y. Si nce
1975 when
non- al i gned count r i es
ar gued t hat Zi oni smi s a f or mof
r aci smand r aci al
20
Pr i nci pl es of Non-al i gnment
di scr i mi nati on,
they have f aced the
wr ath of much of the
Wester n wor l d.
Si nce that
ti me some non-al i gned
countr i es have l essened
thei r emphasi s on
the i ssue of
Zi oni smas af or mof r aci sm.
Mor eover , i t shoul d
be noted that i n
spi te of thei r
stated hosti l i ty towar ds I sr ael ,
manynon-al i gned
states pr ef er the
two-state thesi s
. I n f act, many non-al i gned
gover nments had
r ecogni zed the
state of I sr ael
pr i or to the escal ati on
of conf l i ct i n the r egi on
and have
r ei nstated
di pl omati c ti es . I n addi ti on,
some states, i ncl udi ng
Egypt, have
establ i shed
ti es .
The
Movement has, none the l ess,
consi stentl y ar gued that ther e
can be no
peace i n the
Mi ddl e East wi thout
the r ecogni ti on of the
r i ghts of the
Pal esti ni an peopl e
. Hence, whi l emany
states ar e not opposed to the
exi stence
of I sr ael , they
pr ef er a two-state sol uti on.
I n thei r vi ew, ther e can
be no
settl ement i n the
Mi ddl e East wi thout thi s
r ecogni ti on of the r i ghts of
the
Pal esti ni an peopl e,
i ncl udi ng thei r r i ght to
a homel and. As non-al i gned
countr i es have poi nted
out, the str uggl e f or
sel f -deter mi nati on and r aci al
equal i ty i s l i nked to the ar ms
r ace and wor l d peace
. Whi l e the Movement has
made maj or str i des i n these
two ar eas, however ,
Nami bi an i ndependence i s
conti nuousl y postponed
and the Pal esti ni ans ar e
sti l l homel ess.
Movements f or nati onal
i ndependence and the
emer gence of newstates
f r omthe ol d col oni al
wor l d have r edef i ned
i nter nati onal r el ati ons i n the post-
Wor l d War I I er a. The
exi stence of the Non-al i gned
Movement as acoal i ti on
that pr ovi des avehi cl e f or
smal l and mi ddl e-si zed
states topar ti ci pate i n gl obal
af f ai r s has f ur ther hel ped
to democr ati ze i nter nati onal
r el ati ons . Onthe other
hand, i t has beenar gued
that ' mi ni -states' , because
of the si ze of thei r ter r i tor y
and popul ati on and other
matter s, such as pol i ti cal ,
economi c and cul tur al
vi abi l i ty, do not deser ve the r i ght
to be tr eated as moder n
nati on states wi th
equal
r i ghts i n the f ami l y of nati ons .
The pol i ti cal l ef t al so
has suggested that
the
gr owi ng power of tr ansnati onal
cor por ati ons and the
mi l i tar i zati on of a
number
of these smal l states by the
maj or power s havetur ned
themi nto cl i ent
states
and destr oyed thei r capaci ty
tobei ndependent, autonomous
uni ts i n the
wor l d
system.
Thi s pr obl emof economi c
autonomy has not escaped
the Movement .
Whi l e
non-al i gned countr i es
wel comed the decol oni zati on
pr ocess, they
r ecogni zed that pol i ti cal i ndependence
was not accompani ed
by economi c
i ndependence
. I nstead, col oni al i sm
gave way to neo-col oni al i sm
and
i ndependence
to dependence. Economi c
bl ockades and bor der
war s whi ch
can di smember
nati ons have al so
exacer bated economi c dependence
. Many
states ar e
par ti cul ar l y sensi ti ve to the abi l i ty
of the wor l d economi c
systemto
br i ng thei r
gover nments to a standsti l l
by mani pul ati ng the pr i ces
of the
commodi ti es they
pr oduce. Hence, non-al i gned
countr i es have f ocused
thei r
attenti on on the
pr obl emof mai ntai ni ng
pol i ti cal i ndependence under
condi ti ons of
economi c cr i si s . The water shed
was the 1973 Al gi er s Summi t
21
Over vi ew
wher e t he
Non- al i gned Movement
t ur ned t o
economi c mat t er s
and
demanded t he
est abl i shment of a New
I nt er nat i onal
Economi c Or der
.
Economi c Equal i t y
t he Demand
f or a New
I nt er nat i onal
Economi c Or der
Anot her of t he
f undament al i ssues
r ai sed bynon- al i gned
count r i es i s
t hat of
economi c equal i t y.
Theyhave ar gued
t hat t he col oni zat i on
of t he
wor l d by
Eur ope pr oduced
at l east t hr ee t ypes
of i nequal i t i es :
bet ween t he
col oni zer
andt he col oni zed
; bet weenr aces ;
and bet weent he
r i ch andt he poor .
Hence,
t he Non- al i gned
Movement has
poi nt edout t hat one
of t he maj or pr obl ems
of
t he 20t h
cent ur y i s t o r ect i f y
t hese i nequal i t i es . I n
t he 1960s, t he
Movement
st r essed
t he achi evement of
pol i t i cal and r aci al
equal i t y. But by
t he 1970s, i t
was
becomi ngappar ent t o
non- al i gnedcount r i es
t hat i nor der t o
have pol i t i cal
and
r aci al equal i t y a
nat i on al so had t o
have some sembl ance
of economi c
equal i t y.
Though maj or
di f f er ences exi st
among non- al i gned
count r i es on t he
economi c opt i ons bef or e
t hem, t hey
col l ect i vel y agr ee t hat
t he f undament al
pr obl emi n t he wor l d
economy t oday
i s domi nat i on by
t he gl obal mar ket
economy. They
ar gue t hat t he exi st i ng
i nt er nat i onal
economi c or der was
a
cr eat i on of
col oni al i smand i mper i al i sm
andhas r esul t ed
i n a mal di st r i but i on
of gl obal r esour ces,
especi al l yweal t h
. The economi es of
non- al i gned nat i ons
st eml ar gel y
f r omt hei r col oni al
exper i ences .
Col oni al i smdi sr upt ed
t he
t r adi t i onal
economi es of Af r i ca,
Asi aandt he Amer i cas
. Capi t al i smt ook
t hese
l ands and
t r ansf or med t hei r
peopl es andcul t ur es
i nt o one vast pl ant at i on
. For
non- al i gned
count r i es, t he
expansi on of capi t al i sm
wor l d- wi de
pr oduced a
ser i es of
mar ket economi es
dependent upon
t he met r opol i t an
cent r e . The
maj or i t y
of t he peopl e
wer e di ver t ed f r om
pr oduci ng f ood f or
t hei r own
sur vi val
i nt o pr oduci ng
commodi t i es t o sat i sf y
t he t ast es of an ext er nal
soci et y.
Hence,
t he aver age Ni ger i an,
Sr i Lankan and
J amai canwer e upr oot ed
f r om
t r adi t i onal
agr i cul t ur e and
t ur ned i nt o wage
l abour er s . The soci al
pr ocess of
cr eat i ng
an i nt er nat i onal
pl ant at i on soci et yand,
concomi t ant l y, t he
cr eat i on
of
i ndi vi dual commodi t y
st at es r esul t ed i nt he
al i enat i on of t hr ee- quar t er s
of
t he
wor l d f r omi t sel f. I t
al so pr oduced a soci al
cl ass syst emt hat
di vi ded one
,
nat i ve' f r omanot her
` nat i ve' and cr eat ed a
maj or psychol ogi cal
di l emma f or
t he
maj or i t y of t hese
popul at i ons .
Col oni al i smal so
had a t r aumat i c ef f ect
on t he cul t ur es of
t hese soci et i es . I n
t he Amer i cas,
t r adi t i onal peopl es wer e
anni hi l at ed. I n
Af r i ca and Asi a,
t r adi t i onal soci al
st r uct ur es wer e
dest r oyed i n some i nst ances
and, i n ot her s,
wer e made
subser vi ent t o t he new
domi nant cul t ur e of t he
col oni al power
.
For t he maj or i t y
of non- al i gned
count r i es, capi t al i sm
was not a super i or
advancedsoci al
syst emt hat br ought
about moder ni zat i on
andchange . I not her
22
Pr i nci pl es of Non- al i gnment
wor ds, capi t al i sm
was not a moder ni zi ng and
l i ber at i ng movement ,
as i t had
been i n Eur ope wher e i t
dest r oyed t he shackl es
of f eudal i smand
cr eat ed a new
mar ket
economy. I n t he
col oni es, capi t al i sm
pr oduced a newr el at i onshi p
of
domi nance
and subser vi ence
bet ween l andl or d and
peasant and
bet ween
col oni zer
and col oni zed.
Most i mpor t ant l y,
capi t al i sm br ought pover t y,
unempl oyment ,
over popul at i on
and mal nut r i t i on.
For most non- al i gned
count r i es,
capi t al i sm was
a dest r uct i ve and
r epr essi ve exper i ence
and
pr oduced
a semi - f eudal
and semi - capi t al i st
hybr i d soci et y. For
t hem,
capi t al i sm
under condi t i ons
of col oni al i smand
i mper i al i smunder devel ops
r at her
t han devel ops .
Thi s
opposi t i on t o t he capi t al i st
mar ket syst emal so
st ems f r omanumber
of
t heor et i cal
assumpt i ons . Even t he
most conser vat i ve
non- al i gned count r i es
r ecogni ze t hat as
ex- col oni al dependenci es
t hey ar e
unabl e t o compet e i n t he
advanced capi t al i st
economy. They ar gue
t hat t her e i s
an unequal exchange
bet ween t hemsel ves
and ot her capi t al i st
economi es.
Those count r i es whi ch
f ol l owt he economi c
doct r i ne of Keynes
( soci al i st s and
soci al democr at s) al so
compl ai n t hat t he
pr esent economi c
or der di scr i mi nat es
by condemni ng
cer t ai n nat i ons t o bei ng
per manent pr oducer
nat i ons,
maki ngi t i mpossi bl e f or
t hemt o become
i ndust r i al nat i ons .
Fi nal l y, t her e ar e
a number of Mar xi st -
Leni ni st st at es wi t hi n
t he Movement
who ar gue
t hat t he wor l d capi t al i st
syst emhas cr eat ed
neo- col oni es ;
t her ef or e, t he onl y
sol ut i on i s t o r est r uct ur e
t he gl obal economy.
Thi s anal ysi s
and concl usi on
wer e suppor t ed by t he
emer gi ng l i t er at ur e
on dependence,
t heor et i cal wor k
on under devel opment
i n t he Car i bbean and
Lat i n Amer i ca by
Lat i n Amer i can
economi st s . Thei r
st udi es r eveal ed howi n
spi t e of l ongpol i t i cal
i ndependence,
Lat i n Amer i can
count r i es
wer e st r uct ur al l y
i nt egr at ed and
made dependent
upon t he wor l d
capi t al i st syst em. Af r i can
andAsi an count r i es
wer e al er t ed t o t he
expl oi t at i ve
r ol e
of mul t i nat i onal
cor por at i ons, and
exposed t o t he
f act t hat many
economi c
pol i ci es bei ng
advocat ed f or t hem,
such as
` i ndust r i al i zat i on by
i nvi t at i on' ,
had al r eady been
under t aken i n
Lat i n Amer i ca and
pr oved t o be
f ai l ur es
.
Hence f or a var i et y
of r easons, non- al i gned
count r i es
have come t o t he
concl usi on t hat t he gl obal
capi t al i st syst em
di scr i mi nat es
pr i mar i l y agai nst t he
poor er count r i es of t he
wor l d. At t he 1973
Al gi er s Summi t ,
t hey st at ed t hat t he
exi st i ng i nt er nat i onal
economi c or der
cont r i but ed t o t he
under devel opment
of devel opi ngnat i ons .
They al so ar gued
t hat pol i t i cal
i ndependence andsoci al
equal i t y coul d not be
guar ant eed unl ess t her e
was gr eat er
economi c equal i t y
i n
t he wor l d. I t was at
Al gi er s t hat t he
Non- al i gned
Movement cal l ed f or
st r uct ur al changes i n t he
gl obal economy and
t he est abl i shment
of a New
I nt er nat i onal Economi c
Or der , t he basi c
demands of whi ch
can be
summar i zed
as f ol l ows :
l . The
est abl i shment of pr oducer
associ at i ons
by pr oducer nat i ons
f ol l owi ng
2
3
Overvi ew
t he pat t ern
s et by t he
Organi zat i on
of Pet rol eum
Export i ng
Count ri es
(OPEC) ;
2.
Creat i on of new
commodi t y
agreement s
t o as s ure
j us t pri ces ;
3.
I ndexat i on;
4.
Soverei gnt y over
nat ural
res ources ;
5.
Trans f er of
t echnol ogy;
6. Great er
cont rol
over t he t wo
maj or
t ypes of
i nt ernat i onal
pri vat e
organi zat i ons -t he
t rans nat i onal
corporat i ons
and
t rans nat i onal
banks .
One
of t he mos t
s i gni f i cant
f eat ures
about t he
demand f or t he
New
I nt ernat i onal Economi c
Order
i s t hat i t
i s not a
revol ut i onary
doct ri ne. I t
woul dbe i ncorrect t o
concl ude
t hat as a
res ul t of i t s
cri t i que of t he
exi s t i ng
capi t al i s t economi c
s ys t em,
t he maj ori t y
of
non-al i gned
count ri es are
commi t t edt o an
al t ernat i ve
economi c
s ys t em.
Whi l et hes t ruggl e
f or pol i t i cal
i ndependence
has of t en
t aken an
ant i -capi t al i s t
as wel l as an
ant i -col oni al
f orm, hos t i l i t y t o
capi t al i s m
s houl d
never be
equat ed wi t h
bel i ef i n s oci al i s m
.
Several
non-al i gned count ri es
have
es t abl i s hed
s oci al i s t
economi es , but
t he
maj ori t y
remai n wi t hi n t he
capi t al i s t
s ys t em,
whi l eoppos ed
t o i t s
i nequal i t i es ,
es peci al l y
i t s f orei gn
domi nat i on and
i nt ernat i onal
charact er
. The
maj or
probl em
i s t hat t hei r own
economi es
are s t ruct ural l y
l i nked
t o t he exi s t i ng
worl d
capi t al i s t s ys t em
and t hi s
cont ri but es t o
t hei r economi c
i nequal i t y
.
Theref ore,
i n t hei r cal l f or
a New
I nt ernat i onal
Economi c
Order, non-al i gned
count ri es
s eek ways and
means by
whi ch t hey
can s urvi ve
i n s uch a s ys t em
.
Hencet hei r demands
are es s ent i al l y
ref ormi s t
i n nat ure.
They cal l f or
negot i at i ons bet ween
t hes o-cal l ed
`haves '
(Nort h) and
t hes o-
cal l ed `have-not s '
(Sout h) t o work
t owards
great er gl obal
economi c
equal i t y.
However, t he
Movement has
been s i ngul arl y
uns ucces s f ul
i n
obt ai ni ng
s i gni f i cant
conces s i ons or
changes f rom
t he devel oped
nat i ons . I t
has al s o
become
apparent t o t he
Movement t hat
Wes t ern
nat i ons have
at t empt ed t o
di vi de
t henon-al i gned
pol i t i cal l y andt o
des t roy t he
economi c
uni t y t hat was
achi eved
i n s uch ad hoc
groupi ngs as
t he Group of
77 andOPEC
duri ng t he
l at t er part
of t he 1970s
. Thei mpas s e
of Nort h-Sout h
t al ks has now
l ed many
non-al i gned count ri es
t o re-exami ne
t he pos s i bi l i t y
of achi evi ng
a New
I nt ernat i onal
Economi c
Order
t hrough Nort h-Sout h
di al ogues .
Thus t here
i s
a
great deal of
di s enchant ment
wi t h bot h
t he s l ow progres s
t owards
s at i s f act i on
of t he
Sout h' s
demands andwi t h
gl obal negot i at i ons
.
For t hos enat i ons
whohave
rel i edon t he
i nt ernat i onal
monet ary s ys t em
f or
as s i s t ance i n
economi c
devel opment
t here are ot her
s al i ent l es s ons .
Such
i ns t i t ut i ons as t he
I nt ernat i onal
Monet ary
Fundhave
provedt o bepol i t i cal
as
wel l as economi c
i ns t i t ut i ons
. I n t he l as t
f ewyears ,
us i ng s uch s t rat egi es
as
f i s cal mani pul at i on,
t hes e
i ns t i t ut i ons have
proppedup
aut hori t ari an
regi mes
whi l es everel y
cri ppl i ng
progres s i veones
. Thi s pol i cy
has cont ri but ed
t o t he
2
4
Pr i nci pl es of Non- al i gnment
r emoval of s ome pr ogr es s i ve r egi mes and t hei r r epl acement by mor e
cons er vat i ve r egi mes . The pol i t i cal demi s e of Mi chael Manl ey i n J amai ca
coul d be r epeat ed el s ewher e . I n ot her wor ds , f i s cal des t abi l i zat i on can be as
s ucces s f ul as di r ect mi l i t ar yi nt er vent i on i n i nt er f er i ngwi t h t he i nt er nal af f ai r s
of devel opi ng count r i es , t hus maki ng pol i t i cal i ndependence a s ham.
Non- al i gned count r i es wi l l have t o devi s e news t r at egi es i n whi ch l ong-
t er mobj ect i ves ar e s epar at ed f r oms hor t - t er mneeds . Economi c decl ar at i ons ,
whi l e us ef ul i n enabl i ng t he non- al i gned count r i es t o under s t and bet t er t he
r eas ons f or t hei r under devel opment , ar e not enough. For s ome, t hi s has
f os t er ed t he cons i der at i on of al t er nat i ves s uch as expandi ng hor i zont al or
Sout h- Sout h l i nkages
and devel opi ng a s t r at egy of col l ect i ve s el f - r el i ance t o
achi eve gr eat er
economi c equal i t y
.
I n s pi t e of t he l i mi t ed s ucces s t o dat e of t he
NewI nt er nat i onal Economi c Or der , t he cal l f or a change i n
t he
exi s t i ng
i nt er nat i onal economi c or der has pl aced on t he wor l d' s s t age a maj or debat e
on t he r edi s t r i but i on of gl obal weal t h and r es our ces .
Cul t ur al Equal i t y: t he Sear ch f or a NewWor l d I nf or mat i on
and Communi cat i ons Or der
Non- al i gned count r i es have al s o addr es s ed t he i s s ue of cul t ur al i mper i al i s m
and made cul t ur al equal i t y anot her pr i nci pl e of t he Movement . Or i gi nal l y,
t hey wer e pr i mar i l y concer ned about t he cul t ur al pi l l age under t aken by
Wes t er n count r i es f or over 300 year s , a pol i cy t hat deni ed peopl e t hei r
hi s t or i cal pas t and, i n conj unct i on wi t h t he col oni al i s t exper i ence, cont r i but ed
t o a negat i ve i mage of t hei r r ol e i n wor l d hi s t or y. Hence, a number of Af r i can
and As i an
count r i es have s ought t o r egai n cul t ur al ar t ef act s ar bi t r ar i l y
r emoved f r omt hei r
l ocat i on and pl aced i n mus eums i n t he met r opol es of
London, Par i s , Madr i d and NewYor k.
Recent l y, non- al i gned count r i es have t ur ned
t o anot her f or mof cul t ur al
domi nat i on, t he abi l i t y of t he new
communi cat i ons s ys t ems , whi ch ar e
pr edomi nant l y Wes t er n owned and
cont r ol l ed, t o penet r at e any nat i on s t at e
ands ubver t t r adi t i onal val ues . The wor l d
mar ket economy cr eat es a cul t ur e of
cons umer i s m. The cons equences have
been det r i ment al t o devel opi ng
count r i es . For exampl e, t hr ough adver t i s i ng,
t he mi l k i ndus t r y i n t he Wes t
al t er ed t he chi l d- r ear i ng and f eedi ng habi t s of a l ar ge number of non- al i gned
count r i es wi t hi n a s hor t per i od of t i me . I n ot her wor ds ,
t he t echnol ogy of
communi cat i ons t oday can di r ect l y and r adi cal l y t r ans f or m not onl y t he
cul t ur al val ues of a gi ven s oci et y, but t he dai l y l i ves of t he maj or i t y of i t s
peopl e, however r emot e t hey ar e f r ommet r opol i t an cent r es .
Her ber t Schi l l er , t he not ed Amer i can communi cat i on t heor i s t , al s o war ns
t 1

: one mus t not s epar at e t he t echnol ogy
of communi cat i ons f r omt he cont ent
c

communi cat i on . He not es t he expans i ve and danger ous nat ur e of t he
25
Over vi ew
communi cat i ons
i ndust r y by quot i ng
a f or mer di r ect or
of t he Uni t ed
St at es
I nf or mat i on Agency:
Our
st r at egy cannot be
based on t he
cur r ent communi cat i ons
syst em.
Long
bef or e a di r ect
br oadcast
sat el l i t e becomes
f easi bl e, however ,
t her e wi l l be
gl obal
el ect r oni c net wor ks
-some of
whi ch ar e al r eady
i n oper at i on
-
whi ch wi l l pose
r eal i st i c quest i ons
about
i nf or mat i onf l owand
cul t ur al i dent i t y
. . .
The i nt er nat i onal
ext ensi on of
el ect r oni c mai l
t r ansmi ssi on, dat a
packet
net wor ks
and i nf or mat i on
bank r et r i eval
syst ems, i n t he f ut ur e year s
wi l l have
consi der abl y mor e
ef f ect on
nat i onal cul t ur es t han
any di r ect br oadcast
syst em. 2
I t i s
al so t he West ' s
st r at egy t o make
massi ve i nf or mat i on
t echnol ogy
r eadi l y
avai l abl e t o
devel opi ng count r i es.
We have obser ved
t hat many
non-al i gned
count r i es have
qui ckl y absor bed
t he el ect r oni cs
medi a as t he l at est
mode of
communi cat i ons
. I t was bel i eved
t hat t he i nt r oduct i on
of t el evi si on
woul d act
as an
educat i onal t ool and at
l ong l ast
nat i onal l y i nt egr at e t he
mass of t he
peopl e and
gi ve t hemdi r ect
access t o agl obal
cul t ur e . At t he i nsi st ence
of Mr s
Gandhi , I ndi a
has been one
of t he f ewst at es t o
i mpl ement such
a pol i cy wi t h
some success,
usi ng sat el l i t e
communi cat i ons.
However , smal l er
gover nment al
t el evi si on
associ at i ons soon
f ound t hat t hey
wer e i ncapabl e of
compet i ng wi t h
t he massi ve,
wel l -or gani zed
and wel l -packaged
pr ogr ammes
comi ngf r omt he
West .
Havi ng acqui r ed
t he t echnol ogy,
devel opi ng
count r i es now f i nd
t hemsel ves
l i mi t ed t o
i mpor t i ng cer t ai n
t ypes of pr ogr ammes,
l ar gel y cheap
semi -commer ci al ones
pr oduced i n t he
West er n wor l d,
whi ch can be shown
onl y by a par t i cul ar
i nst r ument . Thus
a newki nd of
dependence i s cr eat ed,
t echnol ogi cal
dependence.
Fur t her mor e,
medi a pr oduct i ons
i mpor t ed f r om
abr oad, such as
t el evi si on
ser i es and f i l ms,
donot per f or m
t he t ask of nat i onal
i nt egr at i on and
cr eat i onof
acul t ur al
i dent i t y t hat may be
desi r ed i n devel opi ng
count r i es. I nst ead,
t hey
qui ckl y cr eat e
a sect or wi t hi n t he
popul at i on whose
val ues, goal s,
obj ect i ves
and
t ast es ar e
f ocused ext er nal l y.
Thus t hr ough
t he communi cat i ons
i ndust r y,
even af t er decades
of i ndependence,
devel opi ng
count r i es can
st i l l be
cul t ur al l y and
economi cal l y
domi nat ed and
mani pul at ed by t hei r
f or mer
col oni al mast er s .
Fi nal l y,
one must bear i n
mi nd t he pol i t i cal
consequences
of t he
i mpor t at i onof
t hi s t ype of
t echnol ogy. I t i s possi bl e
t hr ough t he
ef f ect i ve use
of t he medi a
t o dest abi l i ze a
gover nment . AUS
Congr ess
Commi t t ee r epor t ,
Wi nni ngt he Col d War
and I deol ogi cal
Oper at i ons and
For ei gn Pol i cy, f or
exampl e
st at es:
26
Cer t ai n
f or ei gn pol i cy
obj ect i ves canbe
pur sued by
deal i ng di r ect l y wi t h
t he
peopl e of f or ei gn
count r i es r at her t han
wi t h t hei r
gover nment s . Thr ough
t he
use of moder n
i nst r ument s
and t echni ques of
communi cat i ons, i t
i s possi bl e t o
Pr i nci pl es of Non- al i gnment
r each l ar ge andi nfl uent i al segment s oft he nat i onal popul at i on t oi nfor mt hem,
t o i nfl uence t hei r at t i t udes, and at t i mes per haps even mot i vat e t hemt o a
par t i cul ar cour se of act i on. These gr oups i n t ur n
ar e capabl e of exer ci si ng
not i ceabl e, even deci si ve, pr essur e on t hei r govemment s . 3
Thi s abi l i t y of t he communi cat i ons i ndust r y t o t r ansfor m and det er mi ne
domest i c pol i t i cs t hr eat ens t he pol i t i cal sover ei gnt y and i ndependence of
nat i on st at es. As t he I ndi an speci al i st on mass communi cat i ons, D. R.
Mankekar has not ed, cul t ur al domi nat i on i s
a ki nd of neo- col oni al i smwhi ch i s even mor e di ffi cul t t oshake off, because i t
i s a cul t ur al i nfi l t r at i on of t he mi nds and soul s of peopl e. Even as i n t he
ni net eent h cent ur y t he fl ag fol l owed
t r ade, i n t he pr esent er a t r ade and
economi c domi nat i on fol l owmedi a
domi nat i on. 4
I n r esponse t o t hese concer ns, non- al i gned count r i es have r ecent l y cal l edfor a
newwor l d i nfor mat i on and communi cat i ons or der . As par t of an effor t t o
decol oni ze t he news, t he Movement has for med a non- al i gnednews pool and
has begun t o l i nk r adi o communi cat i ons . As wi t h t he NewI nt er nat i onal
Economi c Or der , non- al i gned st at es have begun t o devel op a st r at egy of
i ncr easi ng hor i zont al l i nkages bet ween t hei r r egi ons i nst ead of r el yi ng on t he
ol dver t i cal l i nkages wi t h t he met r opol i t an capi t al s for i nfor mat i on. Thi s i s a
st ep t owar ds achi evi ng some for mof cul t ur al sel f- det er mi nat i on. However ,
much mor e needs t obe done i n t he spher e of communi cat i ons, i ncl udi ng a
r adi cal
r e- exami nat i on of t r adi t i onal pol i ci es such as t he r ol e andpl ace of t he
medi a i n soci et y and t he r el at i onshi p
bet ween t he communi cat i ons i ndust r y
and t he wor l d mar ket syst em.
Uni ver sal i smand Mul t i l at er al i sm: t he Non- al i gned
Movement and i t s Suppor t for t he Uni t ed Nat i ons
One of t he par amount pr i nci pl es of t he Non- al i gnedMovement i s suppor t for
t he Uni t ed Nat i ons as a uni ver sal andmul t i l at er al i nst i t ut i on . The Movement
suppor t s t he Uni t ed Nat i ons because i t shar es si mi l ar uni ver sal pr i nci pl es wi t h
non- al i gnment . For non- al i gned count r i es, t he UNi s t he most i mpor t ant
gl obal i nst i t ut i on i n exi st ence. I t offer s t he r eal fut ur e for humani t y and
r emai ns t he maj or i nt er nat i onal or gani zat i on for r esol vi ng confl i ct s and
addr essi nggl obal i ssues . I t i s t o t he Uni t ed Nat i ons t hat non- al i gned count r i es
br i ng
t hei r fi nal decl ar at i ons for i mpl ement at i on. I t i s wi t hi n t he UNt hat t hey
conduct
most of
t hei r
pol i t i cs, bot h bi l at er al and mul t i l at er al .
The
Uni t ed Nat i ons st r uct ur e al so offer s an oppor t uni t y for t he Movement
t o meet r egul ar l y as a gr oup out si de t hei r
own gat her i ngs and t oi nfor mone
anot her about t he st at e and
nat ur e of t he Movement as wel l as non- al i gned
i ssues. I t i s wi t hi n t hi s i nt er nat i onal
body t hat t he Co- or di nat i ng Bur eau of
27
Over vi ew
non- al i gned
count r i es at t he
ambassador i al l evel conduct s a
gr eat deal of t he
day- t o- day
act i vi t i es of t he
Movement . Non- al i gned
count r i es use t he UN
syst em
t o expr ess t hei r
r eact i ons t o a number of gl obal
i ssues, especi al l y i ssues
t hat come up bet ween
t hei r summi t meet i ngs . The
NewYor kmeet i ngs can act
as
a cl ear i ng house
wher e i ssues ar e debat ed
bef or e bei ng pr esent ed t o
t he
f or ei gn mi ni st er s andheads
of st at e . Her e, t oo, t hey
of t en i ssue st at ement s
t hat
become
par t of t he
document s of t he Gener al
Assembl y and t he Secur i t y
Counci l
whi ch t he UNt hen
makes avai l abl e t o
t he gl obal communi t y.
A
car ef ul exami nat i on
of UNact i vi t i es
r eveal s t hat t he
non- al i gned
count r i es
pl ay a ver y act i ve
r ol e i n t he i nt r oduct i on
of newr esol ut i ons and
t he
passage of al l r esol ut i ons
. I t woul d be
i ncor r ect t o assume t hat
non- al i gned
count r i es act as a
uni f i ed bl oc i n t he UN
syst em. The. Movement
i s not a
pol i t i cal par t y;
r at her , member s act as
a coal i t i on wi t hi n t he
Uni t ed Nat i ons
suppor t i ng i ssues
on whi ch t hey
agr ee, par t i cul ar l y t hose
conf or mi ng t o t he
pr i nci pl es of
non- al i gnment .
For exampl e, non- al i gned
count r i es wer e
pr i mar i l y
r esponsi bl e f or cal l i ng
t he t wo Speci al Sessi ons
on Di sar mament at
t he Uni t ed
Nat i ons . Wi t hi nt he
UN, t he non- al i gned
have al so pushedf or t he
r i ght s of i ndi genous
peopl es and an
end t o col oni al i sm
andr aci smi n al l
t hei r
f or ms. I t i s
wi t hi n t he Uni t ed Nat i ons
syst emt hat
t hey have at t empt ed t o
i mpl ement t he
New I nt er nat i onal
Economi c Or der
and t he new wor l d
i nf or mat i on
and communi cat i ons
or der .
The
non- al i gned count r i es have
changed bot h t he
composi t i on of
t he
Uni t ed Nat i ons and i t s r ol e i n t he
wor l d. Whent he UN
was f or med
af t er
Wor l d War I I i t was a
pr edomi nant l y Eur o- Amer i can
Whi t e man' s
cl ub
r epr esent i ng t he i nt er est s of
t he vi ct or s of t hat war .
The ent r y of
newl y
i ndependent smal l
and mi ddl e- si zed st at es, most of
whomwer e
f or mer
col oni es, has
t r ansf or med t he UN. West er nnat i ons
whi ch f or year s had
had
f i r m cont r ol
over t he f unct i onal or gani zat i on of
t he UNsyst em
ar e now
r esent f ul t hat
newgr oupi ngs andi nt er est s have
ent er ed i nt o t he gl obal
syst em.
They had assumed
t hat t hei r i nt er est s wer e
t he ` i nt er nat i onal ' i nt er est s
of t he
gl obal communi t y.
However , when
t he non- al i gned ent er ed
i nt o t he
i nt er nat i onal syst em
as a cohesi ve uni t ,
t hey ar gued t hat t hese i nt er est s
wer e
l i mi t ed and di d
not r ef l ect t he ent i r e
gl obal communi t y. I n t hei r
act i vi t i es at
t he UN, non- al i gned
st at es ar e
at t empt i ngt o make i t ser ve t he needs
of al l t he
count r i es of t he
wor l d, especi al l y
t he di spossessed, and not
j ust t he maj or
power s .
As wi t h t he
ot her basi c pr i nci pl es
of non- al i gnment ,
l i mi t at i ons cont i nue t o
exi st .
Non- - al i gned count r i es have
been unabl e t o
sat i sf y f ul l y many of t hei r
concer ns
at
t he Uni t edNat i ons .
Wi t hi n t he UN
st r uct ur e i t sel f , t he Gener al
Assembl y mor e cl osel y r ef l ect s
t he changes
i n i nt er nat i onal pol i t i cs.
The
Secur i t y Counci l , however ,
r emai ns a bast i on of
t he ol d i nt er nat i onal power
syst em.
28
Pr i nci pl es of Non- al i gnment
The
Secur i t y Counci l was cr eat ed by t he vi ct or s of
Wor l d War I I t o
pr es er ve t he
s t at us quo i n i nt er nat i onal r el at i ons . I t has been s een
as a
pr edomi nant l y Wes t er n
pr i vat e cl ub wher e t he Sovi et Uni on was bar el y
t ol er at ed. I n addi t i on
t o
t he
f i ve per manent member s , t he Char t er al l owed f or
s i x el ect ed member s , enabl i ng
t he Counci l t o cons i s t of el even member s
r epr es ent i ng 51 nat i ons . The
el ect ed member s of t he Secur i t y Counci l al s o
t ended t o come f r omt he
Wes t and t he pr o- Wes t s t at es of Lat i n Amer i ca.
( I ndeed Br azi l was
el ect ed f i ve t i mes t o t he Secur i t y Counci l . ) The gr eat Af r o-
As i an r evol ut i on and
t he Non- al i gned Movement chal l enged t he aut hent i ci t y
of t hi s el i t i s t cl ub. I n 1963,
af t er much debat e, t he Secur i t y Counci l was
enl ar ged t o 15 ( f i ve per manent member s
and t en el ect ed) t o mor e accur at el y
r ef l ect bot ht he i ncr eas ed member s hi p
of t he UN, whi chhad gr own f r om51
t o 154, and t he par t i cul ar i nt er es t s of Af r i ca,
As i a and a changi ng Lat i n
Amer i ca.
The Secur i t y Counci l has become an except i onal l y i mpor t ant
body t o t he
vas t maj or i t y
of non- al i gned count r i es . Si nce Wor l d War I I , al l
t he maj or
conf l i ct s
have occur r ed i n t he Thi r d Wor l d, namel y, Sout h- Eas t
As i a, Wes t
As i a, t he Mi ddl e Eas t , Sout her n Af r i ca and nowCent r al Amer i ca. Ther ef or e,
r epr es ent at i on i n t he Secur i t y Counci l i s a mat t er of s ur vi val f or
t he
non-
al i gned
count r i es .
The r ol e
of t he Secur i t y Counci l and es peci al l y t he power of t he vet o ar e
maj or concer ns
of t he Movement . Non- al i gned count r i es ar e a numer i cal
maj or i t y i n t he Secur i t y Counci l ,
but t hi s maj or i t y i s made i mpot ent by t he
vet o power of t he per manent member s
. The mer e expans i on of t he Secur i t y
Counci l wi l l not s ol ve t he pr obl em. The t i me
may have ar r i ved when t he
Non- al i gned Movement des er ves a s eat as a s i xt h
per manent member of t he
Secur i t y Counci l . I t i s unl i kel y t hat any of t he exi s t i ng
per manent member s
wi l l gi ve up t hei r pr i vi l eged s t at us even t hough t he r i ght
t o member s hi p of
s ome i s hi ghl y ques t i onabl e, f or exampl e Gr eat Br i t ai n,
whi chi s not as gr eat
any mor e . J apan has al s o as ked t o be a per manent member
on t he gr ounds t hat
i t i s an economi c s uper power . Cl ear l y s ome i mmedi at e
s t eps t o r ef or mt he
UNs ys t emar e r equi r ed t o make i t mor e
accur at el y r ef l ect t he cont empor ar y
wor l d.
I n s pi t e of i t s pr es ent def i ci enci es , t he Uni t ed Nat i ons
s ys t emof f er s t he
ent i r e i nt er nat i onal communi t y t he oppor t uni t y t o exper i ment wi t h
a number
of met hods t o r es ol ve s oci al , economi c and pol i t i cal i s s ues .
An ar ena f or
pol i t i cal di s agr eement s and r het or i cal debat es i s es s ent i al t o t he s ur vi val
of
humanki nd, es peci al l y
s i nce many di s put es i n t he wor l d s ys t emhave no s i mpl e
ans wer s .
For exampl e, on t he ques t i on of devel opment s t r at egy, t he UN
s ys t em has pr ovi ded
occas i ons wher eby di ver s e and di ver gent exper i ment s
can be not onl y debat ed but al s o
i mpl ement ed.
Non- al i gned count r i es have act i vel y
r es i s t ed t act i cs t o ` depol i t i ci ze' t he UN
29
Over vi ew
syst em
and r ender i t
i nef f ect i ve.
Lar gel y due t o
t hei r ef f or t s,
t he l evel of
debat e
at t he Uni t ed
Nat i ons has
i mpr oved. I n t he
ear l y days, t he
UNwas
domi nat edby t he dul l
voi ces of
l egal i st s, and
occasi onal l y l i vened
upby t he
shr i l l
voi ces of t he
col dwar war r i or s
. Today, t he
UNhas become a
f or umf or
l i vel y
debat es ont he
r eal i ssues t hat
f ace humanki nd,
namel y,
pover t y, peace
and
equal i t y.
Non- al i gned count r i es
must t ake
consi der abl e
cr edi t f or
st r engt heni ng and
i mpr ovi ng t he l evel
of di scussi ons
at t he UN.
No doubt ,
some
r egr et t he passi ng
of t he ear l y days
whent he
i nt er nat i onal
or gani zat i on
was
not hi ng mor e
t hanan excl usi ve
count r y cl ub,
cl osedt o t he
di spossessedof
t he
wor l d. For
non- al i gned count r i es,
however , t he
Uni t edNat i ons
ent er ed a
new
er a when
t he maj or i t y of
t he popul at i ons
of t he wor l d
j oi ned t he
i nt er nat i onal
communi t y as equal
par t ner s i n gl obal
deci si on- maki ng
.
Non- al i gned
count r i es al so
est abl i shed a
pr ecedent i n
i nt er nat i onal pol i t i cs
by
t r eat i ng l i ber at i on
movement s
as of f i ci al
spokesper sons
f or t hei r peopl e
pr i or t o i ndependence
. Thus
t he l eader s of t he
Angol anMPLA,
t he Al ger i an
NLF and ot her s
wer e t r eat ed as
heads of st at e,
andt hei r
movement s became
f ul l - f l edged member s
of t he
Non- al i gned
Movement pr i or t o
t hei r becomi ng
i ndependent . I ndeed,
t hi s pr ecedent
ul t i mat el y
r esul t edi nt he
Uni t edNat i ons
accept i ng t hese new
st at es as
l egi t i mat e
member s of t he
i nt er nat i onal
communi t y. I n t he
f i nal anal ysi s,
t he
Non- al i gned Movement
has been
r esponsi bl e f or t he
i ncr eased
democr at i zat i on of
i nt er nat i onal
r el at i ons . I nal l
t hese ways, however ,
t he Uni t ed
Nat i ons r emai ns
an essent i al
i nst i t ut i on f or
non- al i gned
count r i es and
t he Movement
has al ways sought
t o st r engt heni t s
capaci t y f or mul t i l at er al
di pl omacy.
I nsummar y,
non- al i gned
count r i es have
def i ned t he cent r al
pr obl emsi nce
Wor l dWar I I
as t he emer gence
of apol i t i cal ,
economi c and
soci al syst emt hat
had br l t
i nt o i t a pat t er n
of i nequal i t y
not onl y
bet ween nat i ons, but ,
concomi t ant l y,
bet ween al l
peopl es of t he
wor l d. The pr esent
mal ai se
i s a
r esul t of
i nst i t ut i onal i zed gl obal
pol i t i cal ,
economi c and
soci al i nequal i t y
.
I nequal i t y, t hey
ar gue, i s t he
r oot cause of
i nt er nat i onal
t ensi ons . And
t hese
t ensi ons, t hey
f ur t her ar gue,
of t en r esul t i n
vi ol ence andwar
. Thi s st r uct ur ed
i nequal i t y
i s mani f est ed
i n many ways.
The Non- al i gned
Movement
t hr oughout
i t s exi st ence
has made
r ecommendat i ons
t o r esol ve
t hese
i nequal i t i es .
These mani f est at i ons
and
sol ut i ons ar e
summar i zedi n Char t
1 .
To
accompl i sh i t s nobl e
obj ect i ves,
however , t he Movement
must wor k
i na
wor l d t hat
i s domi nat ed
by i nt er nat i onal
anar chy.
The condi t i ons
of
i nt er nat i onal
anar chy
pr esent a
const ant pr obl em
si nce at any t i me
t he
act i vi t i es
of t he maj or
power s can
af f ect i nt er nal
di f f er ences wi t hi n
t he
Movement
. I nmanyways,
t he wor k
andi nt er est s of
t he Movement
r ef l ect t he
moods
and changes of
t he gl obal syst em
. The Fi r st
Summi t i n
Bel gr ade i n
1 961 ,
f or exampl e, was
pr i mar i l y
concer ned wi t h
peace and
di sar mament ,
especi al l y
r educi ng
East - West t ensi ons
. I n t he l at e
1 960s, t he Movement
was
30
Chart I : Gl obal I nequal i ty
Pri nci pl es of Non- al i gnment
4.
Cul tural

Domi nati on
and control of

New
worl d i nf ormati on and
i nequal i ty

the worl d' s i nf ormati on

communi cati ons order
systemand
al l f orms of
communi cati on
technol ogi es
5. Soci al i nequal i ty

Raci al , gender, cul tural

Restructuri ng the worl d' s
strati f i cati on

cul tural and
educati onal
systems of exchange
Campai gns
agai nst raci al ,
sexual and cul tural
di scri mi nati on
6. Mi l i tary

Strati f i cati on of states
by

Reducti onof arms
race
i nequal i ty

mi l i tary
capaci ty

Resol uti on of di sputes
throughmul ti l ateral
di pl omacy
Transf er of mi l i tary
expendi tures
to
devel opment obj ecti ves
7. Gl obal

Al l of the above

Mul ti l ateral di pl omacyunder
structural

the auspi ces of the
UN
i nequal i ty
31
2. Economi c Pri ce
system( markets)
NewI nternati onal Economi c
i nequal i ty
Monetary system
( debts) Order
Monopol y of the Col l ecti ve
sel f - rel i ance
transnati onal
corporati ons
and
transnati onal banks
3. Technol ogi cal
Domi nance of i ndustri al
Transf er of
technol ogy
i nequal i ty
technol ogy ( i ncl udi ng Appl i cati on
of appropri ate
warf are)
technol ogi es
Domi nanceof researchand
devel opment
of i ndustri al
nati ons
Monopol y
of sci enti f i c
i nf ormati on and trai ni ng
1. Pol i ti cal
Mani f estati ons
Col oni al i sm
Non- Al i gned Sol uti ons
Democrati zati onof
i nequal i ty
Mi l i tary al l i ances ( bl oc
i nternati onal
rel ati ons
pol i ti cs)
Support
f or nati onal
Neo- col oni al i sm.
l i berati on
( i ncl udi ng
Maj or
power domi nance
armed struggl e)
Peaceand di sarmament
Reducti onof East- West
tensi ons
Non- al i gnment i n an Age
of Al i gnment s
pr i mar i l y concer ned
wi t h t he suppor t
i t had t o pr ovi de t o
nat i onal l i ber at i on
movement s i n Asi a
andAf r i ca. I n t he
1970s, t he gl obal
economi c cr i si s l edi t t o pur -
sue
a st r at egy whi ch
r esul t ed i n t he
cr eat i on of andsuppor t
f or t he Commi t t ee
of
77. Andnow, i n t he
1980s, i t
concent r at es ont he l i nk
bet ween di sar mament
and
devel opment . I n
addi t i on, t he Movement
has hadt o f ace t he
pr obl emof
deal i ng
wi t h
i t s i nt er nal
cont r adi ct i ons, i . e.
conf l i ct s bet ween member
nat i ons, and
t he
possi bi l i t y of t hese i nt er nal
cont r adi ct i ons
becomi ng embr oi l ed
i n t he East - West
conf l i ct
andcr eat i ng an
i nt er nat i onal
si t uat i on wi t ht he
pot ent i al of nucl ear war
.
Fur t her mor e, whi l e
we have not ed
above t hat non- al i gned
count r i es shar e a
commi t ment t o aset of
basi c pr i nci pl es,
i t shoul d not be f or got t en
t hat t he Move-
ment
i s a compl ex
gr oupi ng of st at es
r epr esent i ng di f f er ent
hi st or i es, l anguages,
r el i gi ons and cul t ur es
and a var i et y of
pol i t i cal , soci al and
economi c syst ems
.
Thi s has cont r i but ed
t o a number of
t endenci es or i deol ogi cal
di f f er ences
wi t hi n
t he Movement
t hat can i nf l uence
t he di r ect i on and
out come of a
non- al i gned
meet i ng as wel l
as i t s posi t i on on
any par t i cul ar
i ssue
.
The t endenci es t hat
have
emer ged as
t he Movement
devel oped can be
descr i bed as f ol l ows : ( a)
soci al -
democr at i c
st at e capi t al i st ; ( b)
r adi cal nat i onal i st
;
( c)
neo- col oni al
dependent
capi t al i st ; and
( d) Mar xi st - Leni ni st
. Over t he
year s, cer t ai n count r i es
have
become i dent i f i ed
wi t hpar t i cul ar
t endenci es and
have beenknownt o t ake
posi -
t i ons on an i ssue
basedon t hei r
i deol ogi cal vi ew.
However , a change i n
gover n-
ment may r esul t
i n a non- al i gned
- count r y al t er i ng i t s
par t i cul ar t endency
. How
non- al i gned
count r i es achi eve
uni t y wi t hi n t hi s
di ver si t y r equi r es an
under st and-
i ng of t he
pol i t i cal and soci al
pr ocesses wi t hi n t he
Non- al i gned
Movement . I n
t he f ol l owi ng
chapt er , we
exami ne t he st r uct ur e
and or gani zat i on of
t he Move-
ment .
I n spi t e
of t hese t endenci es
andchangi ng
emphases, t he Movement
cont i nues
t o r ef l ect one
si ngl e concer n -
t o engage i n
pol i ci es t hat r educe
st r uct ur al
i n-
equal i t y i n t he
gl obal syst em.
Pr i mar i l y because
i t i s at t empt i ngt o
r est r uct ur e
t he
gl obal syst em,
t he Movement
r ecogni zes t hat
i t has opponent s
and t hat t hese
opponent s
have al ways been
consci ousl y r eady
t o dest abi l i ze
and di smant l e i t .
Oneof t he
Non- al i gned
Movement ' s gr eat est
achi evement s has been
i t s capaci t y
t o sur vi ve
and r emai n a
vi t al and vi abl e
f or ce i n wor l d pol i t i cs.
Not es
1. Chapt er 1 i s a
r evi si on and
expansi on of our ar t i cl e
` Pr i nci pl es of
Non-
Al i gnment ' , publ i shed
i n NonAl i gnment :
Per spect i ves andPr ospect s
ed U. S . Baj pai
( New
Del hi : Lancer s
Publ i sher s, 1983; New
Yor k : Humani t i es
Pr ess, 1983) .
2. Her ber t
Schi l l er , Communi cat i on
andCul t ur al
Domi nat i on ( Whi t e Pl ai ns, NY
: I nt er -
nat i onal Ar t s &
Sci ences, 1976) , pp.
46- 7.
3. Ci t edi n D.
RMankekar , medi a
andt he ' Thi r d Wor l d
( NewDel hi : I ndi an
I nst i t ut e
of Mass
Communi cat i ons, 1979) , p.
18.
4. i bi d.
32
2.
St r uct ur e and Or gani zat i on
One of t he most r emar kabl e achi evement s of
t he
Non- al i gned
Movement has
been i t s capaci t y t o t r ansf or mi t sel f f r oma smal l pr ot est
movement i nt o a
maj or i nt er nat i onal soci al movement i nwor l dpol i t i cs.
I n
Par t
I I
of t hi s
st udy,
we shal l exami ne i n some det ai l howt hi s t r ansf or mat i on t ook pl ace i n t he
cont ext of changi ng wor l d event s. I n t hi s chapt er , we want t o descr i be t he
i nt er nal pr ocesseswi t hi nt he Movement , i t s or gani zat i onal st r uct ur e, andhow
i t devi ses newst r uct ur es t o meet di f f er ent needs.
One of t he pr evai l i ng myt hs wi t hi nt he Movement , andal so per pet uat edby
many of i t s st udent s, i s t hat i t has avoi ded i nst i t ut i onal i zat i on.
A
hi st or i cal
sur vey of t he Movement , as we shal l see i n t he f ol l owi ng chapt er s, cl ear l y
r eveal s t hat i t has devel oped a huge admi ni st r at i ve appar at us t o i mpl ement
many of i t s pol i ci es. The mer e f act t hat i t l acks a f or mal
const i t ut i on wi t h a
secr et ar i at shoul dnot l ead one t o concl ude t hat i t has r esi st ed
i nst i t ut i onal i za-
t i on. Non- al i gned count r i es have devel oped st r uct ur es as t hey
needed t hem
and conveni ent l y avoi ded r ef er r i ng t o t hemwhent hei r pur poses
came t o an
end. The Br i t i sh gover nment pr ovi des t he cl osest anal ogy t o t hi s pr ocess i n
nat i on- st at e pol i t i cs. Whi l e Br i t ai n has no const i t ut i on speci f i cal l y def i ni ng
t he power s del egat ed t o var i ous gover nment al agenci es, i t has i ndeed
devel oped an el abor at e st r uct ur e whi ch has enabl ed t he gover nment t o
f unct i on f or cent ur i es. The f ounder s of t he Non- al i gnedMovement andt hei r
successor s r ecogni zed t hat i t woul dpr obabl y be dest r oyedi f t hey cr eat ed such
f or mal st r uct ur es as a const i t ut i on and i nt er nal secr et ar i at . Amul t i cul t ur al
t r ansnat i onal or gani zat i on made up of st at es wi t h di f f er i ng i deol ogi es and
pur poses coul d never cr eat e a r at i onal admi ni st r at i ve st r uct ur e t o i mpl ement
i t s pol i ci es t hat al l coul d accept . As a soci al movement , i t i s cal l ed on t o
r espond t o speci f i c i ssues and concer ns. I t i s al so cal l ed upon t o f or get
concer ns and needs when t hey ar e no l onger r el evant . Consequent l y, t he
Movement
has cr eat ed a uni que f or mof admi ni st r at i ve st yl e. Non- al i gned
admi ni st r at i on
i s non- hi er ar chi cal , r ot at i onal and i ncl usi ve, pr ovi di ng al l member
st at es r egar dl ess
of
si ze
and i mpor t ance wi t h an oppor t uni t y t o par t i ci pat e i n
gl obal deci si on- maki ng
and wor l d pol i t i cs .
Non- al i gned count r i es meet f r omt i me t o t i me i n t hei r var i ous r egi ons t o
33
Over vi ew
di scuss shar ed concer ns, f or mul at e pol i cy,
and pl an commonact i on. The hi gh
poi nt i s t he summi t conf er ence
wher e t he heads of st at e or gover nment of
non- al i gned count r i es gat her
t oget her t o anal yse t he cur r ent i nt er nat i onal
si t uat i on and i ssue a
decl ar at i on. The summi t i s al so t he occasi on when t he
Movement
f or mal l y r ot at es i t s chai r shi p, gener al l y ever y t hr ee year s . The
chai r i s t he head of st at e of
t he host count r y of t he summi t and hol ds of f i ce
bet ween t he summi t s . The
chai r i s- al so del egat ed cer t ai n r esponsi bi l i t i es f or
pr omot i ng t he pr i nci pl es
and act i vi t i es of t he Movement . To dat e, seven
summi t s have been hel d: I Bel gr ade, 1961
; I I Cai r o, 1964; I I I Lusaka, 1970; I V
Al gi er s, 1973; V
Col ombo, 1976; VI Havana, 1979; and VI I NewDel hi ,
1983.
By cr eat i ng
t he pr act i ce of a r ot at i ng chai r , non- al i gned count r i es pl ace t he
onus of an admi ni st r at i ve st r uct ur e on t he count r y
assumi ng
t he chai r
.
At
each
summi t , t he Movement sel ect s t he venue f or t he
next summi t . Thi s enabl es t he
newnomi nee t o cr eat e a t r ansi t i on t eam
i mmedi at el y. Thi s t eamt hen act s as
under st udy t o t he out goi ng
chai r . Thus
t he
Movement has devel oped a f ai r l y
coher ent and r at i onal pat t er n of
t r ansi t i on. Thi s pr ocess, as we shal l see, was
ser i ousl y di sr upt ed when I r aq
was unabl e t o host t he Sevent h Summi t and
I ndi a st epped i n. Her e agai n,
t he Non- al i gned Movement devel oped new
mechani sms of consul t at i on t o meet
a par t i cul ar cr i si s .
Ever y member
st at e
of
t he Movement has a desk t o deal wi t h non- al i gned
mat t er s . I t coul d be
ar gued t hat t hese var i ous desks compr i se a mammot h
bur eaucr acy
t o i mpl ement non- al i gned pol i cy . I n addi t i on, i f a count r y
becomes
act i ve i n cer t ai n f unct i onal ar eas, such as f i sher i es or sci ence and
t echnol ogy, i ndi vi dual of f i ci al s wi t hi n t he r el evant mi ni st r i es of t he
member
count r i es become i nvol ved i n t he Movement and devel op an
exper t i se on
non- al i gned pr ocesses and pr act i ces .
Whena count r y assumes t he chai r of t he Movement , i t
cr eat es or desi gnat es
an ent i r e sect i on of t he f or ei gn mi ni st r y t o deal speci f i cal l y
wi t h non- al i gned
i ssues. Asmal l count r y l i ke Sr i Lanka not onl y
t r ansf or med i t s f or ei gn mi ni st r y
but i nvol ved l ar ge segment s of i t s nat i onal bur eaucr acy
i n non- al i gned
quest i ons. Secondl y, si nce non- al i gned count r i es meet
r egul ar l y at t he UN
and conduct much of t hei r wor k t her e, t he
chai r ' s ambassador at t he Uni t ed
Nat i ons essent i al l y f unct i ons as t he mi ni st er o
non- al i gned af f ai r s . The wor k
of t he non- al i gned of t en consumes t he
act i vi t i es of t he Per manent Mi ssi on.
The massi ve gr owt h of i nst i t ut i onal
st r uct ur es wi t hi n t he or gani zat i on t o deal
wi t h a wi de var i et y of concer ns
i s
becomi ng
an enor mous pr obl emf or t he
Movement . I n some i nst ances,
t hi s devel opment has become an i mpedi ment
t o speedy deci si on- maki ng.
Ther ef or e, many count r i es whi ch have chai r ed
t he Movement
have
compl ai ned bi t t er l y t hat t he wor k at t he Uni t ed Nat i ons
f or t he non- al i gned
has
consumed t he ent i r e ener gy of t hei r mi ssi on, l eavi ng
l i t t l e t i me f or t he conduct of t he nat i on' s f or ei gn pol i cy .
34
St r uct ur e andOr gani zat i on
These non- al i gned st r uct ur es, on t he ot her
hand, ar e except i onal l y
i mpor t ant f or smal l count r i es and enabl e t hemt o devel op
an exper t i se i n
mul t i l at er al di pl omacy. Pr i or t o t he 1960s, t he UNwas
t ot al l y domi nat edby
t he maj or power s. Whennon- al i gnedcount r i es ent er edt he
UN, most hadhad
l i t t l e exper i ence wi t h mul t i l at er al i sm; i ndeed, i t coul d
be ar gued t hat t he
Movement was t he t r ai ni ng gr ound f or di pl omat i c
pr act i ce at t he Uni t ed
Nat i ons. Hence f or smal l count r i es, mul t i l at er al i smi s
t he onl y mechani sm
avai l abl e t o t hem. I t i s essent i al f or t hei r sur vi val i n
t he i nt er nat i onal syst em
andt o mai nt ai nt hei r sover ei gnt y. One danger
of t hi s pr ocess, however , has
beena t endency wi t hi nt he Movement t o
r epl i cat e t he f unct i ons andact i vi t i es
of t he UNi n some ar eas.
The Movement has al so gi ven smal l nat i ons an
oppor t uni t y t o empower
t hemsel ves col l ect i vel y and t o chal l enge t he hegemony
of t he domi nant
power s. Whi l e some member s want ed t he Movement
t o have gr eat er
cohesi on and i nt egr at i on, t hey qui ckl y r eal i zed t hat t o devel op
a st r ong,
hi er ar chi cal l y st r uct ur ed syst em woul d r esul t i n some count r i es i n
t he
Movement domi nat i ngweaker member s. One si gni f i cant achi evement
of t he
Movement i s t hat i t s syst emof r ot at i ng chai r shi ps enabl es smal l
count r i es t o
acqui r e bi g- power st at us i n wor l d pol i t i cs. For t hi s
r eason, non- al i gned
count r i es have consci ousl y at t empt edt o devel op st r uct ur es
t hat wi l l guar ant ee
t he democr at i zat i onof i nt er nat i onal r el at i ons not onl y i nt he
gl obal syst em,
but most i mpor t ant l y wi t hi n t he Movement i t sel f.
Char t
2
suggest s t he
compl exi t y of t he Movement ' s or gani zat i onal st r uct ur e andt he wi de r ange
of
act i vi t i es under t akenby i t .
The
i deol ogi cal consequences of i nst i t ut i onal ar r angement s of t hi s t ype ar e
obvi ous.
Smal l st at es
i n
par t i cul ar , but event he l ar ger , newer count r i es have
benef i t ed gr eat l y
f r om t he non- al i gned exper i ence. The Movement has
cr eat eda gener at i on
of of f i ci al s, i ncl udi ng mi ni st er s andheads of st at e, who
have devel oped
an
enor mous
exper t i se i ni nt er nat i onal pol i t i cs wi t hi na shor t
per i od of t i me
.
Thi s
exper t i se was essent i al f or non- al i gned count r i es t o be
abl e t o f unct i on
i n
a
gl obal
syst em
basedoneconomi c, mi l i t ar y andpol i t i cal
power .
Some have
ar guedt hat t he Non- al i gnedMovement was agi ant exper i ment
f or t he pol i t i cal
soci al i zat i on of newnat i ons i nt o t he gl obal syst em. Ot her s,
however , vi ewt he Movement as an
adhoc gr oupi ngof nat i ons wi t h nopl ace i n
t he i nt er nat i onal syst em,
especi al l y i ni nt er nat i onal l aw. Ranko Pet kovi c, t he
di st i ngui shedYugosl av anal yst ,
i s t he onl y schol ar who has t r i ed t o l ocat e t he
Non- al i gned Movement wi t hi n t he
f r amewor k of i nt er nat i onal l awand
or gani zat i on. Ther e ar e r easons why
West er n schol ar s have di smi ssed t he
Movement ' s r ol e i nt he i nt er nat i onal
l egal syst em. They consi der most non-
al i gned count r i es t o be not onl y smal l and
power l ess, but al so out si de t he
cul t ur al t r adi t i ons of t he West er n or bi t
. On t he ot her hand, t he
35
Structure
of
the
Non-al i gnedMovement
r
FOREIGNMINISTERS
MEETING
(Mi d-term)
Chai r-venuechosenat
Summi t Meeti ng
SENIOROFFICIALS
MEETING
I
CO-ORDINATING
BUREAUOFTHE
NON-ALIGNED
Mi ni steri al Level
FUNCTIONALBODIES
(Appoi ntedat Summi t)
Expert Groups
(see f ol l owi ngchart)
CO-ORDINATINGBUREAU
Ambassadori al Level
NON-ALIGNEDREGIONAL
GROUPMEETINGS
Co-ordi nati ng
acti vi ti es
wi thUNandi ts agenci es
Funct i onal Bodi es/ Expert Groups
1 . RawMat eri al s
Af gnani st an, Al geri a, Cameroon, Cuba,
Gui nea, I ndonesi a,
I raq, Mauri t ani a, Ni caragua,
Ni geri a, Panama, Peru, Saudi Arabi a, Senegal
and Zai re.
2 . Trade, Transport and I ndust ry
Af ghani st an, Argent i na, Cuba,
Guyana,
I ndonesi a, I raq, Mal t a, Mozambi que and
Paki st an.
3 . Monet ary
and Fi nanci al Co- operat i on
Cuba, Egypt , Gui nea, I ndi a, I raq, Madagascar,
Ni caragua, Paki st an, Peru, Saudi
Arabi a, Sri
Lanka and Yugosl avi a.
4 . I nsurance
Cuba.
5 . Sci ent i f i c and Technol ogi cal Devel opment
Al geri a,
Bangl adesh, Cameroon, Democrat i c
Peopl e' s Republ i c of Korea, Egypt , I ndi a,
Paki st an, Peru, Somal i a, Yugosl avi a
and Zai re.
6.
Techni cal Co- operat i on and Consul t ancy Servi ces
Argent i na, Democrat i c Peopl e' s Republ i c of
Korea, I ndi a, I raq, Ni geri a,
Paki st an and Panama.
7 . Food and Agri cul t ure
Argent i na, Bangl adesh, Cameroon,
Democrat i c
Peopl e' s - Republ i c of Korea, Egypt , Et hi opi a,
Gui nea, I ndi a, I ndonesi a, I raq, Morocco,
Mozambi que,
Saudi Arabi a, Sri Lanka, Sudan,
Tanzani a and Yugosl avi a.
8 . Fi sheri es

.
Angol a,
Cuba, Democrat i c Peopl e' s Republ i c
of Korea, Li byan Arab J amahi ri ya, Mal t a,
Mauri t ani a, Morocco,
Mozambi que, Saudi
Arabi a, Somal i a, Sri Lanka, Vi et namand
Yugosl avi a.
9 . Heal t h
Af ghani st an, Cent ral Af ri can Republ i c, Cuba,
Democrat i c Peopl e' s Republ i c of Korea,
Mozambi que and Yugosl avi a.
1 0.
Empl oyment and Human Resources Devel opment
Argent i na, Bangl adesh, Cuba, I raq, Panama, Sri
Lanka andTuni si a.
1 1 .
Touri sm
Cameroon, Cuba, Cyprus, J amai ca,
Morocco,
Tuni si a and
t he Yemen Arab Republ i c.
1 2 . 7l ransnat i onal Corporat i ons and Forei gn Pri vat e
I nvest ment
Al geri a, Cuba, Ni caragua and Ni geri a.
1 3 . Sport s
Al geri a, Cuba, Democrat i c Peopl e' s Republ i c of
Korea, Li byan Arab J amahi ri ya and Madagascar .
1 4 .
Research and I nf ormat i on Syst ems
I ndi a, Mozambi que, Peru, Sri Lanka, Tuni si a
and Yugosl avi a.
1 5. Rol e of Women i n Devel opment
Angol a, Bangl adesh,
Cameroon, Cent ral
Af ri can
Republ i c, Cuba, Democrat i c Peopl e' s
Republ i c of Korea, Gui nea, I ndi a, I raq,
J amai ca, Li beri a, Mozambi que, Ni caragua and
Yugosl avi a.
1 6. Nucl ear Energy f or Peacef ul Purposes
Al geri a, Argent i na, Cent ral Af ri can Republ i c,
Cuba,
Democrat i c Peopl e' s Republ i c of Korea,
Egypt , Et hi opi a, Gabon, I ndi a, I ndonesi a, I raq,
Li byan Arab
J amahi ri ya, Morocco, Ni ger,
Ni geri a, Paki st an, Tuni si a and Yugosl avi a.
1 7 . Tel ecommuni cat i ons
Argent i na, Burundi , Cameroon, Cent ral
Af ri can Republ i c, Democrat i c Peopl e' s
Republ i c of Korea, I ndi a, Mozambi que,
Yugosl avi a and Zai re. ,
1 8. I nt ernat i onal Co- operat i on f or Devel opment
Egypt , I ndi a, Ni geri a, Panama and Saudi Arabi a.
1 9
. Housi ng
Cuba, Democrat i c Peopl e' s Republ i c of Korea,
I ndi a, Mauri t ani a, Morocco,
Sri Lanka,
Yugosl avi a and Zai re.
20. Educat i on and Cul t ure
Al geri a,
Angol a, Cuba, Cyprus, Democrat i c
Peopl e' s Republ i c of Korea, Guyana, I ndi a,
Mozambi que,
Ni caragua, Panama, Vi et namand
Yugosl avi a.
21 . St andardi zat i on,
Wei ght s and Measures, and
Qual i t y Cont rol
Cuba, Democrat i c Peopl e' s Republ i c of Korea,
I ndi a, I raq, Ni caragua andYugosl avi a.
Over vi ew
Movement has attempted
tobr i ng a newcul tur al
di mensi oni ntothe
pr acti ce
of
i nter nati onal r el ati ons
. The cur r ent
I sl ami c Revol uti on,
especi al l y i ts
ef f or ts to def i ne
r el ati onshi ps between
states, r uns counter
to exi sti ng
Wester nnor ms .
Si mi l ar l y, non- Wester n
cul tur al mor es have been
devel oped
i nAf r i ca wher e
r el ati onshi ps betweenthe
nati onand the tr i bes
have hadtobe
r edef i ned. However ,
non- al i gned countr i es
f ul l y r ecogni ze
that they
themsel ves have been
the pr oduct of Wester n
l egal nor ms andthat
many of
thei r i nter nal l aws wer e
devi sed by Eur opean
col oni al power s .
The Movement pr esents
a par ti cul ar chal l enge
toi nter nati onal
l awbecause
i t
has begun to questi on
the ver y assumpti ons
of Wester n- domi nated
standar ds . Petkovi c
poi nts out that the
cl assi cal state- to- state
agr eements
devi sed by Wester n
col oni al power s have
had to be modi f i ed
by the
emer gence of the UN
systemi tsel f. The UN
system, af ter al l ,
was desi gnedby
the vi ctor s of
Wor l dWar I I topr eser ve
andpr otect the exi sti ng
status quoat a
ti me whenthe
emer gence of a pl ethor a
of smal l states f r om
Af r i ca, Asi a and
the Amer i cas
was not envi saged.
Petkovi c i s qui te cor r ectl y
scepti cal about the
noti ons of
al i gnment and r eal i gnment
contai ned wi thi n the
UNsystem. He
ar gues, f or
exampl e:
Ther ef or e, when
di scussi ng the r el ati onshi p
between al i gnment
and
i nter nati onal
l aw, concr ete sour ces
f r omwhi ch mutual
obl i gati ons between
si gnator y countr i es
der i ve thei r l egal
f oundati on shoul d
car ef ul l y be
di sti ngui shed
f r omthe absol ute
l ack of i nter nati onal
l egal gr ounds i n the
pol i ti cal and
l egal or der of the Uni ted
Nati ons f or such modes of
al i gnment
among states . l
Wi th r ef er ence
tonon- al i gnedr el ati ons
toi nter nati onal l aw,
Petkovi c goes on
toar gue
that once non- al i gned countr i es
became i ndependent
they sought to
di ssoci ate
themsel ves f r omol d
col oni al r el ati onshi ps
i nter nal l y and f r om
mi l i tar y
r el ati onshi ps
desi gned
by
the col oni al power s
f or thei r nati onal
i nter est
exter nal l y. Thus most
non- al i gned countr i es
f r omthe ex- col oni al
wor l d wer e
l ooki ng f or a
new
type
of al i gnment.
At thei r
var i ous summi t conf er ences,
non- al i gnedl eader s
i ssue decl ar ati ons
anal ysi ng
the cur r ent i nter nati onal
si tuati on. Thi s i s
pr i mar i l y a pol i ti cal
demonstr ati on
of authenti ci ty
and i ndependence. Thi s act
of separ ati ng
themsel ves
f r omthe exi sti ng
power r el ati onshi ps andcal l i ng
f or a newsystem
of
i nter nati onal r el ati ons has ser i ousl y
thr eatened the exi sti ng
status quo. Thi s
shoul d
not, however , l ead
one
to
concl ude that the
Movement i s a new
al l i ance
system. I t seeks to
r estr uctur e exi sti ng r el ati onshi ps,
not tosubsti tute
one
al l i ance systemwi th
another . I f one r eads the
non- al i gned decl ar ati ons
car ef ul l y, they concer n
themsel ves not onl y wi th
bi g- power r el ati ons, but
al so
wi th i ntr a- non- al i gned
conf l i ct . Thei r pr i mar y i nter est
i s tor educe
tensi ons
andthi s cani ncl ude sel ecti ng
thi r dpar ti es tor esol ve
conf l i cts . Thi s pr ocess
of
38
St r uc t ur e and
Or gani z at i on
di r ec t l y i nt er veni ng
bet ween s t at es gi ves t he
Movement a newl egal s t at us i n
t he ar ea of i nf r a- s t at e r el at i ons . Agai n
Pet kovi c s uc c i nc t l y c al l s f or a new
l egal
s t at us f or t he Movement by s ugges t i ng
t he f ol l owi ng:
By i t s ac t i ve pr es enc e
on t he i nt er nat i onal s c ene non- al i gnment
has ac qui r ed
t he
di mens i ons of a newdoc t r i ne of
i nt er nat i onal r el at i ons , a doc t r i ne whi c h
ai ms at an al l - i nc l us i ve t r ans f or mat i on
ot he pr es ent i nt er nat i onal
or der
c ar r i ed
out on peac ef ul , democ r at i c , and
pr ogr es s i ve gr ounds . . . . I t i s ,
t her ef or e, as muc ha doc t r i ne of
i nt er nat i onal r el at i ons as oi nt er nat i onal l egal
or der . I t has
evol ved f r omt he pol i t i c al ac t i on of
s t at es , ent ai l i ng a wi de r ange
of l egal r eper c us s i ons . That i t r es t s
upon i nt er nat i onal l aw i s beyond
ques t i on. 2
Thus
Ranko Pet kovi c c onc l udes t hat t he
mul t i l at er al ac t s of non- al i gned
c ount r i es ,
namel y, t he dec l ar at i ons and r es ol ut i ons
adopt ed at t hei r var i ous
meet i ngs and ac c ept ed
by t he heads of s t at e or
t hei r as s i gned r epr es ent at i ves ,
as s ume newmeani ng i n
i nt er nat i onal pol i t i c s . They ar e
not mer el y wor ds , but
bi ndi ng ac t s maki ng
t he Non- al i gned Movement a new
f or c e
i n
wor l d
pol i t i c s .
Cr i t er i a f or
Member s hi p
A number of
c r i t i c s of non- al i gnment have
r ai s ed t he ques t i on of t he
l egi t i mac y and vi abi l i t y
of a movement t hat l i t er al l y has a pol i c y
of
`open
admi s s i ons ' . The I ndi an
anal ys t , M. S . Raj an, i n a number
of hi s wr i t i ngs , has
s ever el y c r i t i c i z ed t he c r i t er i a
us ed by t he Non- al i gned
Movement
f or
admi s s i ons . He ar gues qui t e f or c ef ul l y
t hat t he c r i t er i a def i ned by t he
f oundi ng
f at her s i n 1961 ar e t ot al l y
i nadequat e t o meet c ont empor ar y needs .
The c r i t er i a
adopt ed at t hat t i me wer e s i mpl e
and s t r ai ght f or war d.
1.
The c ount r y s houl d have adopt ed
an i ndependent pol i c y bas ed
on t he c o-
exi s t enc e of s t at es
wi t h di f f er ent pol i t i c al and s oc i al
s ys t ems and on non-
al i gnment , or s houl d be s howi ng a
t r end i n f avour of s uc h a pol i c y .
2. The c ount r y c onc er ned
s houl d be c ons i s t ent l y s uppor t i ng
t he movement s
f or nat i onal
i ndependenc e .
3. The c ount r y s houl d not
be a member of a mul t i l at er al mi l i t ar y
al l i anc e,
c onc l uded
i n t he c ont ext of Gr eat Power c onf l i c t s .
4. I f a c ount r y has a bi l at er al
mi l i t ar y agr eement wi t h a Gr eat Power ,
or i s a
member of a r egi onal def ens e pac t , t he agr eement
or pac t s houl dnot be one
del i ber at el y c onc l uded i n t he
c ont ext of Gr eat Power c onf l i c t s .
5.
I f
i t
has c onc eded mi l i t ar y bas es t o a For ei gn Power ,
t he c onc es s i on s houl d
not
have been made i n t he c ont ext of Gr eat Power
c onf l i c t s . 3
Raj an
t akes t o t as k bot h t he anal ys t s of non- al i gnment and
i t s pr ac t i t i oner s , and
s ugges t s
t hat t hey ar e i r r es pons i bl e i n not maki ng admi s s i on
r equi r ement s s t r i c t er .
39
Over vi ew
The
suggest i on f or
r e- consi der at i on
and possi bl e r evi si on
of cr i t er i a of
el i gi bi l i t y f or
member shi p
pr ovokes ( pr ompt l y
and al most
mechani cal l y)
opposi t i on f r ombot h
t he academi c ( and
i nt el l ect ual ) and
t he di pl omat i c ( and
pol i t i cal )
ci r cl es . Thi s par adoxi cal
sol i dar i t y
of t he exper t s of
non- al i gnment
has puzzl ed t he
pr esent wr i t er .
Per haps, bot h t he
gr oups ar e i n f avour of
t he
st at us quo,
onl y because t her e i s
ost ensi bl e sol i dar i t y
on t hi s i ssue by
member s of
t he
NAMand t hey
see l i t t l e or no
possi bi l i t y of
t he suggest i on
bei ng
i mpl ement ed. I f
t hi s i s t r ue, i t
i s unf or t unat e,
because t he NAM
i s not , I
bel i eve, r eal l y uni t ed on
t he i ssue,
except i n t he sense
t hat many of
t he
di ssent er s
mer el y acqui esce i n
t he consensus on
t hi s i ssue. I n t he
past , at l east
t wo
of t hemdi d ur ge
t he r e- consi der at i on
of t he cr i t er i a,
but t hei r
suggest i ons
wer e i gnor ed. 4
Raj an' s maj or concer n
i s t hat t he
Movement appear s
t o be a pot - pour r i
of
st at es who cannot
speak wi t hany
mor al aut hor i t y
because t hey do
not f ul f i l
even t he mi ni mum
r equi r ement s
of commi t ment
t o t he pr i nci pl es
of non-
al i gnment . He i s
ver y cr i t i cal
of t he pr ocess by
whi chst at es ar e
admi t t ed as
member s as wel l
as t hat by
whi ch ot her s ar e
i nvi t ed as obser ver s
and guest s.
He t hen r ai ses
doubt s about
t he ver y val i di t y of
a movement
wi t h such an
admi ssi ons pol i cy.
I f any
movement does
not have
a qui nt essent i al
di st i nct i veness f r om
t he
ot her s, what
r at i onal e coul d
t her e bef or i t s
est abl i shment or i t s
f unct i oni ng or
even f or i t s ver y
exi st ence? How
coul d i t be cal l ed a
movement at al l ? I f i t has
no uni que
r ai son dt i t r e, how
coul di t sur vi ve at
al l - at l east f or
l ong? One
can
f udge i t s di st i nct i veness
f or a
whi l e, but t hen, t he movement
woul d havet o
pay
a pr i ces
Whi l eRaj an
makes an ext r emel y
per suasi ve case f or
t he r e- exami nat i on
of t he
cr i t er i a f or
member shi p, t he
basi c pr obl emwi t hhi s
ar gument l i es i n
hi s ver y
per cept i on of
t he Movement
i t sel f . As we have
expl ai ned, t he
Non- al i gned
Movement
i s a uni que
i nt er nat i onal soci al gr oupi ng
of nat i on
st at es . To
sur vi ve
and f unct i on as a
coal i t i on of count r i es
wi t h di f f er ent hi st or i es
and
syst ems but
common concer ns,
i t i s pr event ed f r om
ei t her devel opi ng
a r i gi d
i nt er nal
st r uct ur e or , mor e
i mpor t ant l y, i nt r oduci ng
a r i gi d r equi r ement
f or
ent r y. Asoci al
movement
t ends t o devel op
member shi p cat egor i es
t hat
emphasi ze
i t s i ncl usi veness
r at her t han
excl usi veness . I f i t had adopt ed
r i gi d
cr i t er i a at
ar i ear l y st age, or
f or t hat mat t er at
any st age, i t i s l i kel y
t hat t he
Movement
woul d have
become f act i on- r i dden
. Hence i t woul d
have been
char act er i zed
as anot her
bl oc wi t hi n t he gl obal
bl oc syst em. I t
was pr eci sel y
t he f l exi bi l i t y
of ent r y
t hat enabl ed t he Movement
t o at t r act i nt o
i t s f ol d such
di ver se
f i gur es i n
wor l d pol i t i cs as Nehr u,
Soekar no, Ti t o,
Nkr umah and
Nasser .
The dr amat i c
i ncr ease i n
non- al i gned count r i es
i s not t o bet r eat ed
l i ght l y . I t
4 0
St r uct ur e and
Or gani zat i on
i s pr eci s el y becaus e t he Movement
has gr ownf r oma s mal l gr oup of 25
t o
a
Movement of 101 ( at t he Sevent h
Summi t ) t hat i t s i mage i nwor l dpol i t i cs has
changed and t he maj or power s have t aken
not i ce. I n addi t i on, s ome have
ar gued t hat quant i t at i ve changes i n t he
Movement have cont r i but ed t o
qual i t at i ve changes i ni t . Whi l e t he maj or
power s s cof f at t he exi s t ence of s uch
a movement , t hey cer t ai nl y t ake i t s er i ous l y
wheni t comes t o mobi l i zi ng non-
al i gned count r i es t o s uppor t t hei r
par t i cul ar pol i ci es . The Movement has
become s o i mpor t ant t hat , f or exampl e,
bot h maj or power s make s ur e t hat
t hey s end t he appr opr i at e gr eet i ngs
and f el i ci t at i ons t o ever y s ummi t
.
Fur t her mor e, one s uper power ,
t he Uni t ed St at es , has t aken t o moni t or i ng
non- al i gned pr oceedi ngs wi t h
gr eat car e and per i odi cal l y i nf or ms t he
member s about i t s di s pl eas ur e over
cer t ai n act i ons .
As as oci al movement , t he Non- al i gned
Movement enabl es count r i es ei t her
t o
par t i ci pat e act i vel y or become beni gnmember s .
I f agr oup of count r i es or a
count r y wi s hes
t o f ur t her i t s f or ei gn- pol i cy
obj ect i ves i n a par t i cul ar
di r ect i on, i t
may choos e t he Movement as an avenue
t o mobi l i ze opi ni oni n
s uppor t f or t hem.
I f , ont he ot her hand, a member di s agr ees
wi t h t he maj or
t hr us t of t he
Movement ' s pr es ent pol i ci es , i t coul d
al ways s t ay away or not
act i vel y
par t i ci pat e i n t he pr oces s . I n addi t i on, t he
Movement al l ows f or
changes i n
pol i cy as a cons equence of changes of
gover nment . Fol l owi ng a
gover nment
change i n a count r y, t he newadmi ni s t r at i on
may ei t her s uppor t
t he Movement
or decr eas e i t s par t i ci pat i on. For exampl e,
t he gover nment of
J amai ca under
Edwar d Seaga deci ded t o downpl ay
non- al i gnment and
become openl y
pr o- Wes t er ni ncont r as t t o hi s pr edeces s or
Mi chael Manl ey
who adopt eda hi gh pr of i l e
wi t hi nt he Movement andwi l l ver y l i kel y
r et ur n
t o s uch a pol i cy i f he heads
t he count r y agai n.
Non- al i gnment t oday i s cr uci al
f or Af r i ca and t he l i ber at i on
movement s
t her e i n t hei r s t r uggl e agai ns t
amos t f or mi dabl e enemy, t he Republ i c of
Sout h
Af r i ca. I nt hat s t r uggl e, Af r i cans
ar e det er mi nedt o us e t he Movement
t o bui l d
a gl obal coal i t i on event hough
t hey do not have cons ens us and
commonal i t y
bet ween adver s ar i es wi t hi n
Af r i ca i t s el f. Si mi l ar l y f or t he
Ar abs , t he
Movement i s es s ent i al i nt hei r
s t r uggl e agai ns t I s r ael andf or t he r i ght s
of t he
Pal es t i ni anpeopl e. I t i s f or t hi s
r eas ont hat t he Movement has
been abl e t o
cont ai n even war r i ng
adver s ar i es , l i ke I r an and I r aq, or
i deol ogi cal
adver s ar i es , l i ke Syr i a and Saudi
Ar abi a. The s i t uat i on i nCent r al
Amer i ca,
es peci al l y i t s i mpendi ng war ,
and t he r ecent pol i t i cal changes i n
Sout h
Amer i ca, wi t h ci vi l i an gover nment s
r epl aci ng mi l i t ar y r egi mes , not abl y i n
Ar gent i na, Br azi l andPer u, have l ed
t hi s cont i nent t o t ake an ent i r el y new
vi ew
of t he r ol e andi mpor t ance of non- al i gnment
. Lat i nAmer i cancount r i es ,
es peci al l y
t he l ar ger ones , ar e anxi ous t o
di s s oci at e t hems el ves f r ombei ng
pr oxy
s t at es of t he Uni t edSt at es andr egar d
non- al i gnment as anewmet hod
of expr es s i ng
t hei r i ndependence i n f or ei gn
pol i cy.
41
Over vi ew
Other r egi ons whi ch i ncl ude a
number
of
countr i es who have attended
non- al i gned meeti ngs as obser ver s or
guests ar e r e- exami ni ng non- al i gnment .
Eur ope i s under goi ng dr amati c
changes . The tr ansi ti ons i n souther n Eur ope,
especi al l y i n Gr eece, Spai n
and Por tugal , have r esul ted i n thei r i ncr eased
i nter est i n the acti vi ti es of
the non- al i gned. Even i n Wester n Eur ope, the
peace movement has l ed the
Scandi navi an countr i es to take another l ook at the
r ol e thei r countr i es wi l l pl ay i n the
Non- al i gned Movement . I n the soci al i st
wor l d, Chi na has sel f - consci ousl y
descr i bed i tsel f as a Thi r d Wor l d countr y
wi tha gr eat deal i n common wi th
non- al i gned countr i es . I n Easter n Eur ope,
begi nni ng wi thRomani a, a number
of countr i es have si mi l ar l y expr essed an
i nter est i n the wor k of
the Movement . I t i s pr eci sel y because of thi s
i nter nati onal i zati on and
uni ver sal i zati on of non- al i gned val ues among such
di ver se countr i es
and r egi ons that the Movement has to r etai n i ts f l exi bl e
pol i ci es on
member shi p, guests and obser ver s. Hence, contr ar y to Raj an' s
suggesti on,
i t
i s
not i n the Movement' s best i nter ests to al ter i ts member shi p
cr i ter i a or
i nter nal pr ocesses .
Agai n, Ranko
Petkovi c stated thi s non- al i gned di l emma most per cepti vel y
andof f er s a br i l l i ant
def ence of the Movement' s exi sti ng member shi psystem.
He poi nted out that a countr y may be
` str i vi ng to appl y the pr i nci pl es andai ms
of non- al i gnment, whi l e,
obj ecti vel y, i t i s sti l l bound to par ti cul ar bl oc
str i ctur es ( whi ch i t i s not i n a
posi ti on to get away f r om, f or the ti me bei ng,
al one andof i ts own f r ee wi l l ) ' . By
encour agi ng the f or mer andi gnor i ng the
l atter , Petkovi c ar gues, the
Movement has avoi ded becomi ng an excl usi ve
gr oup-
6
i n many
ways, by adopti ng a f l exi bl e appr oach to the questi on of
member shi p
the Movement has tr i ed to i mpl ement i ts pol i cy of democr ati za-
ti on of
i nter nati onal r el ati ons i nter nal l y . As a soci al movement, i t has
tr anscended
bei ng a mer e Thi r d Wor l d movement, or an Af r o- Asi an
movement,
and has sought to i nvol ve not onl y the ex- col oni al ar eas but al so
countr i es of
Eur ope and Lati n Amer i ca. I t i s pr eci sel y f or thi s r eason that the
Movement has
become a per manent f or ce i n wor l d pol i ti cs .
Code of Conduct
One of the
str engths of the Non- al i gned Movement has been i ts abi l i ty to
devel op r ul es of
pr ocedur e to enabl e i t to sur vi ve and adapt to newgl obal
si tuati ons
.
The
Movement has al ways r esi sted i nsti tuti onal i zati on;
thus i ts
r ul es of pr ocedur e
ar e based mor e on conventi on and pr ecedent than on
a
r i gi dl y
def i ned consti tuti on. Fr omi ts i ncepti on i n 196 1, the
Movement
r ej ected
deci si on- maki ng by voti ng or by use of the si mpl e maj or i ty
r ul e as
such
methods coul d al i enate any di ssenti ng mi nor i ty ona par ti cul ar
i ssue and
cause i t to
l eave the or gani zati on. Hence, the i mpact of the
Non- al i gned
4
2
Stnuture
andOrgani zati on
Movement i n worl dpol i ti cs woul dbe weakened. I ns tead, the
Movement
adoptedcons ens us as amethodof deci s i on- maki ng f or both
theoreti cal and
practi cal reas ons . At the f orei gn mi ni s ters meeti ng i n Bel grade i n 1978,
a
s peci al worki nggroup was createdbythe Bureauto exami nethe method
of
deci s i on- maki ng. Therewerenorecommendati ons to change
cons ens us , onl y
s ugges ti ons of mechani s ms to i mprove uni ty.
Cons ens us
TheNon- al i gnedMovement uti l i zed
cons ens us
wi thout
f ormal l y attempti ng
to def i ne i t unti l i ts Kabul meeti ng
i n 1973. I t was arguedthenthat the term
`cons ens us ' had`an i ndef i nabl e qual i ty'
and
was hardto expres s
i n words ,
al though mos t members agreed
that they
knewi ns ti ncti vel y
what i t meant.
Cons ens us pres uppos ed, unders toodandres pecteddi f f eri ng poi nts
of
vi ew,
i ncl udi ng thos e i nmutual di s agreement. I t al s o i mpl i edmutual accommodati on
onthe bas i s that agreements coul demergebyas i ncere proces s of adj us tment
among member nati ons i n the true s pi ri t of non- al i gnment . Bas i cal l y,
cons ens us s i mpl ymeant `a convergence of vi ews ' .
At the Uni tedNati ons , the non- al i gnedworki nggroup oncons ens us met
nearl y 40 ti mes to expl ore the ques ti on. Cons ens us has s i gni f i cant hi s tori cal
andcontemporary meani ngf or thedel egates . I t i s not new
to
the
non- al i gned
worl dof Af ri ca, As i a, the Ameri cas andthe Arabcountri es .
Somearguedthat
cons ens us has been the tradi ti onal f ormof deci s i on- maki ng
i n al l thes e
s oci eti es .
Cons ens us i s anexcepti bnal l ycompl ex methodof
deci s i on- maki ng that i s
di f f i cul t to def i ne, pri mari l y becaus e the whol eacti oni s a
proces s i n
i ts el f.
Each deci s i onhas i ts ownproces s . Hencei t i s di f f i cul t to
devel op general
rul es
to gui de the proces s . To arri ve at a cons ens us , there has
to be
ampl e
opportuni ty f or di s cus s i on and f or gi ve and take among
the
vari ous
parti ci pants . I ni nternati onal pol i ti cs , however, therei s of ten
i ns uf f i ci ent ti me
f or prol ongeddi s cus s i on. Ahi gh premi umi s pl acedonthe
s peedof deci s i on-
maki ng; the cons ens us methodby def i ni ti onrequi res
del ay, s i nce i t i s onl y
through del ay that a maj ori ty cons ens us can be reached
For exampl e, no
qui ck deci s i on coul d be reached on s uch controvers i al
i s s ues as the
repres entati on of Kampucheaor Egypt' s s tatus ( as
wewi l l di s cus s i n f ul l i n
l ater chapters ) . Manydel egates were not, as yet, f ul l y pers uadedabout the
pos i ti on of aparti cul ar advocate and, theref ore, a cons ens us coul dnot
be
reached.
I t i s i ndeedremarkabl ethat the Movement has achi evedcons ens us ons o
many
di f f i cul t probl ems i nworl dpol i ti cs over theyears . Cons ens us has been
achi eved,
i npart, byas haredcommi tment tocertai nbas i c pri nci pl es andal s o
by the us e of many l evel s of
di s cus s i on bef ore a deci s i on i s reached. The
proces s workedout bythe non- al i gned
countri es i s to begi nwi th aworki ng
43
group of
of f i c i al s , t hen t o move
t he s ubj ec t on t o t he l evel
of ambas s adors ,
t hen t o
t he l evel of mi ni s t ers ,
and f i nal l y t o t he heads of
s t at e. Thi s i s al s o t he
proc edure adopt ed by t he hos t
c ount ry wheni t prepares
t he f i nal dec l arat i on.
At
every l evel , a c ons ens us
f ormul a i s s ought . Thes e
many l evel s of di s c us s i on
provi de opport uni t i es f or
groups wi t h di f f erent
vi ewpoi nt s t o arri ve at an
ac c ommodat i on.
Furt hermore, i t i s pos s i bl e f or
ant agoni s t s t o
c ome t o unders t and and
res pec t
one anot her' s poi nt of vi ew
and mut ual l y
agree t oa f i nal dec i s i on t hat
may
not
be
ac c ept abl e t o al l part i es ,
but i s t omos t .
TheMovement , t heref ore,
mai nt ai ns ` i t s
uni t y i n di vers i t y' .
And, i f s ome
s t at es s t i l l have s eri ous
mi s gi vi ngs about c ert ai n
phras es , i t ems or
s ec t i ons of a dec l arat i on
or
res ol ut i on,
t hey are abl e t o
regi s t er t hei r res ervat i ons
. Non- al i gned
c ount ri es ,
t heref ore, have di s pl ayed
c ons i derabl e
s ki l l and j udgement i n
ut i l i zi ng t he
met hod of c ons ens us
f or uni t y rat her
t han di s uni t y .
I n s uc ha proc es s
of dec i s i on- maki ng,
t he rol e of t he c hai r bec omes
pi vot al .
The c hai r' s s ki l l
l i es prec i s el y i n
rec ogni zi ng t he moment
when a c ons ens us
bec omes
pos s i bl e, and movi ng t he
body qui c kl y t o a dec i s i on. A
c hai r mus t
al s obe abl e t o
rec ogni ze ani mpas s e
t hat , i f prol onged, c oul d
promot e hos t i l i t y
bet ween
members and weaken t he
Movement . Ac hai r mus t al s o,
t heref ore,
make
rec ommendat i ons t o mai nt ai n
t he c oal i t i on. Thi s proc es s ,
however,
requi res a
bas i c mut ual unders t andi ng
amongs t al l part i c i pant s
and, es pec i al l y,
a wi l l i ngnes s
t o ac c ept t he dec i s i on
of t he c hai r.
Two
event s c ont ri but ed t o
a maj or debat e wi t hi n t he
Movement about t he
rol e and
c harac t er of c ons ens us
and t he i nt ernal s t ruc t ure of
t he Movement .
The
f i rs t was t he growt h of
t he members hi p, s pec i f i c al l y
t he i nc reas e i n t he
number
of l ef t - wi ng
c ount ri es . The s ec ond, whi c h
s erved as a c at al ys t , was
Cuba' s c hai rs hi p of t he
Movement begi nni ng i n 1979
. Therewas great f ear,
es pec i al l y among
c ons ervat i ve non- al i gned
c ount ri es , t hat Cuba woul d
radi c al i ze t he Movement
and us e i l l egi t i mat e
met hods t o propagat e i t s
own
f orei gn pol i c y. I n t he c hapt ers
t of ol l ow, weexami ne
t hi s debat e whi c hhadi t s
ori gi ns
i n Col ombo and was
t aken t o t he f l oor at
t he NewDel hi Summi t by
Si ngapore
.
I n
s pi t e of t he i deol ogi c al
bas i s f or t he debat e
and t he ef f ort s by out s i de
f orc es
t o mani pul at e i t ,
t he net res ul t at t he
Havana Summi t was a very
t hought f ul and
meani ngf ul di s c us s i on as t o
howt he Movement had t o be
managed
. The maj or
ac t ors i n t hi s proc es s
i nc l uded I raq, Yugos l avi a, I ndi a,
Egypt ,
I ndones i a and
Si ngapore. The
ens ui ngdebat e res ul t ed i n a
number of
c ount ri es re- exami ni ng
t he Kabul
def i ni t i on of c ons ens us . I n
t hei r re-
exami nat i on, s ome
c ount ri es argued t hat
t he Kabul f ormul a was t oovague
and
had t o be c hanged.
Some c ount ri es
s ugges t ed t hat more s pec i f i c
i ns t ruc t i ons
s houl d be gi ven
t o t he c hai r on how
and when a c ons ens us i s
reac hed. A
number of
del egat es were c onc erned
t hat t he c hai r mi ght
arbi t rari l y
St r uct ur e and
Or gani zat i on
det er mi ne
t hat a consensus
was r eached
when i n
f act t her e
was no
conver gence
of vi ews .
Ot her s poi nt ed
out t hat r i gi d
r ul es of pr ocedur e
woul d
dest r oy t he
f l exi bi l i t y of t he
chai r i nt he
sear ch f or a
consensus. Member s
wer e
most concer ned
about
si t uat i ons wher e
di scussi on was
st al emat ed,
causi ng
t ensi ons wi t hi n
t he Movement
. At t he
Si xt h Summi t , i t
r ecommended
t he
f ol l owi ng
gui del i nes t o assi st
t he chai r
`when t he ext ent
of di sagr eement
i ndi cat es t he
absence of consensus'
:
( a)
Open conf r ont at i ons
bet ween
opposi ng vi ews
t hr eat eni ng t o
di sr upt t he
Movement shoul d
be avoi ded,
but di scussi on
of i ssues may
be necessar y i n
or der t o
over come t hese
di f f er ences .
( b)
The Chai r man
and/ or t he
Bur eau of t he
Conf er ence
or Meet i ng
concer ned,
and t he Chai r man
of t he
Movement and/ or
ot her i nt er est ed
del egat i ons
shoul d
r ender assi st ance
whenever such
assi st ance woul d
hel p
r esol ve di f f er ences
;
( c) Pr i or
i nf or mal consul t at i ons
and
negot i at i ons among
member s shoul d
be
hel d on al l i ssues
;
( d) Ad hoc
open- ended
wor ki ng gr oups
coul d be set
up t o assi st i n
t he
pr omot i on of consensus
;
( e) Wher e
t her e ar e a
number of member s
who by vi r t ue
of t hei r
geogr aphi cal
l ocat i on have a
speci al i nt er est i n a
par t i cul ar i ssue,
consul t at i ons
among t hese
member s,
opent o ot her
del egat i ons, coul d
t ake pl ace
i n t he ef f or t t o
f i nd a
consensus ;
( f l The r esul t s
of t he consul t at i ons
as i ndi cat ed
i n( d) and
( e) above, shoul d
be
submi t t ed
t oget her wi t h
any
r ecommendat i ons t o
t he Pl enar y of t he
meet i ng
or
Conf er ence
concer ned f or
di scussi on and
appr oval ;
( g) The pr esence
of st r ong
opposi ng vi ews
i s an
i ndi cat i on t hat t he mat t er
under
di scussi on i s hi ghl y
sensi t i ve and
hence a
speci al ef f or t shoul d
be made
t o t r y
t o accommodat e
al l vi ews
t o achi eve
t he br oadest
consent of t he
Conf er ence/ Meet i ng;
( h)
When al l t he
above met hods
as wel l as
any ot her
ef f or t s at pr omot i ng
consensus
have beenexhaust ed
wi t hout
success, and
any f ur t her def er ment
of
t he
deci si on on a
cont r over si al i ssue
i s not
possi bl e due t o t he
cl osi ng of t he
Conf er ence,
and t he
del egat i on/ gr oup
of del egat i ons
cont i nues t o
expr ess
r eser vat i ons onany
deci si on, i t i s
r ecommended
t hat t he f ol l owi ng
met hodbe
ut i l i zedt o
r ef l ect t he r eser vat i ons
: i n t he body
of t he t ext
of t he
communi que/
decl ar at i on, an ast er i sk
woul dbe
pl aced at t he head
of any
par agr aph/ sect i on
onwhi ch
r eser vat i ons have
been expr essed,
wi t h t he cor r espondi ng
f oot not es
i ndi cat i ng
t he del egat i on
expr essi ng
t he r eser vat i on
. The f ul l t ext
of t he
r eser vat i onwi l l
be r epr oducedi n
an annexe. I f
t he del egat i on
shoul dso desi r e
i t , a
r eser vat i on may
al so be made
wi t hout i t
bei ng ent er ed
i n t he
r ecor ds . ?
The
Movement,
ther ef or e,
makes ever y
ef f or t to
accommodate
di f f er ent
vi ewpoi nts
and al l ows
f or di ssent
whi l e doi ng
ever ythi ng
that i t
canto f i nd
agr eement
on i ssues
.
Reser vati ons
Another
aspect of
consensus
i s the r ecogni ti on
of
the r i ght of
a member
countr y
to expr ess
i ts di sagr eement
wi ththe
maj or i ty
consensus
i tsel f.
Thi s
di sagr eement
i s
nor mal l y expr essed
i nthe f or m
of a
r eser vati on
whi chcan be
gi ven
or al l y or i n
wr i ti ng to the
chai r as
soonas
possi bl e af ter
a non- al i gned
meeti ng
. Ar eser vati on
i s usual l y
pl acedon
aspeci f i c
i temor
par ti cul ar
phr ase
adopted
i n a
decl ar ati on or
r esol uti on.
Thi s
method of
deci si on- maki ng
i s
i mpor tant i nthe
context of
i nter nati onal
pol i ti cs
i nthat cer tai n
states may
wi sh
to
expr ess thei r
r eser vati on
ona speci f i c
i ssue
i n ter ms of
thei r own
nati onal
i nter est whi l e
conti nui ng
to suppor t
thegener al
f r amewor k
. For
exampl e, the
Movement suppor ts
decol oni zati on
i n pr i nci pl e,
but on
the speci f i c
i ssue of
the Mal vi nas
I sl ands, a
f ewstates
have
r eser vati ons on
the consensus
posi ti on
of suppor ti ng
Ar genti ne
sover ei gnty
over
the i sl ands
.
The
pr esentati on of
r eser vati ons
al so
r esul ted i n
consi der abl e
debate
when
some
member s wanted
a mor e
r i gi d
cr i ter i on
f or r egi ster i ng
di ssent
.
Countr i es l i ke
Si ngapor e
have
al ways
pr ef er r ed a
str ai ght vote
oni ssues
i n
di spute. Af ter
consi der abl e
debate,
the
maj or i ty
vi ewwas that
the
pr esent
methodof
i ndi cati ng
r eser vati ons
shoul dbe
r etai ned
. That i s,
r eser vati ons
ar e
a r ef l ecti on
of i nter nal
democr acy and
ar e
per mi tted, but
ar e
gener al l y
di scour aged
as apr acti ce
because
they
woul dtendto
weaken
theef f ecti veness
of the
Movement' s
acti ons.
Over
theyear s
ther ol e of
the
Co- or di nati ng
Bur eau has
al sobeen
debated.
As
weshal l see
i n the
chapter s to
f ol l ow, the
Bur eau has
evol ved
over the
year s, especi al l y
as
member shi p has
i ncr eased
. I t ser ves
as an
i nter medi ar y
or gani zati on to
car r y out
the acti vi ti es
of
the Movement
between
summi t
meeti ngs.
Agai n, dur i ng
Cuba' s
chai r shi p, some
conser vati ve
member s wer e
f ear f ul that
the Bur eau
woul dbe
tr ansf or med
i nto a
centr al
commi ttee or
a
pol i ti cal
par ty, anddi ctate
the di r ecti on
of the
Movement
. Other s,
however ,
hel d the
vi ewthat the
whol e di scussi on
over
the r ol e
of consensus
and the
Bur eau
was a by- pr oduct
of US
i nter ests
wi thi n the
Movement
who wer e
di stur bed
by the
i ntense opposi ti on
of
most
non- al i gned
countr i es to US
acti vi ti es,
especi al l y
i n souther n
Af r i ca, the
Mi ddl eEast
and
Centr al Amer i ca
.
They
ar guedthat the
debate over
pr ocedur al
matter s
was si mpl y
another
way
to tone
downthe
Movement' s
cr i ti ci sm
of US
pol i cy gl obal l y
.
The
debate about
the r ol e
of the
Bur eau
changed
dr amati cal l y
wheni t
became
obvi ous
that nei ther
Cubanor
Pr esi dent
Castr o i ntended
. to
use i t as
an
executi ve
commi ttee.
Mor eover ,
the whol e
pr ocess
of
consul tati on
r equi r ed
bythe
Movement
woul dmake
i t i mpossi bl e
f or such
apr ocess
tobe
46
St r uc t ur e
and Or gani z at i on
i mpl ement ed. Af t er sever al year s
of exper i enc e wi t h t he Bur eau,
t he non-
al i gned
c ount r i es dec i ded at t he Si xt h
Summi t t o out l i ne r ec ommendat i ons
f or
i mpr ovi ng
i t s f unc t i oni ng. The Movement
t hen adopt ed t he f ol l owi ng
gener al
gui del i nes
on par t i c i pat i on and dec i si on- maki ng
i n Bur eau meet i ngs :
( a) No di st i nc t i on shoul d
be made bet ween member s of
t he Bur eau and non-
member s on t he f ol l owi ng :
- Taki ng t he f l oor at meet i ngs .
- Fi xi ng of dat es and venues of
meet i ngs .
- Par t i c i pat i on i n Commi t t ees, open- ended
Wor ki ng Gr oups and Dr af t i ng
Gr oups, i t bei ng
under st ood t hat t he pr oc ess of dr af t i ng
i s not par t of t he
dec i si on- maki ng
pr oc esses ;
- Submi ssi on
of pr oposal s.
( b)
Al l f ul l member s of t he Movement
c oul d par t i c i pat e on an equal f oot i ng at
Bur eau meet i ngs i n t he
c onsi der at i on and dec i si on of quest i ons
i n whi c h, i nt he
opi ni on of t he
Bur eau, t her e i s no doubt t hey
ar e di r ec t l y and spec i f i c al l y
i nvol ved.
( c ) Rec or ds
shoul d c ont i nue t o be mai nt ai ned of al l
f or mal meet i ngs of t he
Coor di nat i ng Bur eau as wel l as Pl enar y
Meet i ngs and t hese r ec or ds shoul d
be
dul y appr oved
at subsequent meet i ngs t o ensur e a
pr oper r ef l ec t i on of
pr oc eedi ngs .
( d) Al l dec i si ons adopt ed
by t he Bur eau at t he l evel
of Per manent
Repr esent at i ves i n NewYor k shoul d
be t abl ed at t he r equest of any f ul l
member as
soon as possi bl e t her eaf t er at a Pl enar y
Meet ng 8
a
At i t s most
r ec ent summi t , t her ef or e, as wi t h
c onsensus and t he r i ght of
r eser vat i on, t he
Non- al i gned Movement vi ewed any c hanges
i n t he Bur eau i n
ac c or danc e wi t h i t s
phi l osophy of non- hi er ar c hi c al ,
r ot at i onal and i nc l usi ve
l eader shi pand dec i si on- maki ng
. Most i mpor t ant l y, t he Movement
has al ways
sought t o hol d meet i ngs,
i nc l udi ng summi t meet i ngs, i n di f f er ent
par t s of t he
wor l d, t o ensur e t hat
no one c ount r y, r egi on or per spec t i ve
pr edomi nat es and;
most i mpor t ant l y, t o
enc our age t he f ul l par t i c i pat i on
of al l i t s member s
r egar dl ess of si z e or
i mpor t anc e .
US Code of Conduc t
f or Non- Al i gned Count r i es
Lar gel y bec ause of some posi t i ons
t aken by t he Non- al i gned Movement
at t he
Uni t ed Nat i ons, espec i al l y on
quest i ons r el at i ng t o t he Mi ddl e East ,
sout her n
Af r i c a and t he NewI nt er nat i onal Ec onomi c
Or der , t he Movement has
been
c r i t i c i z ed by a number of West er n power s,
not abl y t he Uni t ed St at es, I sr ael
and
Sout hAf r i c a. I n a r ec ent empi r i c al st udy
of t he pol i t i c al behavi our of non-
al i gned
c ount r i es at t he UN, Ri c har dJ ac kson
gi ves some r easons as t o why t he
US has
ser i ous mi sgi vi ngs about t he i nt er nal
pr oc esses of t he Movement .
J ac kson
ser ved as pol i t i c al advi ser t o t he US
mi ssi on t o t he Uni t ed Nat i ons and
47
Over vi ew
si nce hi s f i ndi ngs have
been publ i shed by
t he pr est i gi ous Counci l
on For ei gn
Rel at i ons and endor sed
bycar eer of f i ci al s
as wel l as Republ i can
and Democr at
ambassador s t o t he
UN, hi s obser vat i ons
bear some
consi der at i on.
J ackson f i nds t he
i nt er nal pr ocedur es
of t he Movement ,
f or t he most par t ,
`non- bi ndi ng and
unenf or ceabl e' . He
par t i cul ar l y di sagr ees
wi t h t he non-
al i gned choi ce of
consensus f or
deci si on- maki ng and st at es
:
Accept ance
of a consensus,
however , i s l ess bi ndi ng
and al l ows member s
t o
compr omi se i n
t he i nt er est s of NAM
uni t y wi t hout
bei ng account abl e,
t hr ough
a r ecor ded vot e,
ei t her t o domest i c
const i t uenci es or t o
t hi r d par t i es.
Ef f or t s byt he
Uni t ed St at es and
ot her s t o hol d i ndi vi dual
member s r esponsi bl e
f or col l ect i ve NAM
posi t i ons t hus have
usual l y been unsuccessf ul
. I n f act ,
r ef uge i n
consensus of t en al l ows
mi l i t ar i l y or economi cal l y
weak member s t o
r esi st pr essur es
f r omout si de st at es.
On t he negat i ve
si de, non- bi ndi ng
posi t i ons, somet i mes
r epudi at ed at t he Uni t ed
Nat i ons, as i n t he
af t er mat h of
Havana,
det r act f r omt he ser i ousness
wi t h whi ch t he
movement i s r egar ded by
out si der s and
many of i t s own
member s . 9
Hence, J ackson
vi ews consensus as
a weakness, a near
l i abi l i t y. I n cont r ast ,
non- al i gned
count r i es consi der i t an
asset and
essent i al f or encour agi ng
par t i ci pat i on
and pr omot i ng agr eement
.
On t he mat t er
of r eser vat i ons,
J ackson shar es t he
concer n al r eadyexpr essed
by t he Movement
i t sel f t hat t he
`shar p i ncr ease of
member s ent er i ng
r eser vat i ons
i s an i ndi cat i on of
t he compl ex i ssues
f aci ng t he movement
t oday' .
However , he i s especi al l y
cr i t i cal of how
r eser vat i ons al l ow
member s
`t o smoot h
r el at i ons wi t h
non- member st at es by
cl ai mi ng t o di sassoci at e
f r om
speci f i c
posi t i ons' . 1 I n
cont r ast , non- al i gned
count r i es consi der t hat
t hi s i s
i ncl uded
i n t he r i ght of a
member t o exer ci se
i t s sover ei gnt y.
J ackson al so has
comment s on t he
member shi p and
or gani zat i on of t he
Movement . The
Non- al i gned Movement
has been pr oud t o
f i nd t hat i t s
pr i nci pl es have cont i nued
t o at t r act new
member s . J ackson
ar gues t hat t he
i ncr ease
i n member shi p
has `under cut t he
movement ' s sense of
pur pose and
cl ai med
mor al aut hor i t y'
and `shat t er ed t he
cl ub- l i ke st r uct ur e set
upbyTi t o,
Nasser ,
and Nehr u' . 11
On
t he Bur eau, he suggest s
t hat a r adi cal
gr oupi ng wi t hi n t he
Movement
wi l l
at t empt t o use t he
Bur eau t o under mi ne
t he mor e moder at e
i nt er est s and
cr i t i ci ze t he pol i ci es of
West er n count r i es
and t hei r al l i es
. 12
He
al so f i nds non-
al i gned summi t
conf er ences `f r enet i c' :
member s meet `non- st op' ,
even i n t he
cor r i dor s, and st ay
up i nt o t he smal l
hour s of t he mor ni ng
i n dr af t i ng sessi ons .
Mor eover ,
member s ar e apt t o di scuss
bi l at er al and r egi onal
mat t er s as wel l as
non- al i gned
concer ns .
13
Whi l e J ackson
descr i bes wi t h
some accur acy t he
hi gh exci t ement
and
ar duous wor k
accompanyi ng a summi t
conf er ence, he
mi sunder st ands
t he
summi t i t sel f.
The summi t conf er ence
i s par t of a pr ocess
and not an event
48
St r uct ur e and Or gani zat i on
separ at e f r omot her non- al i gned
act i vi t i es . I t i s t he cul mi nat i on
of year s of
di scussi on and cont i nuous anal ysi s
of t he i nt er nat i onal
si t uat i on at sever al
l evel s
of r epr esent at i on, and
symbol i zes t he accept ance of var i ous
non- al i gned
posi t i ons
at t he hi ghest l evel , t he
heads of st at e. As J ackson has poi nt ed
out ,
t he
summi t i s a si gni f i cant venue
f or non- al i gned l eader s t o conduct
bi l at er al
and
r egi onal di scussi ons; t he
Movement encour ages t hi s means of
pr omot i ng
col l ect i ve sel f - r el i ance i n t he
economi c spher e and of secur i ng
peace and
secur i t y i n si t uat i ons wher e
t her e ar e i nt r a- non- al i gned di sput es .
Mor eover ,
most
non- al i gneddel egat es poi nt
out t hat st ayi ng up al l ni ght or i nt o
t he ear l y
hour s
of t he mor ni ng t o
compl et e t he f i nal dr af t i s par t of non- al i gned
t r adi t i on.
Fi nal l y, i ncont r ast t o non- al i gned
member s whor ecogni ze t hat
t hey
have di f f er ences,
but emphasi ze t hei r
poi nt s of agr eement , J acksonf i nds mor e
di suni t y t han
uni t y i n non- al i gned decl ar at i ons
and di smi sses t hei r val ue. l a
We have not ed
J ackson' s obser vat i ons i n
some det ai l because t hey have
i mpor t ant pol i cy
i mpl i cat i ons f or t he Movement .
Hi s st udy expr esses i nver y
pr eci se t er ms howt he
Uni t ed St at es i s under t aki ng
t o def i ne andj udge t he
behavi our of nat i on st at es i n
anef f or t t o devel op
a newcode of conduct f or
non- al i gned count r i es,
bot h wi t hi n t he
UNand i n al l mul t i l at er al
or gani zat i ons . However ,
whi l e he i s qui t e
cr i t i cal about t he i nt er nal
or gani zat i onal char act er
of t he Movement , J ackson
does gr asp t he t heor et i cal
and phi l osophi cal basi s f or
non- al i gned demands
and demonst r at es t hem
f ai r l y
.
None t he l ess, J ackson' s f i ndi ngs
and concl usi ons about
t he nat ur e of
deci si on- maki ng wi t hi n t he
Movement t end t o suppor t t he
newpol i cy
adopt ed
by t he Reagan admi ni st r at i on
t owar ds mul t i l at er al di pl omacy i n
gener al and
t he r ol e of non- al i gned
count r i es i n par t i cul ar . The Reagan
admi ni st r at i on
has made i t cl ear t hat t he
vot i ng pr act i ces of count r i es at t he
Uni t edNat i ons
wi l l be t aken ser i ousl y
and t hat US ai dpol i cy wi l l be gui ded
by t hei r pat t er n.
J ackson' s st udy al so
i ncl udes t he f amous l et t er of 6 Oct ober ,
1981 sent by
Ambassador J eane Ki r kpat r i ck
t o 64 Per manent Repr esent at i ves
of non- al i gned
count r i es t o t he Uni t ed
Nat i ons addr essi ng t he pol i t i cal
behavi our of
non- al i gned count r i es at
t hei r meet i ngs and especi al l y t he
di scr epancy bet weent hei r
non- al i gned behavi our
andt hei r behavi our at t he
So as not t o be char ged
wi t h f avour i t i smor
pol i cy pr ef er ence, Ambassador
Ki r kpat r i ck, a f or mer pr of essor
of pol i t i cal sci ence,
has i nt r oduced empi r i cal
andst at i st i cal l y ver i f i abl e t est s ;
t hei r r esul t s ar e t o be
publ i shedannual l y i nt he
f or mof a r epor t car d. Thi s use
of soci al sci ence
met hodol ogy at t he Uni t ed
Nat i ons t o eval uat e ` t he degr ee of
suppor t gi ven t o U
. S.
f or ei gn
pol i cy' i s a
f undament al i nnovat i on i n t he wor l d
of di pl omacy and has
enor mous
consequences f or al l st at es, i ncl udi ng
West er n al l i es, whose adher ence
t o US
posi t i ons was al so quest i oned, al t hough
t he t echni que i s pr i mar i l y
ai med at
49
Over vi ew
non- al i gnedcount r i es.
16
Thi s newsci ent i f i c appr oachof eval uat i on scor es and
i t s i mpl i cat i ons f or mul t i l at er al di pl omacy wi l l be exami ned
i n gr eat er det ai l
i n t he concl udi ng chapt er .
The Si gni f i cance f or Mul t i l at er al i sm
Thi s newpol i cy t owar ds mul t i l at er al di pl omacy has
al r eady r esul t ed i n ef f or t s
t o di smant l e some key Uni t edNat i ons agenci es,
not abl y UNESCO, andpl ans
t o di smant l e ot her or gani zat i ons, such as UNCTAD,
wher e non- al i gned and
Thi r d Wor l d count r i es have a
deci si ve maj or i t y. Thi s new pr ocess of
eval uat i ng t he pol i t i cal behavi our
of count r i es i n mul t i nat i onal bodi es has
ser i ous i mpl i cat i ons f or
t he Non- al i gned Movement . I ndeed, t he f ut ur e of t he
Movement wi l l be
ser i ousl y af f ect ed i f t hi s pol i cy i s i mpl ement ed i n var i ous
spher es . For smal l non- al i gned count r i es i n par t i cul ar , t he end of mul t i l at er al
di pl omacy woul d mean t he endof t hei r sover ei gnt y and capaci t y t o f unct i on
as i ndependent st at es i n t he wor l d syst em.
The under l yi ng pr obl emt hat f aces t he Movement t oday i s i t s capaci t y t o
devel op ef f ect i ve mechani sms t o r espond t o t hese assaul t s on mul t i l at er al
di pl omacy. Whi l e non- al i gnedcount r i es r ecogni ze t he i mpor t ance of bi l at er al
di pl omacy i n a wor l d wher e t he nat i on- st at e syst emi s t he domi nant f or mof
or gani zat i on, t hey al so r eal i ze t hat bi l at er al i smweakens t hei r own nat i onal
posi t i on, par t i cul ar l y when t hey ar e smal l or mi ddl e- si zed, non- nucl ear ,
devel opi ngst at es. Unf or t unat el y f or t hem, ever y pol i t i cal andeconomi c cr i si s
has by def i ni t i on mul t i l at er al component s .
I n t he cont empor ar y wor l d even t he si mpl est case of an i nt er nal sect i onal
di sput e can have mul t i l at er al i mpl i cat i ons
. For exampl e, t he secessi oni st
movement f or sel f - det er mi nat i on by
t he Tami l popul at i on i n Sr i Lanka
i mmedi at el y has mul t i l at er al
component s . Sr i Lankan Tami l s had t o depend
on I ndi a, especi al l y t he st at e of Tami l Nadu i n Sout h
I ndi a, f or suppor t .
Thi s i mmedi at el y pl acedt he
cent r al gover nment of I ndi a i n NewDel hi i n an
embar r assi ng posi t i on i n r el at i on
t o t he cent r al gover nment i n Sr i Lanka. I n
or der t o of f set t he i nf l uence of I ndi a,
t he
Col ombo
gover nment sought t o
i nvol ve Paki st an, Chi na and t he USt o gai n a bar gai ni ng advant age wi t h t he
Tami l l i ber at i on movement .
I n t he past year , t he Col ombo gover nment has gone one st ep f ur t her and
i nvol ved t he i nt el l i gence ser vi ces of I sr ael
i n or der t o pr ot ect i t s nat i onal
i nt er est s . Thi s, i n t ur n, has l ed a number of
oi l - pr oduci ng
Ar ab
count r i es,
whi ch had enj oyed ver y cor di al r el at i ons wi t h-
Sr i Lanka, t o r evi ew t hei r
pol i ci es. To compl i cat e t he mat t er f ur t her , t he
Tami l mi l i t ant s i ncl ude among
t hei r suppor t er s r adi cal f or ces whi ch have
suppor t edl i ber at i on movement s i n
t he Mi ddl e East , Sout her nAf r i ca, Cent r al Amer i ca and
t he Car i bbean. I t i s not
enough t hat t hi s par t i cul ar di sput e
has i nvol ved al l t he nat i ons i n t he r egi on,
i ncl udi ng sever al non- al i gnedcount r i es . Ther e i s a f ear t hat t he I ndi an Ocean
50
St r uct ur e
and Or gani zat i on
wi l l
no
l onger
be a zone of peace, but an ar ea of maj or - power
r i val r y.
The
pr ospect s of US mi l i t ar y bases i n Si ngapor e and
Tr i ncomal ee, Sr i
Lanka, concer ns
not onl y I ndi a, but al l sout her n Asi a. I r oni cal l y, i t
was Sr i
Lanka' s For ei gn
Mi ni st er , Mr Hameed, who t ook t he l ead and
pr oducedan
or i gi nal
paper on t he set t l ement of bor der di sput es bet ween non- al i gned
count r i es i n t he l at e 1970s. Unf or t unat el y, i t vi ewed t he pr obl emt oo
nar r owl y
.
The new phenomenon i n wor l d pol i t i cs i s t hat ever y i nt er nal conf l i ct ,
whet her
i t i s a bor der di sput e or not , i s i mmedi at el y t r ansf or med i nt o a
r egi onal and
gl obal conf l i ct . The Non- al i gnedMovement has yet t o devel op
t he appr opr i at e
mechani sms t o r esol ve t hese conf l i ct s mul t i l at er al l y. The
danger s of al l owi ng onl y
r egi onal act or s t o r esol ve bi l at er al conf l i ct s has i t s
l i mi t at i ons and t he f act t hat t he
Movement has a number of t r ansnat i onal
act or s gi ves i t an advant age t hat most r egi onal and
i nt er nat i onal or gani zat i ons
do not have. I t i s i nt hi s cont ext t hat t he Movement has
suppor t ed t he Uni t ed
Nat i ons syst embecause i t i s t he onl y r espect ed i nt er nat i onal
body f or
mul t i l at er al di pl omacy . Hi st or i cal l y, t her ef or e, i t has sought
t o st r engt hen,
and not weaken, t he f unct i oni ng of t he UNi n wor l d pol i t i cs
.
I n t he spher e of economi c negot i at i ons, t he case f or
non- al i gned
mul t i l at er al di pl omacy i s even gr eat er . Smal l
' one- commodi t y' st at es have
l i t t l e chance of ef f ect i vel y negot i at i ng wi t hl ar ge mul t i nat i onal
ent er pr i ses . As
we shal l see i n t he ar ea of economi c di pl omacy, non- al i gned
count r i es have
devel oped an el abor at e machi ner y f or col l ect i ve act i on. The
OPECst r at egy
t hat was devi sedt o deal wi t k t he oi l compani es was asi gni f i cant
achi evement .
Non- al i gned count r i es ar e al so devel opi ng new mechani sms wi t hi n t he
Commi t t ee of 77 t o i ncr ease t hei r bar gai ni ng power . One of t he danger s,
however ,
i s t hat t he non- al i gnedmay si mpl y dupl i cat e exi st i ng UNagenci es .
I nt he l i ght
of
t he
di smant l i ng of t he UNsyst em, however , i t may be necessar y
f or
non- al i gned count r i es t o devel op t hei r own or gani zat i onal f or ms t o
pr ot ect
t hei r
nat i onal
i nt er est s . The evol ut i on of mul t i l at er al economi c
di pl omacy
by t he non- al i gnedhas annoyed bot ht he t r ansnat i onal cor por at i ons
and t he nat i on st at es i n whi ch t hey ar e l ocat ed. For t he West er ncount r i es
di pl omat i c
negot i at i ons of t hi s t ype ar e r emi ni scent of t he pr obl ems t hey
f aced wi t h t hei r own t r ade uni ons i n t he ear l y phases of i ndust r i al i zat i on.
However ,
t hi s ki ndof col l ect i ve bar gai ni ng i s t he onl y opt i on avai l abl e f or
smal l nat i ons
i n a gl obal economy domi nat ed by t r ansnat i onal f i nanci al and
i ndust r i al or gani zat i ons
.
Rol e of
t he Chai r
The Non- al i gned Movement has
beeni n exi st ence f or aquar t er of a cent ur y
andt hi s gi ves us anoppor t uni t y
t o eval uat e t he or gani zat i onal cont r i but i ons of
51
Overvi ew
t he
respect i ve
chai rs . Det ai l ed act i vi t i es of i ndi vi dual count ri es and t hei r rol e
as chai r
wi l l
be
exami ned i n t he sect i ons t o f ol l ow. I t i s suf f i ci ent t o say here
t hat t he host count ry general l y set s t he t one and manner by whi ch t he
Movement conduct s i t s busi ness duri ng t he t erm. TheYugosl avs under Ti t o
hel d t he Fi rst Summi t and est abl i shed t wo i mport ant t radi t i ons t hat
guarant eed t he survi val of t he Movement . Fi rst , Yugosl avi a i nsi st ed on
peri odi c meet i ngs . These peri odi c meet i ngs di d have some di f f i cul t y i n
get t i ng
of f
t he ground
i n t he f ormat i ve years, especi al l y si nce many
part i ci pant s
were
commi t t ed
t o
t hei dea of an Af ro- Asi an sol i dari t y movement
wi t hi n t he f ramework of Bandung.
A second maj or cont ri but i on was Yugosl avi a' s abi l i t y t o publ i sh and
di st ri but e t he document s of t he Movement short l y af t er meet i ngs. The
prest i gi ous Revi ewof I nt ernat i onal Af f ai rs devot ed i t s ent i re cent re sect i on t o a
pul l - out of t heDecl arat i ons of t heNon- al i gned Movement andexcerpt s f rom
t he speeches of non- al i gned l eaders. The j ournal was al so publ i shed i n
Engl i sh, Spani sh and French and t hus reached al l t he count ri es of t he non-
al i gned worl d; i f not t he mass of t hei r popul at i ons, cert ai nl y t he f orei gn
servi ces .
Ti t o and t he Yugosl avs underst ood t he f undament al requi rement of a
mul t i cul t ural i nt ernat i onal soci al movement , namel y, t hat wi t hout an
ef f ect i ve i ndi genous communi cat i ons syst emt he Movement was cert ai n t o
col l apse. Somecyni cs woul d l i ke t o rel egat e t he Yugosl av' s posi t i on on non-
al i gnment t o bei ng concerned sol el y wi t h t hei r own survi val , especi al l y wi t h
regard t o rel at i ons wi t h t he Sovi et Uni on, but t hi s overl ooks Ti t o' s
commi t ment t o a newuni versal soci al movement . I t was Ti t owhoreveal ed t o
t heAf ro- Asi an worl dt he exi st ence of a non- col oni al Europewhi chwoul dbe
sympat het i c
t o
t hei r
aspi rat i ons
.
By bri ngi ng Europe i nt o t he groupi ng,
Yugosl avi a hel ped
t o creat e an i nt ernat i onal movement .
Nasser, whohost ed
t he Second Summi t i n Cai ro, has been much mal i gned
f or hi s rol e i n t he
Non- al i gned Movement , part i cul arl y by t hose whowant ed
hi m
t o
f ol l ow
an Af ro- Asi an di rect i on. Nasser was f i rml y commi t t ed t o t he
i dea of a PanArab nat i on, but knewt hat t he f ut ure l ay i n t he pat h of
moderni zat i on and
col l ect i ve resi st ance. Hi s cont ri but i on t o t he Movement
was
t o
al ert
Af ri ca and Asi a t o t he pl i ght of a di spossessed peopl e, t he
Pal est i ni ans, and i t s consequences
. ThePal est i ne quest i on, as weshal l see i n
Chapt er 11, was moret han
a meredi sput e bet ween t heArabs andt he I srael i s.
I t was t he quest i on of howt odeal wi t h t he emergi ng
phenomenon of a set t l er
st at e.
Unf ort unat el y, whi l e he was chai r, Nasser was i nvol ved
i n a humi l i at i ng
war wi t h I srael whi ch dashed al l hi s dreams of a Pan- Arabcol l ect i ve resi st ance
movement . I t was al so duri ng hi s t enure t hat hesawt womaj or non- al i gned
l eaders, Nkrumah and Soekarno, overt hrown i n t hei r owncount ri es . Nasser
52
St r uct ur e andOr gani zat i on
di dnot evenhave t he pr i vi l ege of handi ng
over t he mant l e of l eader shi p t o
Pr esi dent Kaundasi nce he di edone weekbef or e t he
LusakaSummi t . Whi l e
he was unabl e t o f unct i onas anef f ect i ve l eader of t he
Movement , hi s ot her
maj or cont r i but i onl ay i nhi s capaci t y t o mobi l i ze many of t he semi - f eudal
st at es i n t he r egi on and i nvol ve t hemi n a gl obal soci al syst em. Hi s
her oi c
ef f or t s t o r eser ve t he r i ght t o cont r ol t he Suez Canal made anumber of
t hese
count r i es conf i dent t hat t hey coul d i ndeed be t he mast er s
of
t hei r own
dest i ny.
The Lusaka Summi t was cal l ed pr i mar i l y t o al er t t he Movement
t o t he
danger s of t he apar t hei d syst emand t he necessi t y of suppor t i ng l i ber at i on
movement s
i n sout her n Af r i ca i n t hei r ef f or t s t o over t hr owt he apar t hei d
syst emas wel l as t he
l ast r emnant s of Eur opeani mper i al i sm. I t pr ovi ded
an
oppor t uni t y f or t he emer gence
of a genui ne Af r i can coal i t i on wi t hi n t he
Movement t hat woul dt hen deal col l ect i vel y
wi t h Por t uguese col oni al i sm,
Rhodesi a and Sout h Af r i ca. As we shal l see i n
Chapt er 12 ont he Nami bi an
quest i on, t he ent r y of t hese l i ber at i on movement s
made a qual i t at i ve
di f f er ence t o non- al i gnment . These l i ber at i on
st r uggl es wer e i nvol ved i n
ar medr esi st ance t o gai nt hei r i ndependence; t hi s was
f undament al l y di f f er ent
f r omt he exper i ence of most ex- col oni al non- al i gned
count r i es. The Lusaka
Summi t al so demonst r at ed t o t he
ent i r e Movement t he necessi t y of
l egi t i mi zi ng nat i onal l i ber at i on movement s pr i or
t o t hei r achi evi ng st at e
power . Pr esi dent Kaundaal so devel opeda
newst yl e of l eader shi p wi t hi nt he
Movement , combi ni ng qui et di pl omacy wi t h
deci si ve mi l i t ar y act i ont o br i ng
an end t o Por t uguese and Br i t i sh cont r ol over t he
st at es i nsout her nAf r i ca.
Fur t her mor e,
he set i nmot i ona l ong- t er mpr ot r act ed
st r uggl e t o over t hr ow
t he apar t hei d syst em.
The Al ger i an Summi t pr ovi ded
t he f i r st occasi on f or a f or mer nat i onal
l i ber at i onmovement , gi venl egi t i macy
by t he Non- al i gnedMovement at i t s
f oundi ngmeet i ng i nBel gr ade, t o act as
chai r . Al ger i apr ovi dedt he Movement
wi t ha cl ear i deol ogi cal di r ect i onand
asense of ur gency andmi l i t ancy . I t had
no di f f i cul t i n br eaki ng al l t he
r ul es of t he exi st i ng Eur opean- domi nat ed
di pl omat i c game
.
I t s
most i magi nat i ve i ni t i at i ve was t o mobi l i ze commodi t y-
pr oduci ng count r i es and
devel op anewst r at egy f or col l ect i ve r esi st ance i nt he
economi c spher e. The si gni f i cance
of t he OPECst r at egy was t hat i t showed
qui t e deci si vel y how
nat i ons whi ch have beenhi st or i cal l y t he pr oducer s
of
r awmat er i al s f or t he West
cani ndeed det er mi ne t he pr i ce mechani smby
act i ng col l ect i vel y. Pr esi dent
Boumedi enne emer gedas af or cef ul l eader of
t he Movement af t er t he summi t
and al ong wi t h hi s For ei gn Mi ni st er ,
Bout ef l i ka, est abl i shed a newt r adi t i on
of mi l i t ant act i vi smand col l ect i ve
mobi l i zat i on wi t hi n i t .
Sr i Lanka f aced a maj or i nt er nal cr i si s dur i ng i t s
t enur e as chai r . Shor t l y
af t er host i ng t he Fi f t h Summi t , Mr s Bandar anai ke
went downi n el ect or al
53
Over vi ew
def eat and a newgover nment t hat was l ess ent husi ast i c about non- al i gnment
t ook power . Shor t l y af t er assumi ng of f i ce, Pr esi dent J ayewar dene t ol d t he
NewYor k Ti mes t hat t her e wer e onl y t wo non- al i gned count r i es i nt he wor l d
and t hey wer e t he USAand t he USSR. Whi l e t he r ul i ngpar t y had l i t t l e use f or
non- al i gnment , i t s ener get i c For ei gn Mi ni st er , Mr Hameed, pr oved t obe one
of t he mor e ef f ect i ve f or ei gn mi ni st er s t o emer ge dur i ng t hi s per i od. I t was
l ar gel y due t o hi s ef f or t s t hat t her e wasanor der l y t r ansf er of l eader shi p f r om
Sr i Lanka t o Havana. The For ei gn Mi ni st er al so pl ayed an act i ve par t i n
r esol vi ng conf l i ct , par t i cul ar l y bet ween non- al i gned count r i es such as
Kampuchea and Vi et nam, and made i nt r a- non- al i gned di sput es an i ssue t hat
t he Movement shoul d addr ess. Sr i Lanka al so ear ned t he r eput at i on dur i ngi t s
t enur e as chai r of bei ng except i onal l y f ai r - mi nded and ef f i ci ent i n t he
pr oduct i on of
document s and paper s at t he
UN
and of keepi ng member s
i nf or med
.
The Cuban t enur e was mar ked by a gr eat deal of cont r over sy much of
whi ch wasi nst i gat ed by West er ngover nment s and t he pr ess. The t enur e was
al so mar ked by t he over whel mi ngpr esence of Pr esi dent Fi del Cast r o. Cuba,
as we have not ed, wast he f i r st Lat i nAmer i can/ Car i bbeancount r y t o chai r t he
Movement and t he st yl e i t i nt r oduced wasver y Car i bbeanand Lat i nAmer i can
as wel l as Mar xi st - Leni ni st . As a Car i bbean count r y, Cuba st r essed t he
i mpor t ance of smal l i sl and st at es and t he quest i on of secur i t y wi t hi n t he
r egi on. Secondl y, as a Lat i nAmer i can count r y i t i nt r oduced t he whol e t heor y
of economi c dependence and t he necessi t y f or non- al i gned count r i es t o be
economi cal l y i ndependent . Fi nal l y, as a Mar xi st - Leni ni st count r y, Cuba
est abl i shed t he t r adi t i ont hat i deol ogi cal pl ur al i smwi l l be t ol er at ed wi t hi n t he
Movement . Cuba' s most i mpor t ant cont r i but i onwas t o devi se a newmet hod
of changi ng t he venue out si de t he f r amewor kof t he summi t t hat i ncl uded t he
use of t he `good of f i ces' of t he chai r . Fi del Cast r o' s abi l i t y t o keep I r an and
I r aq wi t hi n t he Movement and est abl i sh an or der l y t r ansf er of power t o I ndi a
was pr obabl y Cuba' s gr eat est achi evement .
The success and f ai l ur e of t he chai r ar e l ar gel y dependent ont he abi l i t i es
of
t he f or ei gn mi ni st er and f or ei gn ser vi ce of t he host count r y . I t i s
t hey who
have
t he r esponsi bi l i t i es of
i mpl ement i ng t he goal s and
obj ect i ves of
non-
al i gnment . The Movement has
been
f or t unat e i n havi ng
pr oduced
a number
of di st i ngui shed f or ei gn mi ni st er s who wer e abl e t o car r y out t hei r t asks
ef f ect i vel y
.
However , t he day- t oday act i vi t i es of t he Non- al i gned Movement
f al l on t he shoul der s of t he f or ei gn ser vi ce of f i cer s, and especi al l y t he
ambassador at t he UN.
I t was not unt i l af t er t he Thi r d Summi t t hat t he concept of t he chai r wi t h
r esponsi bi l i t i es bet weensummi t s was i ni t i at ed. Hence, t he Bel gr ade Summi t
was ef f ect i vel y managed by Leo Mat es who was bot h a par t i ci pant and
hi st or i an of t he Movement ' s ear l y year s. Nasser domi nat ed t he Second
54
St r uct ur e and Or gani zat i on
Summi t . Pr esi dent Kaunda' s own qui et di pl omacy
was ef f ect i vel y suppl e-
ment ed and execut ed by Paul Lusaka. For ei gn Mi ni st er
Bout ef l i ka br ought
not onl y hi s i nt el l ect ual capaci t i es, but pr ovi ded a
di st i nct i ve mi l i t ant st yl e of
l eader shi p dur i ng Al ger i a' s t enur e. Pr i or t o For ei gn
Mi ni st er Hameed, Sr i
Lanka hadt he ser vi ces of H. Shi r l ey Amer asi nghe
who pl ayed a deci si ve r ol e
i nt he f or mul at i onof hi s count r y' s non- al i gned
f or ei gn pol i cy andwas gr eat l y
r esponsi bl e f or t he ef f ect i ve l eader shi p t hat Sr i
Lanka pr ovi ded at t he Si xt h
Summi t . Fi nal l y, Ri car do Al ar con f r om
Cuba est abl i shed a newt r adi t i on
wi t hi n UNci r cl es of engagi ng i n r evol ut i onar y
di pl omacy. I ndi a, however ,
was unabl e t o est abl i sh i t s i mpr i nt ont he Movement due
t o t he t r agi c deat hof
Mr s Gandhi . The newPr une Mi ni st er hadj ust
begunhi s car eer not onl yas t he
l eader of I ndi a, but al so as chai r and was
f aced wi t h domest i c cr i ses bef or e
bei ngabl e t o est abl i sh hi msel f as an i nt er nat i onal l eader
of t he Movement . I t
shoul dbe not edt hat I ndi ahas one of t he l ar gest andmost
exper i encedf or ei gn
ser vi ces of al l non- al i gned count r i es andt hi s wi l l , no doubt ,
af f ect t he st yl e
and
cont r i but i ons of I ndi a' s l eader shi p.
The
capaci t y of t he Movement t o sur vi ve i s gr eat l y det er mi ned
by t he
l eader shi p and manager i al capaci t y of t he count r y t hat host s t he
summi t .
Ther e
ar e at l east t hr ee necessar y andbasi c i ngr edi ent s . The f i r st i s
t hat t he
host count r y must enj oydomest i c pol i t i cal st abi l i t y. The second
i s t hat t he host
count r y must have mor al l egi t i macy i n t he gl obal communi t y wi t h
t he
capaci t y t o deal ef f ect i vel ywi t ht he member shi pat l ar ge. I nor der
t o r emai nas
l eader ,
i t has t o del i cat el y bal ance i t s ownf or ei gnpol i cy obj ect i ves wi t h t hose
of t he
Movement as awhol e. Fi nal l y, i t must have an ef f i ci ent andt echni cal l y
compet ent
f or ei gn ser vi ce. Thi s l ast el ement i s muchmor e i mpor t ant t han i s
commonl y assumed
.
Deci si on- maki ng
t hr oughconsensus i s ahi ghl ycompl ex f or mof di pl omat i c
negot i at i on. The f or ei gn ser vi ce has t o
be ski l l ed i n t hi s pr ocess whi ch
i s
gener al l y not par t of
di pl omat i c t r ai ni ng. Mor e of t en, f or ei gn ser vi ce of f i ci al s
ar e t r ai nedi nmet r opol i t an
cent r es wher e t heyar e not exposedt o t he t heor i es
or pr act i ces of non- al i gnment
. I n many i nst ances, t he f or ei gn ser vi ce st i l l
r ef l ect s t he or i ent at i ons
andi deol ogi cal pr edi sposi t i ons of t he met r opol i t anor
col oni al mast er s . Gi ven t he
over whel mi ng domi nat i on of t he West er n
i nf or mat i on syst em, non- al i gned
of f i ci al s over a per i od of t i me have al so
come t o r el y mor e on t hese ver y
sour ces f or del i cat e deci si on- maki ng and
i nf or mat i on t han on i ndi genous
non- al i gned sour ces . I t i s t hus di f f i cul t f or
t hese of f i ci al s t o absor b a nat i onal i st
per spect i ve, much l ess devel op a non-
al i gned per spect i ve. The meet i ngs of t he
non- al i gned count r i es, whet her at
t he l evel of ambassador s at t he UN, or at t he l evel of
mi ni st er s i nt he Bur eau,
or at ot her
l evel s, t hen become an i mpor t ant oppor t uni t y f or par t i ci pat i ng
del egat i ons t o devel op a non- al i gnedper spect i ve. These meet i ngs,
t her ef or e,
r epr esent a massi ve t r ai ni ng cent r e f or t hi s newki nd of di pl omacy
. I t i s f or
55
Over vi ew
t hese r easons t hat t he meet i ngs of t he
non- al i gned ar e not mer el y f or t he
pur chase of dut y- f r ee goods, but
f or consol i dat i ng and cr eat i ng a newsoci al
movement i n wor l d pol i t i cs.
I n summar y, t he st r uct ur e
andor gani zat i on of t he Non- al i gned
Movement
i s a dynami c pr ocess t hat
exempl i f i es t he pr i nci pl es of t he Movement as
wel l as
ser vi ng t o pr omot e and
f ul f i l t he i deol ogi cal goal s of non- al i gnment . I n
Par t
I I , we shal l exami ne t he
hi st or i cal devel opment of t hi s uni que
i nt er nat i onal
soci al movement .
Not es
1 . Ranko
Pet kovi c, `Non- al i gnment and I nt er nat i onal
Law' , Revi ewof I nt er nat i onal
Af f ai r s,
575 ( 20 Mar ch 1 974) , p. 24.
2. i bi d. , p. 25.
3. M. S. Raj an, `The Non- Al i gned
Movement and t he Cr i t er i a of Member shi p' ,
The Non- Al i gned Wor l d, 1 : 2 ( Apr i l
J une 1 983) , p. 234 .
4. I bi d. , p. 225.
5. I bi d. , p. 228 .
6. Ranko Pet kovi c,
`Evol ut i on of t he Cr i t er i a of Non- al i gnment ' , Revi ew
of
I nt er nat i onal Af f ai r s ( 20 J une
1 977) , pp. 1 1 - 1 2 and 37- 40.
7. Two Decades of Non- Al i gnment
: Document of t he Gat her i ngs of t he Non- al i gned
1 961 - 1 982 ( New Del hi :
Gover nment of I ndi a, 1 983) , p. 474.
8 . I bi d. , p. 473.
9 . Ri char d L. J ackson,
Tl t e NonAl i gned, t he UN, and t he Super power s ( New
Yor k:
Pr aeger , 1 983) , p.
39.
1 0. I bi d. , pp.
40- 1 .
1 1 . i bi d. ,
p
.
44 .
1 2. I bi d. , pp.
51 - 2.
1 3. I bi d. , pp. 37- 8.
1 4. I bi d. , p. 37.
1 5. I bi d. , pp. 299- 301 .
1 6. Rober t W. Kast en, J r , `Our Al l eged U. N.
Fr i ends' , New Yor k Ti mes, 1 7 J une
1 985.
See al so US Dept . of St at e, Repor t t o Congr ess
on Vot i ng Pr act i ces i n t he Uni t ed
Nat i ons,
20 May 1 985.
3. Ant ecedent s and Or i gi ns of
t he Non- al i gned
Movement
The Non- al i gned Movement
dat es i t s f oundi ng t o t he hol di ng of i t s f ast
conf er ence of heads of st at e or gover nment
of non- al i gned count r i es i n
Bel gr ade, Yugosl avi a, i n Sept ember 1961. The Bel gr ade
meet i ng gave f or mal
bi r t h t o t hi s i nt er nat i onal soci al movement of newl y i ndependent Thi r d
Wor l d nat i ons ; but hi st or i cal l y t he conf er ence was al so t he out gr owt h of
ear l i er ef f or t s i n t he Thi r dWor l d t o wor kcol l ect i vel y f or speci f i c goal s at t he
r egi onal l evel . To under st and f ul l y t he shar ed aspi r at i ons of t he count r i es
whi ch came t oget her as t he Non- al i gned Movement , i t i s i mpor t ant t o
r emember and t o not e br i ef l y her e t hei r common hi st or i cal exper i ence as
f or mer col oni es. Thus t hi s i nt er nat i onal soci al movement i s r oot ed i n t he
nat i onal l i ber at i on movement s wagedbyt he t hr ee cont i nent s of Asi a, Af r i ca
and Lat i n Amer i ca agai nst West er n col oni al and new- col oni al domi nat i on.
The f i r st r egi on of successf ul ant i - col oni al st r uggl e was t he Amer i cas. The
US War of I ndependence
i gai nst Gr eat Br i t ai n i n 1776was an i nspi r at i on t o
col oni zed
peopl e ever ywher e. As manyAmer i cans such as hi st or i an Ar t hur
Schl esi nger , Sr , have been qui ck
t o accl ai m, t he r i ght of r evol ut i on has been
one of t he nat i on' s ` gi f t s t o ci vi l i zat i on' . 1
Thi s concept , however , has been
cl ear l y chal l enged by ot her Amer i can schol ar s
whohave wr i t t en ext ensi vel y
of t he count r y' s deci si on t o become an i mper i al power ,
a deci si on t hat was
evi dent as ear l y as t he 1840s. 2 Accor di ngl y, t hese
f or mer Engl i sh col oni es
whi ch became t he Uni t ed St at es of Amer i ca chose t o
compet e wi t h Eur ope
and adopt a pol i cy of i mper i al i st expansi oni sm- a pol i cy i n
cont r adi ct i on
wi t h i t s own f oundi ng pr i nci pl es and et hos. The f i r st ar ena
of i nf l uence and
domi nat i on was t o be t he ent i r e West er n hemi spher e, especi al l y Cent r al
Amer i ca and t he Car i bbean. Thus Wal t er Li Feber has not ed t hat af t er
1850,
wi t h r ar e except i ons, r evol ut i onar y l eader s no l onger ci t ed t he Amer i can
Revol ut i on as an exampl e t o t he wor l d. 3
The Car i bbean has and cont i nues t o be anot her cent r e i n t he Amer i cas of
st r uggl e
agai nst col oni al i smand neo- col oni al i sm. As ear l y as 1791 Af r i can
sl aves successf ul l y
r evol t ed i n t he Fr ench col onyof San Domi ngo andt wel ve
year s l at er cr eat ed t he
i ndependent st at e of Hai t i . The Hai t i an Revol ut i on set
i n mot i on a
r evol ut i onar y t r adi t i on i n t he i sl ands . As t he di st i ngui shed
57
Overvi ew
Cari bbean hi st ori an
C.
L.
R.
J ames has poi nt ed out ,
t here i s a l i nk bet ween
Toussai nt ' s revol ut i on i nt he 18t h cent ury andCast ro' s revol ut i oni nt he 20t h
cent ury. 4 To t hi s, one must nowadd Bi shop' s abort ed revol ut i on i n
Grenada.
Theant i - col oni al st ruggl e i n t heCari bbeanhas hadani mpact f ar beyondi t s
own regi on. I n t he 20t h cent ury, Cari bbean i nt el l ect ual s and act i vi st s have
pl ayeda maj or rol e i n l i nki ng peopl es of Af ri candescent i n
t heAmeri cas
wi t h
t hose i n Af ri ca t hrough t hei r
cont ri but i on t o negri t ude and t he Pan- Af ri can
movement , bot h
of
whi ch, i n t urn,
i nf l uenced i ndependence st ruggl es i n
Af ri ca. 5 Cl oser
t o home,
t he Hai t i an
Revol ut i on had a di rect andi mmedi at e
i mpact on Lat i n Ameri ca. Agai n,
C.
L. R. J ames succi nct l y not es :
Toussai nt L' Ouvert ure and t he Hai t i an sl aves brought i nt o t he worl d more
t han t he abol i t i on of sl avery. When Lat i n Ameri cans sawt hat smal l and
i nsi gni f i cant Hai t i coul d wi n andkeep i ndependencet hey began t o t hi nk t hat
t hey ought t o be abl et o do t hesame. Pet i on, t he rul er of Hai t i , nursed back t o
heal t h t he si ck and def eat ed Bol i var, gave hi m
money,
arms
and a pri nt i ng
press t o hel p i n t he campai gn whi ch ended i n t he f reedomof t he Fi ve
St at es . b
Under t he l eadershi p of Si monBol i var andJ ose deSan Mart i n, nearl y al l of
Lat i nAmeri ca woni t s f reedomf romEuropei n a seri es of revol ut i ons duri ng
t he f i rst t hree decades of t he 19t h cent ury. Short l y af t erwards Bol i var was
qui ck t o warn t he regi on of t he i mperi al i st desi gns of i t s nei ghbour t o t he
nort h, t he Uni t ed St at es. Fgr Lat i n Ameri ca, pol i t i cal i ndependence di d not
resul t i n economi c aut onomy. Duri ng t he col oni al peri od, unl i ke Nort h
Ameri ca, Lat i n Ameri ca' s mi neral weal t h and agri cul t ural resources were
cri t i cal t o t he economi c devel opment of Europe. Thi s hi st ori cal i mport anceof
Lat i nAmeri ca' s weal t h
t o t he
economi c
growt h of Europe l ef t i t s economy
deepl y
i nt egrat ed
wi t h
i t s f ormer col oni al mast ers and, more
recent l y, wi t h
t he
Uni t ed St at es
.
Theconsequence
has
been economi c underdevel opment
. ?
Thus Lat i nAmeri ca
( bot h
Cent ral and
Sout h Ameri ca) becamet he
f i rst
neo-
col oni al regi onandi t s schol ars havecont ri but ed si gni f i cant st udi es expl ki ni ng
t hi s f orm
of dependency t o
t he newl y
i ndependent nat i ons of t he `Ol d
Worl d' .
Furt hermore,
f rom
Bol i var t hrough
J ose Mart i t o t he present - day
Sandi ni st as, Pan- Ameri cani smpersi st s as a cul t ural and pol i t i cal movement of
resi st ance t o US hegemony i n t he regi on, cont ri but i ng t o t he f ai l ure of t he
US- i mposed Organi zat i on of Ameri can St at es.
Pri or t o Worl d War I , t here weremany at t empt s by peopl es of t he Thi rd
Worl d t o oppose West ern expansi oni smgl obal l y. There were resi st ance
movement s i n Asi a, such as t he I ndi an Mut i ny of 185 7- 5 8 and t he Chi nese
Boxer Rebel l i on of 1900. I n 1898, t he peopl es of Cuba and t he Phi l i ppi nes
began t hei r heroi c ef f ort s t o l i berat e t hemsel ves as t hey t ook up arms f i rst
5 8
Ant ecedent s andOr i gi ns
agai nst Spai n and t hen agai nst t he Uni t ed St at es . I n Af r i ca, f r omt he r el i gi ous
movement s i n t he Sudan t ot he Zul u Rebel l i on i n Nat al i n 1906, r esi st ance t o
t he Br i t i sh, Fr ench, Ger mans and ot her Eur opeans t ook many f or ms. Ther e
wer e al so r evol ut i onar ymovement s i n Russi a i n 1905, t he Ot t omanEmpi r ei n
1908, Mexi co i n 1910, and Chi nai n 1911. But f or t he most par t , t hese ef f or t s
t o st op t he encr oachment of t he West ended i n f ai l ur e. $
The one except i on was J apan. Rel at i vel y i sol at ed by geogr aphy and sel f -
i sol at i on and l ess i mpor t ant t o t he West t han ot her Asi an count r i es, J apan
had r emai ned out si de West er n cont r ol . Thi s br eat hi ng space coupl edwi t h i t s
own i nt er nal dynami cs enabl edJ apan t omoder ni ze pol i t i cal l y, mi l i t ar i l y and
economi cal l y i n a ver y shor t t i me. I t shocked t he wor l d wi t h i t s mi l i t ar y
vi ct or y over Tsar i st Russi ai n 1905, but was soont of ol l owt he West i n apol i cy
of i mper i al i st expansi oni sm.
The exper i ence i n t he r est of Asi a and t he Thi r d Wor l d was
di f f er ent .
Bur denedbyl ongper i ods of col oni al i smand semi - col oni al i sm,
t hei r st r uggl e
wi t h t he West was f or i ndependence, sel f - gover nment
and sel f - det er mi nat i on.
Pr i or t o Wor l d War I , however , Thi r d Wor l d peopl es
r emai ned r el at i vel y
i sol at ed f r omone anot her and l acked t he capaci t y f or
col l ect i ve suppor t and
model s of al t er nat i ve soci al andpol i t i cal devel opment . I n
spi t e of t hei r l i mi t ed
cont act , t heywer e devel opi ng si mi l ar obj ect i ves of f r eedom
and equal i t y i n
pol i t i cal , economi c and soci al
t er ms.
But at
t hi s t i me, t he count er -
r evol ut i onar y f or ces wer e
st r onger
and mor e
uni t ed as West er n power s
assi st ed one anot her
i n def eat i ng Thi r d Wor l d r esi st ance t o i mper i al i sm. 9
Wor l d
War I al t er ed t he i nt er nat i onal syst em. I ni t s af t er mat h t he st age was
bei ngset f or t he di smant l i ng of t he Eur opean col oni al syst em, aphenomenon
t hat woul dbe accompl i shed qui ckl y but not unt i l af t er Wor l dWar I I . Wor l d
War I was f ought i n t he name of i deal s, but i n r eal i t y i t was a compet i t i on
bet ween Eur opean power s over empi r e. Though badl y bat t er ed at home,
Eur ope managed t o emer ge f r omt he war st i l l secur el y i n cont r ol of i t s
col oni es . I t s pr e- emi nence, however , was ser i ousl yshaken. The Uni t ed St at es
had become a maj or wor l d power . Bar r i er s wi t hi n and bet ween cont i nent s
began t o br eak down as Asi an and Af r i can i nt el l ect ual s i nt er act ed i n
met r opol es such as London andPar i s wher e t heyst udi ed, vi si t ed andwor ked.
The encount er s exper i enced byMi xHouphouet - Boi gny, J omoKenyat t aand
Kwame Nkr umah f r omAf r i ca, HoChi Mi nh, J awahar l al Nehr u and Kr i shna
Menon f r omAsi a, Ai me Cesai r e, J ose Mar t i and W. E. B. DuBoi s f r omt he
Amer i cas, and ot her not abl e f i gur es wer e i mpor t ant f or t he devel opment of
Pan- Af r i can, Pan- Amer i can andPan- Asi anmovement s andf or what was l at er
t o become t he Non- al i gned Movement . I n t he meant i me, t he hundr eds of
t housands of col oni al s whohadbeenbr ought i nt ot he war on t he si de of
t hei r
var i ous col oni al mast er s had l ear ned t hat t he cal l f or sel f - det er mi nat i on
was
not meant t o be appl i ed t o t hem. Thi s r eal i zat i on, t he war exper i ence andt he
59
Over vi ew
i nt er nat i onal cont act s changed
many
Asi ans and
Af r i cans who r et ur ned home
as nat i onal i st s .
Most i mpor t ant l y, t he Russi an
Revol ut i on of 1917 deci si vel y al t er ed t he
cour se of wor l d hi st or y.
I t s achi evement s i n t r ansf or mi ng a f eudal and
agr ar i an soci et yi nt o an
i ndust r i al andmi l i t ar y power i n a shor t per i odof t i me
i r r evocabl ychanged
i nt er nat i onal pol i t i cs andl ef t a f or mi dabl e i mpr essi on on
t he Thi r d
Wor l d
.
I t
i s her e
t hat t he Col dWar r eal l ybegi ns. For Thi r dWor l d
nat i ons and especi al l y
nat i onal i st movement s, 1917 pr esent ed an al t er nat i ve
model of
devel opment t o capi t al i sm, not onl y i n t he economi c and soci al
spher e, but
al so i n t he pol i t i cal spher e. Leni n' s I mper i al i smpr ovi ded bot h a
t heor et i cal expl anat i on f or col oni al i smand economi c under devel opment and
a bl uepr i nt f or nat i onal l i ber at i on t o whi ch manyThi r dWor l d l eader s woul d
t ur n. l 0 Hence i n t hi s ear l y per i od even t he most conser vat i ve
nat i onal i st
l eader s wer e r el uct ant t o vi ew t he Sovi et Uni on as an
al t er nat i ve i mper i al
power . I t i s onl yi n r ecent t i mes, speci f i cal l y
si nce t he
Col d
War , t hat a r e-
exami nat i on of t he r ol e of t he Sovi et
Uni on has t aken pl ace. I n assessi ng t he
i mpact of t he i deol ogi cal
chal l enge
of
Mar xi sm- Leni ni smon t he West and
capi t al i smt oday, Geof f r ey
Bar r acl ough f i nds, none t he l ess, t hat i t has had an
i mpact f ar beyond i t s or i gi ns
i n t he Sovi et Uni on. He st at es :
The f act t hat ' Mar xi sm- Leni ni sm' was cl osel y i dent i f i ed, f or t hi r t y or
f or t y
year s af t er
1917, wi t h t he Sovi et Uni on was a consequence of hi st or i cal
ci r cumst ances whi chwer e of i mmense i mpor t ance at t he t i me, but
whi ch no
l onger pr evai l . Leni n hi msel f poi nt edout t hat , once t he pr ol et ar i an r evol ut i on
had achi eved a measur e 6f success,
Russi a woul d ` cease t o be t he model
count r y' , and t her e ar e manyi ndi cat i ons t hat , as i t evol ves and
i s adapt ed t o
ot her ci r cumst ances i n ot her par t s of t he wor l d, Mar xi smi s begi nni ng t o
modi f yor cast of f t he speci f i cal l y
Russi an f eat ur es i t acqui r edbet ween 1928
and 1953. To sayt hi s i s not , of cour se, t o make t he mi st ake of under est i mat i ng
t he par t pl ayed byt he Sovi et
Uni on i n r ecent hi st or y. But t he si gni f i cance of
Mar xi smt r anscends i t s i mpor t ance as t he i deol ogyof t he Sovi et st at e . . . I f we
ar e t o measur e i t s
i mpact we must see i t not si mpl y as a Sovi et Russi an
i deol ogy, but - as Leni n sawi t - as a uni ver sal f or ce wi t h auni ver sal
mi ssi on.
I t
has al r eady shaped t went i et h- cent ur ysoci et y on l i nes di f f er ent f r omanyt hi ng
known i n t he past ; and i t s f or ce i s not yet spent .
I I
I n t he per i od bet ween t he Wor l dWar s I and I I nat i onal i st st r uggl es i n t he
Thi r d Wor l d i nt ensi f i ed and r egi onal l i nkages wer e devel oped. I n a number
of Ar ab count r i es, pol i t i cal act i vi t i es suchas conf er ences, decl ar at i ons, st r i kes
andot her act s of ci vi l di sobedi ence wer e or gani zedal ongwi t hmi l i t ar yact i on
agai nst cont i nued Br i t i sh and Fr ench domi nat i on t o dr aw at t ent i on t o t he
demands of Ar ab peopl es f or sel f - det er mi nat i on and sel f - gover nment
. The
f ut ur e of Pal est i ne i n par t i cul ar br ought t he Ar ab wor l d t oget her , andby
t he
endof t he 1930s Ar ab sol i dar i t y andco- oper at i on hadbecome a
f undament al
60
Ant ecedent s and Or i gi ns
pr i nci pl e of t he many
or gani zat i ons and pol i t i cal par t i es i n t he r egi on
. The
f or mat i on of t he
Ar ab League i n 1945 was a cul mi nat i on of
t hi s Pan- Ar ab
movement
. 12
Pan- Af r i cani s m, a
movement concer ned wi t h r aci al
pr i de and t he l i ber at i on
of t he Af r i can
cont i nent f r omcol oni al i s m, began as ear l y as
1900 i n London.
The f i r s t Pan- Af r i can
Congr es s met i n Par i s i n 1919 and
t hr ough a s er i es of
meet i ngs i n t he
next decades peopl es of Af r i can des cent
f r omt he Amer i cas ,
Eur ope and Af r i ca
s har ed t hei r common concer ns . The t ur ni ng- poi nt
was t he
f i f t h Pan- Af r i can
Congr es s i n Manches t er i n
1945
.
At t endi ng wer e many
Af r i can t r ade
uni oni s t s , pol i t i ci ans , f ar mer s and s t udent s , s ome
of whomwer e
t o become f ut ur e
l eader s of i ndependent Af r i can
s t at es , not abl y Kwame
Nkr umah
and J omoKenyat t a. The di s cus s i ons wer e wi de
r angi ng and t he t one
mi l i t ant .
The Congr es s oppos ed r aci al di s cr i mi nat i on
i ncl udi ng t he col our bar
i n
Br i t ai n and apar t hei d i n Sout h Af r i ca. I t
s t r ongl ycondemned t he cont i nued
expl oi t at i on and col oni zat i on of Af r i ca and
s uppor t ed t he demands of peopl es
f or s el f - gover nment and i ndependence,
not onl yi n Bl ackAf r i ca, but i n al l of
Af r i ca and t he Car i bbean . I n i t s
decl ar at i on t o col oni al power s , t he Congr es s
i ndi cat ed t he s t r ong des i r e of Af r i can peopl es
t o l i ve i n peace, yet
i ndi cat ed
t hat f or ce mi ght be neces s ar y, as a
l as t r es or t , i f t he Wes t er n wor l d di d
not gi ve
up
i t s r ul e byf or ce. Under Nkr umah' s
l eader s hi p a Wes t Af r i can Nat i onal
Secr et ar i at was al s o f or med at t hi s gat her i ng,
f or es hadowi ng t he es t abl i s hment
of
f ut ur e Pan- Af r i can or gani zat i ons . Fi nal l y,
i n s ol i dar i t ywi t h As i an peopl es
t he Fi f t h Pan- Af r i can Congr es s s ent
bes t wi s hes and gr eet i ngs t o
I ndi a,
I ndones i a and t he Vi et - mi nh l ed byHo
Chi Mi nh i n t hei r cur r ent
s t r uggl es f or
f r eedom.
13
I n As i a, nat i onal i s t
s t i r r i ngs ever ywher e wer e l eadi ng t o
monument al
s t r uggl es of r es i s t ance and
r evol ut i on. Event s i n Chi na, I ndi a,
I ndo- Chi na
( Vi et nam) , Kor ea and
I ndones i a wer e t o pl ay maj or r ol es i n
t he di s mant l i ng of
Wes t er n cont r ol and
i nf l uence i n t he r egi on. Thi s cont i nent
woul d be t he f as t
r egi on of newl yi ndependent
s t at es af t er Wor l d War i i
and woul d t ake t he
l ead i n bui l di ng r egi onal
and i nt er nat i onal l i nkages
.
14
Whi l e t he Non- al i gned
Movement may have t aken i t s
i ns pi r at i on f r om
Pan- As i ani s m,
Pan- Af r i cani s m, Pan- Amer i cani s mand
Pan- Ar abi s m, i t i s
qual i t at i vel y di f f er ent
f r omal l t hes e pan- movement s
. Loui s Snyder i n a
s emi nal wor k qui t e
cor r ect l y def i nes pan- movement s as
' pol i t i cal - cul t ur al
movement s s eeki ng t o
enhance and pr omot e t he
s ol i dar i t y of peopl es bound
t oget her by common
or ki ndr ed l anguage, cul t ur al
s i mi l ar i t i es , t he s ame
hi s t or i cal t r adi t i ons ,
and/ or geogr aphi cal pr oxi mi t y
. Theypos t ul at e t he nat i on
wr i t
l ar ge
i n
t he wor l d' s communi t y of nat i ons '
. 1S
As
we have i ndi cat ed
ear l i er , t he
Non- al i gned Movement i s a
t r ans nat i onal gr oupi ng t hat
encompas s es
t he qual i t y of a s oci al movement
wi t hi n t he f r amewor kof s t at e
s t r uct ur es .
I t i s f or t hes e r eas ons t hat t he Bandung
f or mul a of l i nki ng Af r i ca
61
and Asi a wi t hi n t he f ramework
of a pan- movement di d not succeed. The
search f or an
al t ernat i ve vi ewl ed t o t he concept of non- al i gnment
whi ch
possesses a
uni versal i t y.
Soci al
movement s are i nf l uenced by hi st ori cal event s
and
by
l eadershi p.
The l i t erat ure
on. non- al i gnment andt he non- al i gnedcount ri es
t hemsel ves are
i n general
agreement t hat t hef ormat i on of t hi s i nt ernat i onal soci al
movement
was
heavi l y dependent on t he l eadershi p of Nehru of
I ndi a, Ti t o of
Yugosl avi a, Nasser
of Egypt , Nkrumahof Ghana, and Soekarnoof
I ndonesi a,
as wel l as on
t he hi st ori cal experi ence of t hei r respect i ve
count ri es and
regi ons . Each
brought a di mensi ont hat cont ri but edt o t he whol e
organi zat i on
anddi rect i on
of t he Movement . Nehruhadt he abi l i t y t ovi ew
i ssues wi t hi nan
i nt ernat i onal perspect i ve. Ti t o i nsi st ed on
mai nt ai ni ng cont act andhol di ng
regul ar meet i ngs. Nasser' s pol i t i cal ski l l s brought
di f f erent groups t oget her
andhe was especi al l y abl e i n commi t t ees
where he met hodi cal l y achi eved
consensus. Nkrumah hadt he vi si on of a
f ree Af ri ca. Soekarno provi ded an
i ndomi t abl e spi ri t edness t o t hei r
act i vi sm. Each was anadvocat e f or ani ssue
t hat became part of t he i nt egrat ed
set of pri nci pl es knownas non- al i gnment .
Nehru emphasi zedpeace and
pol i t i cal i ndependence. Ti t o was f or peace and
equi di st ance bet ween t he maj or
powers . Nkrumah, Soekarno and
Nasser
were ant i - col oni al , ant i - neo- col oni al
and al so ant i - raci st . Ot her l eaders and
hi st ori cal event s were t ohave
t hei r i nf l uence i nl at er st ages of t he Movement ,
but wi t hout a doubt , t hese
i ndi vi dual s and t hei r concerns domi nat ed
t he
f oundi ng and f i rst years of
t he Non- al i gned Movement .
But Nehrust ands
above t hem211. 16 I t i s l argel y t hroughJ awaharl al
Nehru' s
i nt ernat i onal i sm
and vi si on t hat t he gl obal charact er and
act i vi st nat ure of
what
was t o
become t he Non- al i gned Movement
were act ual l y envi saged.
Under
t he di rect i on of Mahat ma Gandhi , I ndi a had
become anexponent of
Asi an
nat i onal i smand a l eadi ng opponent of
West ern col oni al i sm. Under
Nehru andt hrought he Congress Part y, I ndi a
begant o devel opco- operat i ve
rel at i ons wi t h ot her Asi an count ri es and t o
express concern f or nat i onal i st
st ruggl es i n nei ghbouri ng regi ons . As earl y
as 1927 i n Brussel s at t he
I nt ernat i onal Congress agai nst I mperi al i sm,
Nehru had met nat i onal i st and
revol ut i onary l eaders f romAsi a, Af ri ca,
Nort h and Sout h Ameri ca, and
Europe,
such as Ho Chi Mi nh who became
Presi dent of Nort h Vi et nam,
Mohammed Hat t a, a f ut ure Vi ce- Presi dent
of I ndonesi a, and Leopol d
Senghor, a f ut ure Presi dent of Senegal
. The Brussel s meet i ng cont ri but ed t o
Nehru' s i nt erest i n soci al i sm. I t al so l ed
hi m
t o
recogni ze t he i mport ance of
est abl i shi ng cont act s wi t h ot her
Thi rdWorl drepresent at i ves andt oreach
t he
concl usi on t hat t he st ruggl e f or
f reedomand agai nst i mperi al i smrequi red
; j oi nt del i berat i on, and
where possi bl e, j oi nt act i on' .
17
Col oni al i smandraci sm
were f urt her di scredi t edby f asci smand
Worl dWar
I I . Thei r mammot h
dest ruct i on worl d- wi de endi ng i n t he use of
at omi c
6 2
Ant ecedent s and Or i gi ns
weapons on t he peopl e of Hi r os hi ma and Nagas aki t r ans f or med
t he
i nt er nat i onal s ys t em. Af t er 1945, t he Uni t ed St at es was mi l i t ar i l y
and
economi cal l y t he l eadi ng Wes t er n power . Eur ope was s ever el y
cr i ppl ed. The
whol e concept of empi r e was i n ques t i on . Thi s t i me
mi l l i ons of Thi r d Wor l d
peopl es had been di r ect l y af f ect ed by t he war
. They s er ved under var i ous
col oni al f l ags i n di f f er ent par t s of t he wor l d.
They s awt hei r homel ands
over r un, of t en i n r ui ns , and t hei r f ami l i es
s epar at ed or des t r oyed . Thi s
exper i ence s t r engt hened t he r es i s t ance movement s
and t he demand f or s el f -
gover nment and s el f - det er mi nat i on i n t he Thi r d
Wor l d . 1 8
The pos t - Wor l d War I I er awas a per i od of
changi ng i nt er nat i onal r el at i ons
and changi ng power r el at i ons . A number
of s oci al i s t count r i es wer e
es t abl i s hed i n Eas t er n Eur ope .
Ant i - col oni al s t r uggl es i n t he Thi r d Wor l d
mat ur ed, wi t h
many l ed by a newgener at i on of nat i onal i s t l eader s of t en
t r ai ned and educat ed i n t he Wes t . Begi nni ng wi t h t he As i an cont i nent ,
s ucces s f ul i ndependence movement s cont r i but ed t o t he r api d di s mant l i ng of
Eur opean col oni al empi r es . I n addi t i on, s oci al r evol ut i onar y s t r uggl es wer e
under way i n t he Thi r d Wor l d, es peci al l y i n t he Far Eas t i n Chi na, I ndo- Chi na
and Kor ea. The Chi nes e Revol ut i on of 1949 wi t h t he s ucces s of MaoTs e- t ung
and t he Peopl e' s Li ber at i on Ar my was anot her wat er s hed i n wor l d hi s t or y. I t
was t he f i r s t r evol ut i on i n t he Thi r d Wor l d t o s eek s el f - cons ci ous l y a br eak
wi t h t he wor l d capi t al i s t s ys t emand t o es t abl i s h an al l i ance wi t h t he Sovi et
Uni on t o devel op an al t er nat i ve s oci al i s t model f or t he wor l d' s peas ant
economi es
. 19
At t he s ame t i me as
t hes e news mal l and
medi um- s i zed devel opi ng s t at es
emer ged and ent er ed
t he i nt er nat i onal pol i t i cal
s ys t em,
t he
gl obal
power
s t r uct ur e was bei ng t r ans f or med . The pr edomi nance of Wes t er n Eur ope i n
wor l d af f ai r s was r epl aced wi t h a bi - pol ar wor l d domi nat ed by t he Uni t ed
St at es and t he Sovi et Uni on. Fur t her mor e, newpol i t i cal s t r ai ns wer e cr eat ed
gl obal l y when t he US adopt ed a pol i cy of cont ai ni ng communi s mt hr oughout
t he wor l d j us t as t he USSRwas cons ol i dat i ng i t s el f and advocat i ng s uppor t f or
nat i onal l i ber at i on. Thi s Col d War , as i t came t o be cal l ed, br ought a gr owt h
of mi l i t ar y pact s , an i ncr eas e i n ar mament s , t he gr adual pol ar i zat i on of t he
wor l d i nt o bl ocs and, wi t h t he ons et of t he Nucl ear Age, t he pos s i bl e
anni hi l at i on of t he human r ace . Thus t hes e news t at es f aced t he chal l enge of
pol i t i cal , economi c and s oci al devel opment wi t h t he handi cap of an
expl oi t at i ve col oni al pas t and t he s ever e cons t r ai nt s of i nt er nat i onal power
pol i t i cs .
As one of t he f i r s t count r i es t o gai n i ndependence af t er Wor l d War I I , I ndi a
had t aken t he l ead i n def endi ng t hei r s over ei gnt y by cal l i ng f or co- oper at i on
among s i mi l ar peopl es and count r i es , pr omot i ng s ol i dar i t y wi t h ot her r egi ons ,
and devel opi ng a f or ei gn pol i cy f or
newl y i ndependent
count r i es t o enabl e
t hemt o f unct i on aut onomous l y
i n
t he
i nt er nat i onal
communi t y
.
I n 1947 on
63
Overvi ew
t heeve of I ndi a' s i ndependence, Nehruarranged a meet i ngof Asi an count ri es
at t he non- government al l evel i n NewDel hi t o di scuss t hei r common
st ruggl es agai nst col oni al i smand raci al i sm. Represent at i ves f rom32count ri es
at t ended t hi s Fi rst Asi an Rel at i ons Conf erence t o seek col l ect i ve ways t o
achi eve i ndependence, support nat i onal l i berat i on, and promot e co-
operat i on . Theconf erence advanced t he concept of an Asi an f ederat i on but ,
most i mport ant l y, si gnal l ed t he emergence of an i ndependent Asi a
det ermi ned t o have a rol e i n i nt ernat i onal pol i t i cs .
Two years l at er al l of Asi a and t he Musl i mworl d were al armed by t he
i nt ensi f i ed and vi ol ent Dut chaggressi on i n I ndonesi a . Nehrucal l ed a second
Asi an conf erence i n NewDel hi , t hi s t i me on a government al l evel , i n support
of l i berat i on movement s and i n opposi t i on t o cont i nued col oni al i nt erf erence
and domi nat i on. Amongt hemat t ers di scussed was t hef ormat i on of a regi onal
def ence syst emf or Asi an count ri es . The resul t was t he wi t hdrawal of t he
Dut ch and
t he i ndependence
of I ndonesi a
. Z 0
The Korean War was al so a bl unt remi nder
of t he consequences of
cont i nued East - West t ensi ons and a maj or t est f or t he
Uni t ed Nat i ons . Fearf ul
of t hewar expandi ng, I ndi a and a number of ot her
Asi an and Arab count ri es i n
t he regi on at t empt ed f i rst t o medi at e and t hen
t o obt ai n a cease- f i re. As
members
of t he
Securi t y Counci l
at t he t i me of t he Korean conf l i ct , I ndi a,
Yugosl avi a and Egypt met regul arl y, l ayi ng
t he ground f or cont i nued
consul t at i ons out si de t he i nt ernat i onal
organi zat i on. The need f or peace and
t he recogni t i on of t hei r vul nerabi l i t y was apparent
t o Asi an st at es, especi al l y
af t er t he news t hat Presi dent Truman
of
t he
Uni t ed St at es consi dered usi ngan
at omi c bomb i n Korea.
Asi an l eaders sought ways t o prot ect t hei r soverei gnt yand
t o devel op
t hei r
nat i ons . Drawi ngon t hei r own phi l osophi cal t radi t i ons, Nehruand Soekarno
suggest ed t he concept of Fi ve Pri nci pl es upon whi ch Asi an count ri es shoul d
base t hei r rel at i ons . Nehru' s pri nci pl es were t o predomi nat e and by 1955
Panch Sheel , as t hey came t o be cal l ed, had been accept ed by a number of
Asi an l eaders. PanchSheel i ncl uded mut ual respect f or t erri t ori al i nt egri t y and
soverei gnt y, mut ual non- aggressi on, mut ual non- i nt erf erence, equal i t y and
mut ual benef i t , and peacef ul coexi st ence - pri nci pl es l at er t o becomepart of
non- al i gnment .
I n
Apri l 1954,
on t he i ni t i at i ve of Si r J ohn Kot el awal a, t he Pri meMi ni st er
of
Ceyl on,
an Asi an Powers Conf erencewas hel d i n Col ombo. The pri me
mi ni st ers of
I ndi a; Burma, I ndonesi a, Paki st an and Ceyl on met t o di scuss
shared regi onal concerns, such
as col oni al i sm, raci al i sm, nucl ear t est i ng,
communi smand economi c co- operat i on. I n hi s
openi ngaddress, Nehrust at ed
t hat t he mai n probl emi n t he worl d was t he cont i nui ng probl em
of t he Col d
War bet ween t wo bl ocs of bi g powerf ul count ri es .
He al so poi nt ed out t hat
most of t he count ri es represent ed at t he conf erence
had at t empt ed t o f ol l ow
a
64
pol i cy
of
non- al i gnment
wi t h t hese
gr eat power
bl ocs
and
t o
l i ve t hei r l i ves
accor di ng t o t hei r own not i ons wi t hout di ct at i onor compul si onf r om
abr oad.
Thi s was pr obabl y t he f i r st publ i c occasi onwher et he t er mnon- al i gnment was
used. "
Amaj or consi der at i on at Col ombo was t he expanded i mper i al i st
i nt er vent i on i n I ndo- Chi na as t he
US
i ncr eased i t s f i nanci al
suppor t t o
t he
Fr encht o assi st t hemi n cr ushi ng t he
i ndependence movement t her e. At t hat
ver y moment
t he bat t l e
of
Di en
Bi enPhu
was
i npr ogr ess. A
f ew
days af t er t he
conf er ence,
t he Fr ench
wer e def eat ed by
t he
Vi et namese and
sur r ender ed
onl y t o f i ndt hemsel ves embr oi l edi n
anot her
ant i - col oni al
war
l at er t hat year
as t he Al ger i ans
began
t hei r war
of nat i onal l i ber at i on. I ndonesi a
made a
hi st or i c
r ecommendat i on
at
t he Col ombo Power s Conf er ence t hat a
j oi nt
meet i ngof i ndependent Asi an andAf r i canst at es be cal l ed. Thi s was
accept ed.
At Bogor i n December 1954, ar r angement s wer e made
t o
hol dt hat meet i ngi n
Bandung, I ndonesi a, i n Apr i l 1955. 22
But bef or e t he Bandung meet i ng, Nehr u i ni t i at ed a ser i es of exchanges.
Bet ween mi d- December 1954 and t he end of J anuar y 1955, Ti t o st ayed f or
t hr ee weeks i n I ndi a and f i ve days i n Bur ma. He al so conf er r ed br i ef l y wi t h
Nasser onhi s r et ur nhomef r omAsi a. I t was Ti t o' s f i r st vi si t
t o
t hese t wo Asi an
st at es and hi s f i r st meet i ng wi t h Nasser . Yugosl avi a was t hus br ought i nt o
cont act not onl y wi t hAsi a, but t heAr ab andAf r i canwor l ds . 23 Thesemeet i ngs
pr ovi ded t he i ni t i al cont act s f or t he l eader s who woul d so di r ect l y i nf l uence
t he concept of non- al i gnment i ni t s ear l y year s . I nt he meant i me, t her e was t he
Bandung Conf er ence.
The Bandung Conf er ence: APr el ude
Ant ecedent s and Or i gi ns
The
Bandungmeet i ng of 18- 24 Apr i l 1955 i nI ndonesi a was anAsi an- Af r i can
conf er ence - a t ur ni ng- poi nt i n moder n wor l d hi st or y. I ni t i at ed by f i ve
Asi an
pr i me mi ni st er s, t he meet i ng br ought t oget her l eader s of 29 st at es,
most l y f or mer col oni es, f r omt he t wo cont i nent s of Af r i ca andAsi a, i ncl udi ng
many Ar ab st at es, t o di scuss commonconcer ns and t o devel opj oi nt pol i ci es i n
i nt er nat i onal r el at i ons . 24 The conf er ence at t r act ed wor l d- wi de at t ent i on.
Messages of goodwi l l wer e sent by t he Sovi et Uni on and t he pr esi di ums of
f i ve Sovi et Cent r al Asi anRepubl i cs . The USgover nment , on t he ot her hand,
col dl y r ecei ved t he news of t he meet i ng and secr et l y at t empt edt o cont r ol i t s
out come. 25
The
conf er ence was l ed by Nehr u, t he acknowl edged seni or st at esman,
al ong wi t h Soekar no
and Nasser
.
I n an i nt ense week of speeches and
commi t t ee meet i ngs, Thi r d Wor l d
l eader s shar ed t hei r si mi l ar pr obl ems of
r esi st i ng t he pr essur es of t he maj or power s, mai nt ai ni ng
t hei r i ndependence,
andopposi ngcol oni al i smandneo- col oni al i sm,
speci f i cal l y West er n domi nat i on.
65
Over vi ew
They
al so sought t o benef i t f r omone anot her ' s exper i ences i n economi c and
soci al devel opment and wor l d af f ai r s .
26
The conf er ence i ssued a
f i nal
communi que on economi c and cul t ur al co- oper at i on, human r i ght s and
sel f -
det er mi nat i on f ol l owi ng t he Uni t edNat i ons Char t er , pr obl ems
of dependent
peopl es and
col oni al i sm, andways t o pr omot e wor l dpeace andco- oper at i on
.
The conf er ence
pr oposed a new wor l d or der based on t he
f ol l owi ng
pr i nci pl es :
66
1 . Respect
f or f undament al human r i ght s andf or t he pur poses and pr i nci pl es
of t he Char t er of t he Uni t ed Nat i ons .
2 .
Respect f or t he sover ei gnt y and t er r i t or i al
i nt egr i t y of al l nat i ons.
3.
Recogni t i on of t he equal i t y of al l r aces and of
t he equal i t y of al l nat i ons
l ar ge
and smal l .
4.
Abst ent i on
f r om
i nt er vent i on or i nt er f er ence i n t he i nt er nal af f ai r s of
anot her count r y.
5.
Respect f or t he r i ght of eachnat i on t o
def endi t sel f si ngl y or col l ect i vel y,
i n conf or mi t y wi t ht he Char t er of t he Uni t ed Nat i ons .
6 .
( a) Abst ent i on f r omt he use of ar r angement s of col l ect i vedef ense t o
ser ve
t he par t i cul ar i nt er est s of
any
of
t he bi g power s .
( b)
Abst ent i on by any count r y f r om exer t i ng pr essur es on
ot her
count r i es .
7. Ref r ai ni ng f r omact s or t hr eat s of
aggr essi on or
t he use of
f or ce agai nst t he
t er r i t or i al i nt egr i t y or pol i t i cal i ndependence of any count r y.
8. Set t l ement of
al l i nt er nat i onal di sput es by peacef ul means of t he par t i es'
own choi ce, i n conf or mi t y wi t h t he Char t er
of t he Uni t ed Nat i ons .
9.
Pr omot i on of mut ual i nt er est s and co- oper at i on
.
1 0.
Respect f or j ust i ce and i nt er nat i onal obl i gat i ons . 27
These
pr i nci pl es, whi ch i ncor por at ed t he concept s of Panch Sheel ,
r epr esent eda maj or
r evi si on i n exi st i ng i nt er nat i onal r el at i ons . Theyset f or t h
a newf or ei gn pol i cy
f or Af r o- Asi an st at es and ser ved as t he basi s f or t he
pr i nci pl es of non- al i gnment
.
At t he Bandung Conf er ence,
Thi r d Wor l d count r i es al so asser t ed t hei r
r i ght t o def me r epr esent at i on and
member shi p at i nt er nat i onal gat her i ngs.
Gover nment r epr esent at i ves f r ombot h Nor t h and
Sout h Vi et namwer e
i nvi t ed andat t ended. The conf er ence was al so used,
par t i cul ar l ybyNehr u, t o
begi n t o br eak Chi na' s i sol at i on byt he West . I n Chou
En- l ai ' s pr esence at t he
Af r o- Asi an meet i ng, Nehr uwas pr epar i ng
t he
nat i ons of
t he wor l dt o accept
t he r eal i t y of t he exi st ence of t he Peopl e' s Republ i c of
Chi na. I n Nehr u' s
vi ew, a count r y' s par t i cul ar i deol ogyshoul dnot af f ect
i t s member shi p i n t he
i nt er nat i onal communi t y and t her ef or e Chi na shoul d
par t i ci pat e as an equal
member . 28 The r i ght of st at es t o choose t hei r own pol i t i cal ,
economi c and
soci al syst emwas l at er t o be adopt edbynon- al i gnedcount r i es as one of
t hei r
pr i nci pl es.
Ant ecedent s and Or i gi ns
The conf er ence i ns t i l l ed
par t i ci pant s wi t hwhat has been cal l ed ` t he s pi r i t of
Bandung' -t he r ecogni t i on
of t he s i mi l ar i t y of pur pos e and uni t y of act i on
amongs t oppr es s ed peopl es
t o addr es s
t hei r
common pr obl ems and t o t ake an
act i ve r ol e i n changi ng t he exi s t i ng wor l d or der . The
f i nal r ecommendat i on
was t hat anot her conf er ence be hel d .
The next conf er ence was not hel d unt i l Sept ember 1961
i n Bel gr ade, t he
f i r s t meet i ng of heads of s t at e or gover nment of non-al i gned
count r i es . Ther e
has been s ome debat e as t o whet her
or
not Bandung was
a pr el ude t o t he
Bel gr ade meet i ng. Some anal ys t s have ar gued t hat t he t wo meet i ngs
wer e
di f f er ent . I nvi t at i ons t o t he Bel gr ade meet i ng wer e bas ed on a
count r y' s
adher ence t o cer t ai n uni ver s al pr i nci pl es , par t i cul ar l y a f or ei gn pol i cy of non-
al i gnment . Par t i ci pant count r i es at t he Bandung Conf er ence, on t he ot her
hand,
wer e
pr i mar i l y i nt er es t ed i n endi ng col oni al i s m. Mor eover , t hey wer e
chos en
on t he bas i s of r egi onal cons i der at i ons and r epr es ent ed a wi de r ange of
pol i t i cal
vi ews f r ompr o-Wes t t o communi s t . I t i s ar gued, t her ef or e, t hat t he
t wo gr oupi ngs
wer e cl ear l y di f f er ent , t he one bei ng Af r o-As i an, t he ot her
non-al i gned.
Dur i ng t he ear l y year s of t he
Movement unt i l 1964-65, s ome at t ent i on was
gi ven t o t hi s di s t i nct i on becaus e a
number of l eader s , Soekar no i n par t i cul ar ,
s ought t o hol d a s econd Af r o-As i an meet i ng and
f ai l ed . 29The debat e over t he
or i gi ns of t he Movement
i s
dependent on t he
i deol ogi cal emphas i s of t he
par t i ci pant . The Yugos l avs have t ended t o emphas i ze
t he ant i -bl oc t hes i s ,
es peci al l y at t i mes when t her e wer e ef f or t s i n t he Movement
t o
vi ew
t he
Sovi et Uni on as a' nat ur al al l y' . I n t hes e cas es , pr i mar i l y i n
t he
l at t er par t
of t he
1970s , t hey t ended t o emphas i ze t he Bel gr ade Summi t as t he or i gi nat i ng
meet i ng of t he Movement and t hi s can be s een t hr ough t he ar t i cl es
of
t he
Yugos l av j our nal , Revi ewof I nt er nat i onal
Af f ai r s
. However , t hey
do
not deny
t he
ant i -col oni al i s t and ant i -i mper i al i s t t hr us t of t he Movement as i t was
or i gi nal l y
di s pl ayed at Bandung. 3
Non-al i gned count r i es , however , vi ew t he Bandung Conf er ence as an
i nt egr al
par t of non-al i gned hi s t or y and as par t of t he pr oces s i n t he
devel opment
of t he Movement . I t i s al s o our vi ew t hat t he Bandung
Conf er ence
was a pr ecur s or t o t he f i r s t non-al i gned s ummi t . Any di f f er ences
bet ween Bandung
and Bel gr ade ar e di f f er ences i n emphas i s becaus e of t he
hi s t or i cal epoch
and t he i nt er nat i onal s i t uat i on r at her t han di f f er ences i n
pr i nci pl e or s ubs t ance .
Bandung i nf or med t he wor l d t hat t he newl y
i ndependent s t at es of As i a and
Af r i ca, t hough s mal l or medi um-s i zed and
devel opi ng, wer e det er mi ned not t o al l owt he
maj or power s t o deci de t he
f ut ur e of humanki nd. Mor eover , t hes e news t at es
i nt ended t o par t i ci pat e
col l ect i vel y i n i nt er nat i onal pol i t i cal and economi c af f ai r s t o
cr eat e a mor e
peacef ul and j us t wor l d . I t was t hus i n Bandung t hat t he concept of t he Non-
al i gned Movement was concei ved . For i t was i n Bandung t hat i ndependent
67
Over vi ew
Thi r dWor l d count r i es
f or mal l y consol i dat edt hei r co- oper at i on and
agr eedt o
wor k col l ect i vel y t o
pr omot e a number of uni ver sal pr i nci pl es
whi ch t hey
adopt ed as par t of
t hei r f or ei gn pol i ci es i n or der t o pl ay a posi t i ve
and act i ve
r ol e i n
i nt er nat i onal af f ai r s.
Dur i ng t he
per i odbet ween Bandung and t he Fi r st Summi t o
non- al i gned
count r i es, Thi r d
Wor l d nat i ons wer e pr eoccupi ed wi t h ot her
mat t er s. Asi an
st at es wer e busy
consol i dat i ng t hei r i ndependence and devel opi ng
t hei r
economi es. Wi t h t he
maj or i t y of i t s t er r i t or y st i l l under col oni al
r ul e, t he
Af r i can cont i nent
st r uggl edf or i t s f r eedom. The r esul t was a si zeabl e
i ncr ease
i n t he number of
sover ei gn st at es wi t h t he decol oni zat i on of
Br i t i sh West
Af r i ca, Fr ench
West Af r i ca and Fr ench Equat or i al Af r i ca
. Twent y- t wo
Af r i can
count r i es at t ended t he Second Conf er ence of
I ndependent Af r i can
St at es at Addi s Ababa i n 1960, an i ncr ease f r om
t he ei ght pr esent at t he f i r st
conf er ence at Accr a i n 1958. These meet i ngs
wer e i mpor t ant f or t wor easons.
Fi r st , t hey l i nked t he Ar abandBl ack
Af r i can wor l ds . Secondl y, whi l e t her e
woul dbe di f f er ences bet ween st at es and
r egi ons over speci f i c i ssues, Af r i can
count r i es wer e i n agr eement over a
number of commonconcer ns and adopt ed
r esol ut i ons based on t he Bandung
Decl ar at i on and t he UNChar t er . These
i ncl udedt he end t ocol oni al
r ul e i n Af r i ca, opposi t i on t ocol oni al suppr essi on
of i ndependence movement s,
suppor t f or l i ber at i on st r uggl es such as t he
ongoi ngwar i n Al ger i a,
co- oper at i on wi t h one anot her , andwor l dpeace and
secur i t y wi t h an end t o
nucl ear ar mament s . I n addi t i on, Nasser achi eved
i nt er nat i onal
r ecogni t i on, especi al l y i n t he Thi r d Wor l d, f or hi s
successes
agai nst Br i t ai n,
Fr ance andI sf ael over Suez dur i ngt he 1950s and f or
hi s abi l i t y
t o t hwar t
t he expansi on of USi nt er est s i n t he r egi on. He had
emer ged as t he
spokesper son and def ender of Ar ab i nt er est s, par t i cul ar l y on
t he quest i on of
Pal est i ne. Fi nal l y, t he Cuban Revol ut i on over
neo- col oni al i sm i n 1959
i nspi r ed ot her guer r i l l a movement s i n Lat i n Amer i ca,
but was vi ewed by t he
Uni t ed St at es as a t hr eat t o i t s i nf l uence i n t he
hemi spher e.
Ther e wer e al so some l osses i n t he Thi r d Wor l d.
Pr ogr essi ve nat i onal i st
gover nment s such as t hose l edby Mossadeq i n I r an
andAr benz i n Guat emal a
wer e
t oppl ed i n 1953 and 1954r espect i vel y. I n t he
Phi l i ppi nes, I ndonesi a and
Mal aysi a, r evol ut i onar y movement s st r uggl ed f or
t hei r sur vi val , but wer e
soon sever el y cr ushed
31
Asi an andAf r i can l eader s wer e al so
concer ned about t he i mpact ot he Col d
War on t hei r sover ei gnt y. They r ecogni zed
t hat t he cr eat i on andexpansi on of
mi l i t ar y pact s not onl y pr essur ed t hem
t o t ake si des, but t hr eat ened t o dr aw
- t hemi nt o t he East - West conf l i ct
.
As
t ensi ons bet ween t he Uni t edSt at es and
t he Sovi et Uni on per si st ed,
a number of t hese newst at es sought t o
mai nt ai n
t hei r aut onomy andt o
asser t t hei r i ndependence t hr ough a pol i cy
whi chwas
t o become
known
as
non- al i gnment . As yet t hi s newpol i cy was not
known by
a si ngl e name.
Var i ous count r i es useda number of t er ms and
emphases suchas
68
Ant ecedent s and Or i gi ns
, neut r al i t y' , `dynami c neut r al i t y' ,
`unal i gned' , `uncommi t t ed' , `di sengaged' ,
`pr ogr essi ve neut r al i sm' and
`posi t i ve neut r al i sm' . 32 The meani ng, however ,
was si mi l ar . These wer e asser t i ons
of i ndependence and nat i onal i smf r omt he
Thi r d Wor l d as a r esul t of
t he unequal i nt er nat i onal pol i t i cal syst emof
whi ch
t hey wer e nowa par t
and i n whi ch t hey wer e expect ed t o sur vi ve
and
par t i ci pat e.
Pr obl ems of economi c
devel opment , mi l i t ar y pact s and aut onomy
al so
af f ect ed t he smal l er l ess
devel oped count r i es of Eur ope. Bandung and
non-
al i gnment caught t he
at t ent i on of Ti t o of Yugosl avi a. Because of i t s
mar gi nal
pol i t i cal and economi c
posi t i on i n Eur ope and i t s desi r e t o coexi st peacef ul l y
bet ween East and
West , Yugosl avi awas especi al l y i nt er est ed i n t he
ef f or t s of
Asi an and Af r i can st at es
t o mai nt ai n t hei r i ndependence and pur sue
a pol i cy of
non- al i gnment
. Dur i ng t he 1950s and ear l y 1960s, Ti t o made
sever al t r i ps t o
Asi a,
Af r i ca and Lat i n Amer i cat o make Yugosl avi a
known and t o expl ai n hi s
count r y' s posi t i on on wor l d af f ai r s . I n an
ear l y at t empt t o i nvol ve Yugosl avi a
i n
Thi r d Wor l d or gani zat i ons,
Ti t o r eci pr ocat ed t he pr evi ous i nvi t at i ons and
i nvi t ed Nehr u, acknowl edged l eader of
t he Thi r d Wor l d, and Nasser ,
emer gent f i gur e i n t he Ar aband Af r i can wor l d,
t o meet on t he i sl and of Br i oni
f or t al ks i nJ ul y 1956. For t he next decade, t hese
t hr ee l eader s met f r equent l y,
al most annual l y, and af t er Nehr u' s deat hi n 1964,
Nasser and Ti t o cont i nued
t o conf er . I n addi t i on, many Thi r d Wor l d
heads of st at e, i ncl udi ng l eadi ng
member s of f ut ur e non- al i gned count r i es,
vi si t ed Yugosl avi a. 33 Ti t o' s
per sonal di pl omacy was t o pay of f
and was a cr uci al f act or i n l ayi ng t he
gr oundwor kf or t he f i r st meet i ng of
non- al i gned l eader s at t he Uni t ed Nat i ons
i n 1960 and f or t he hol di ng
of t he f i r st non- al i gned summi t i n Bel gr ade t he
f ol l owi ng year .
The year
1960was cr i t i cal i n wor l d pol i t i cs. The Par i s Summi t of t he bi g
power s
cal l ed speci f i cal l y t o r educe Col d War t ensi ons had f ai l ed. Di f f i cul t i es
over t he
t wo Ger mani es onl y ser ved t o hei ght en t he East - West conf l i ct .
I n
addi t i on,
t ensi ons had nowemer ged bet ween t he Sovi et
Uni on and
Chi na
and
bet ween t he
Uni t ed St at es and Cuba, compoundi ng
i nt er nat i onal pol i t i cal
pr obl ems
.
I n
t he Thi r d Wor l d, t her e was a maj or cr i si s i n t he
Congo wher e
one
mont h af t er i ndependence, ci vi l war had br oken out ,
Pr i me Mi ni st er
Pat r i ce
Lumumba' s l eader shi p was bei ng chal l enged,
and secessi oni st
movement s suppor t ed by West er n gover nment s and
cor por at i ons wer e
t hr eat eni ng t o f r agment t he count r y. US pol i t i cal
and
economi c
i nt er est s
became i nvol ved because of t hei r det er mi ned opposi t i on t o
Lumumbawhom
t hey consi der ed t o be a pol i t i cal r adi cal . Thi s i nevi t abl y
br ought t he Sovi et
Uni on t o t he ai d of Lumumba, pr ovi di ng
yet anot her occasi on f or t he
possi bi l i t y of a nat i onal cr i si s devel opi ng
i nt o an East - West conf l i ct . The
Congo t hus qui ckl y became an
i nt er nat i onal i ssue and a maj or chapt er i n UN
hi st or y.
34
69
Over vi ew
The Car i bbean was anot her pot ent i al i nt er nat i onal c r i si s poi nt . Tensi ons
wer e hi ghaf t er t he CubanRevol ut i onof 1959as t he Uni t edSt at es, i ni t s ef f or t
t o pr event Cuba f r omser vi ng as a model of soc i al t r ansf or mat i on i n t he
r egi on, began
a
pol i c y of ec onomi c boyc ot t andpol i t i c al dest abi l i zat i on of t he
i sl and. El sewher e, t he Al ger i ans wer ewel l on t hei r way t o wi nni ngt hei r war
of nat i onal l i ber at i on. The Vi et namWar had expanded. The Nor t h
Vi et namese
now
t ur nedt hei r at t ent i ont o t he Sout hwher et he US wasdi r ec t l y
i nvol vedwi t h
ar ms,
money andadvi ser s i n t he ef f or t t o c ont ai n c ommuni sm.
Nuc l ear t est i ng c ont i nued unabat ed. Thi s gl obal c r i si s pr ovoked a sense of
ur genc y
on
t he
par t of non- al i gned
c ount r i es
and t hey t ur ned t o t he Uni t ed
Nat i ons f or a sol ut i on. Si xt een newAf r i c an
st at es j oi ned t he i nt er nat i onal
or gani zat i on t hat year . The r esul t was t he l ar gest
gat her i ng ever at t he 15t h
meet i ng of t he UNGener al Assembl y wi t hnear l y 4, 000 del egat es, al most 50
f or ei gn mi ni st er s and many heads of st at e i nc l udi ng suc hnot edThi r d Wor l d
l eader s as Nehr u ( I ndi a) , Nkr umah ( Ghana) , Ti t o ( Yugosl avi a) , Nasser
( Egypt ) , Soekar no ( I ndonesi a) , SekouTour e ( Gui nea) and Cast r o
( Cuba)
. 35
I n a maj or i ni t i at i ve, l eader s of f i ve non- al i gned c ount r i es, Nasser , Nehr u,
Nkr umah, Soekar no andTi t o, met i nt he Yugosl av mi ssi oni nNewYor kCi t y
andc ol l ec t i vel y pr epar ed aj oi nt dr af t r esol ut i on c al l i ng f or anear l y meet i ng
bet weenPr esi dent Ei senhower and Pr emi er Khr ushc hev t o dec r ease t ensi ons
bet ween t he US and USSR. Soekar no pr esent ed t hei r r esol ut i on t o t he UN
Gener al Assembl y on 1 Oc t ober 1960 i naspeec ht hat appeal edf or r espec t f or
t he nat i onal i smof f or mer c ol oni es and t hei r r i ght not t o be dr awn i nt o East -
West pol i t i c s. I n addi t i on, he ar gued t hat t he maj or power s di d not have t he
mor al r i ght , ei t her
i ndi vi dual l y or c ol l ec t i vel y, t o det er mi ne t he f ut ur e of t he
wor l d.
US
host i l i t y t o t he non- al i gned
ef f or t and an Aust r al i an amendment
t hat onl y weakened t he pr oposal l ed
t he
f i ve non- al i gned
l eader s t o wi t hdr aw
t hei r r esol ut i on. As Nehr ust at ed, t he amended ver si on had
r ender ed
t he
or i gi nal i nt ent of t hei r r esol ut i on, whi c h was t o br i ng about negot i at i ons
bet ween t he US and USSR, essent i al l y `meani ngl ess' .
Amor esuc c essf ul ef f or t l at er i n t he sessi onwast he r esol ut i oni nsuppor t of
dec ol oni zat i on pr esent ed by Ceyl on i n t he name of 26 Af r i c an and Asi an
c ount r i es, i nc l udi ng t he above f i ve non- al i gned nat i ons. I t c har ged t hat
c ol oni al i smi n al l i t s f or ms was an obst ac l e t o peac e. The r esol ut i on opposed
t he at t empt s t o use i nadequat e pr epar at i on, whet her pol i t i c al , soc i al or
educ at i onal , t o del ay t he gr ant i ng of i ndependenc e. Thi s c al l f or an end t o
c ol oni al i smwas c l ear l y adopt ed wi t h 89 vot es i n f avour , none agai nst , and
ni ne
abst ent i ons al l f r omWest er n gover nment s wi t h one exc ept i on. Thi r d
Wor l d
c ount r i es wer e maki ng an i mpac t on t he Uni t ed Nat i ons, but as yet
wer eunabl e t o i nf l uenc e t he
maj or power s ont he quest i onof r educ i ng gl obal
t ensi ons
Thef ai l ur e of t hi s
peac eef f or t at t he Uni t edNat i ons andt he US i nvasi onof
70
Ant ecedent s and Or i gi ns
Cuba i n t he Bayof Pi gs i nci dent i n Apr i l 1961 br ought newi ni t i at i ves f r om
t he f oundi ng member s of t he Non- al i gned Movement . Soekar no r ai s ed t he
i s s ue
of a s econd
Bandung
Conf er ence of Af r o- As i an s t at es , but f ai l ed t o
gar ner s uf f i ci ent s uppor t .
On
16Apr i l 1961, Nas s er and
Ti t omet i n Cai r oand
s ent
aj oi nt
l et t er
t o
t he heads of 21Thi r d
Wor l d
count r i es
whos har ed s i mi l ar
vi ewpoi nt s . The l et t er s ugges t ed t hat t hey
conf er
pr i or
t o t he comi ng Gener al
As s embl y meet i ng
s o t hat
newl y
i ndependent count r i es mi ght ef f ect i vel y
par t i ci pat e dur i ng t he s es s i on t o achi eve peace and s t abi l i t y
.
I n May,
Yugos l avi a
and Egypt , j oi ned byI ndones i a and wi t h t he t aci t appr oval of
I ndi a,
s ent out i nvi t at i ons f or a pr epar at or ymeet i ng t o pl an a Conf er ence of
t he Uncommi t t ed Count r i es . 31
Pr epar at or y Meet i ng f or t he Conf er ence of Uncommi t t ed
Count r i es
The pr epar at or y meet i ng was hel d i n Cai r o, f r om5 t o 12J une 1961, wi t h
r epr es ent at i ves f r om20count r i es at t endi ng. The gat her i ng was di f f er ent f r om
t he Bandung Conf er ence f or whi ch i nvi t at i ons had been i s s ued l ar gel yon t he
bas i s of r egi onal cons i der at i ons . Thi s t i me i nvi t at i ons wer e bas ed on a
count r y' s commi t ment t o a s et of s har ed pr i nci pl es , i t s pol i cy of non-
al i gnment . The r es ul t was an i nt er nat i onal gr oupi ng of mos t l y Af r o- As i an
s t at es al ong wi t h Yugos l avi a f r omEur ope and Cuba f r omLat i n Amer i ca. 3a
The pur pos e of t he meet i ng was t o pr epar e a dr af t agenda f or t he pr opos ed
gat her i ng and t odeci de upon t he venue and par t i ci pant s . I n t he pr oces s , t hos e
pr es ent dr opped t he t er m`uncommi t t ed' and adopt ed i n common t he t er m
`non- al i gned'
. Thi s pr epar at or y meet i ng was i mpor t ant f or t wo r eas ons . I t
es t abl i s hed
cer t ai n pr ecedent s on r epr es ent at i on at f ut ur e meet i ngs and
def i ned t he cr i t er i a f or member s hi p
i n t he Non- al i gned Movement .
Repr es ent at i on
At
t he begi nni ng
of
t he
Cai r o pr epar at or y meet i ng pr opos al s wer e pr es ent ed
t oi nvi t e t ot hi s meet i ng and t o
t he
pr opos ed conf er ence : f i r s t , t he pr ovi s i onal
gover nment
of Al ger i a; and s econdl y, t he
gover nment
of t he Congol es e
Republ i c ( St anl eyvi l l e) . The f i r s t
was
adopt ed and an i nvi t at i on was
i mmedi at el y s ent t o t he pr ovi s i onal gover nment
of
Al ger i a
.
The Al ger i an
r epr es ent at i ve was gr eet ed
wi t h appl aus e upon hi s ar r i val ; he addr es s ed t he
gat her i ng, and par t i ci pat ed i n t he pr oceedi ngs .
Gi ven
t he
uns et t l ed pol i t i cal
s i t uat i on i n t he Congo( nowZai r e) , however , no agr eement coul d
be r e
. ~hed
at t hi s t i me and t he mat t er of Congol es e r epr es ent at i on was f or war ded
t o.
t he
f or t hcomi ng meet i ng f or f ur t her di s cus s i on
39
Thi s i nvi t at i on t o t he pr ovi s i onal gover nment of Al ger i a pr i or t o t he
compl et e f ul f i l ment of t he i ndependence s t r uggl e es t abl i s hed a pr ecedent i n
71
Overvi ew
i nt ernat i onal rel at i ons and became an i nt egral part of non- al i gnment .
I ndi vi dual l y,
non- al i gned
count ri es opposedcol oni al i smandot her f orms of
oppressi on. Wi t h t hi s
act i on,
non- al i gned count ri es col l ect i vel y i ni t i at ed a
pol i cy
of i nt ernat i onal support f or nat i onal l i berat i on movement s . They began
by recogni zi ng t he provi si onal government s of l i berat i on movement s as t he
l egi t i mat e represent at i ves of t he. peopl e of t he count ry andwel comedt hemas
members
of t he Movement . By t hese act i vi t i es, non- al i gned count ri es
demonst rat ed t hat t hey woul dexerci se t hei r ri ght t o det ermi net hel egi t i mat e
represent at i ves of t he peopl e of a count ry or st at e at any gi ven t i me.
Moreover,
i n t hese
f i rst
st ages of f orgi ng a movement , t hey recogni zed t he
i mport ance of
group
sol i dari t y.
They
deci dedt hat mat t ers woul dbe di scussed
unt i l t here was
common agreement . Thus i n t he case of Congol ese
represent at i on, t here woul d be no
deci si on unt i l
members
had reached a
consensus .
Cri t eri a f or Membershi p
I t was al so at t he Cai ro preparat ory meet i ng t hat non- al i gned
count ri es f i rst
di scussed i n det ai l t hepri nci pal ai ms andobj ect i ves of non- al i gnment
. These
wereadopt edas cri t eri a f or membershi p ( see Chapt er 2) and i nvi t at i ons
t o t he
next conf erenceweresent out accordi ngl y . 40
These
cri t eri a
have remai nedt o
t hi s dat e.
The condi t i on of non- membershi p i n mi l i t ary al l i ances has
drawn
t he
great est at t ent i on, especi al l y by cri t i cs of t heMovement who seek t o di scredi t
t he non- al i gned by argui ng t hat some members may have vi ol at ed t hi s
cri t eri on . Whi l enon- membershi p i n mi l i t ary al l i ances i s f undament al t o non-
al i gnment , i t i s onl y a part of bei ng non- al i gned. Represent at i ves at t hi s
meet i ng i nsi st ed t hat t hose count ri es i nvi t ed t o t he f i rst conf erence `shoul d
have accept ed t he wel l - underst ood not i ons of non- al i gnment ' . I n t hei r
di scussi ons, t hey emphasi zeda number of shared concerns i n addi t i on t o an
opposi t i on t o mi l i t ary pact s . I n part i cul ar, non- al i gnment was ant i - col oni al .
Bei ng non- al i gned meant support i ng nat i onal i ndependence movement s . I t
was ant i - bl oc, any bl oc, i ncl udi ng t he non- al i gned as a t hi rd bl oc. I t
represent edt he ri ght t o an i ndependent f orei gn pol i cy. Non- al i gnment meant
t he pursui t of worl dpeace andt he rel axat i on of al l t ensi ons . I t al so meant
st rengt heni ng economi c rel at i ons and at t ent i on t o t he devel opment of
underdevel oped count ri es . They def i ned non- al i gnment as a `posi t i ve
expressi on' , a `moral f orce' , anda `const ruct i ve rol e' . Non- al i gnment meant
accept i ng
t hepri nci pl eof coexi st ence bet ween st at es wi t hdi f f erent soci al and
pol i t i cal syst ems .
Non- al i gnment recogni zes t hat t here may be`di f f erences i n
t he consi derat i on of i ndi vi dual
probl ems' , but wi t h regard t o t he pri nci pal
ai ms andobj ect i ves of
non- al i gnment t herei s a' unani mi t y of approach' . Non-
al i gnment permi t t ed f l exi bi l i t y
of approach and i ndi vi dual f reedomof act i on
72
f or s t at es
whi l e pr omot i ngco- oper at i on andcol l ect i ve act i on,
es peci al l y at t he
Uni t ed
Nat i ons and ot her wor l d f or ums . Repr es ent at i ves al s o
caut i oned
agai ns t i s s ui ng
i nvi t at i ons t o count r i es who wer e non- al i gned i n
name onl y.
Thus f r om
t he begi nni ngnon- al i gnedcount r i es wer e cl ear l y concer ned
about
pl ayi ng a pos i t i ve
and act i vi s t r ol e t owar ds achi evi ng a mor e j us t
and peacef ul
wor l d. 41
The
di s cus s i on oncr i t er i a and t he ef f or t t o def i ne non- al i gnment
r eveal ed
t hat
t her e was a degr ee of pol i t i cal cohes i onamongt he count r i es
pr es ent . The
r epr es ent at i ves
had al s o moved i n t he di r ect i on of f or mi ng
a coal i t i on f or
uni t y
of act i on bas ed on adher ence t o a common s et
of pr i nci pl es . The
emphas i s
on s uppor t i ng `movement s f or nat i onal i ndependence'
and t he
r ecogni t i on
gi ven t o t he pr ovi s i onal gover nment of Al ger i a cl ear l y
i ndi cat ed
t hat non- al i gnment
woul d be pr o- nat i onal l i ber at i on and act i vel y s o. The
r epr es ent at i ves adopt ed
a dr af t agenda f or t he pr opos ed conf er ence and
deci dedt hat Yugos l avi a woul d
be t he hos t count r y. Yugos l avi a was l ar gel y a
compr omi s e choi ce. Repr es ent at i ves
di dnot want t o have t o choos e bet ween
pr omi nent As i an s t at es , s uchas
I ndi a andI ndones i a . Egypt , anAf r i can venue,
was t he cur r ent hos t of t he
pr epar at or y meet i nganddi dnot pur s ue t he mat t er .
Cuba, a s mal l count r y r es i s t i ng
gr eat - power i nt er vent i on, was a s ymbol of
r es i s t ance and
r eques t ed t hat t he meet i ng be hel d i n Havana, `t he cent r e of
Amer i can i mper i al i s m' . However , whi l e
t her e was gr eat i nt er es t i n i nvol vi ng
mor e of Lat i nAmer i ca,
Cuba
and
t he r egi on wer e s t i l l r el at i vel y unknown t o
much of Af r o- As i a. Mor eover , i n an
ear l i er i ns t ance i n 1960, r at her t han
havi ng t o choos e bet weeman As i an
or Af r i can count r y as hos t , t he f i ve non-
al i gned l eader s met i n t he Yugos l av mi s s i on
t o dr af t t hei r j oi nt r es ol ut i on t o
t he UNGener al As s embl y . The choi ce of
Yugos l avi a was al s o due, i npar t , t o
Ti t o' s per s onal di pl omacy. Hi s ear l i er i ni t i at i ves
t o t hei r l eader s nowpai d of f
and
Yugos l avi a became t he s i t e of t he Fi r s t Summi t
of heads of s t at e or
gover nment of non- al i gned count r i es . 42 Thus i t
came t o be t hat `t he i dea
concei ved i n Col ombo i n 1954, nur t ur ed i n Bandung i n
1955, was bor n i n
Bel gr ade
i n 1961' . 43
Not es
Ant ecedent s
and Or i gi ns
1 . Ci t ed by Wal t er
LaFeber , I nevi t abl e Revol ut i ons : The Uni t ed St at es i n
Cent r al
Amer i ca (NewYor k: W.
W. Nor t on &Co. , 1983) , p. 23.
2. See, f or exampl e, Wal t er
LaFeber , The NewEmpi r e : An I nt er pr et at i on of
Amer i can Expans i on, 1860- 1898 (I t haca :
Cor nel l Uni ver s i t y Pr es s , 1960) ; Mi l t on
Pl es ur , Amer i ca' s Out war dThr us t : Appr oaches t o For ei gn
Af f ai r s , 1865- 1890(Dekal b, I l l . :
Nor t her n I l l i noi s Uni ver s i t y Pr es s , 1971) ; Ri char d
VanAl s t yne, The Ri s i ng Amer i can
Empi r e (New Yor k: W. W. Nor t on &Co. , 1974) ;
and t he wor ks of Wi l l i am
Appl eman Wi l l i ams , es peci al l y The Root s of t he Moder n
Amer i can Empi r e (NewYor k,
73
Over vi ew
1969) ,
The Tr agedy of Amer i can
Di pl omacy ( 2nd r ev. edn, 1972) and
The
Cont our s of
Amer i can
Hi st or y ( NewYor k: New
Vi ewpoi nt s, 1973) .
3.
LaFeber , 1983, op. ci t . , p. 23,
see al so pp. 13- 31.
4. C. L.
RJ ames, The Bl ack
J acobi ns ( London: Al l i son &
Busby, 1980, r ev. edn) ,
p. 391
.
5. I bi d. , pp. 394- 9.
6. I bi d. , p. 411.
7. LaFeber , 1983, op. ci t . , p.
25; St avr i anos, Gl obal Ri f t : The
Thi r d Wor l d Comes of
Age ( New
Yor k: Wi l l i am
Mor r ow&Co. , 1981) , pp.
74- 98, 177- 95, 274- 7.
8. St avr i anos, op. ci t . , Chapt er
18.
9. I bi d. , Chapt er 17, pp.
424- 7; Tr anVan Di nh, ' Non- Al i gnment
and Cul t ur al
I mper i al i sm' , The Bl ack Schol ar ,
8: 3 ( December 1976) , p.
39.
10. St avr i anos, op. ci t . , pp.
484- 512; Tr an Van
Di nh, op. ci t . , p. 39.
11. Geof f r ey Bar r acl ough,
An I nt r oduct i on t o Cont empor ar y
Hi st or y ( Har mondswor t h:
Pengui n, 1964) , p. 232
.
12. G. H. J ansen,
Af r o- Asi a and NonAl i gnment
( NewYor k: Fr eder i ckA.
Pr aeger ,
1960) , pp. 22- 7,
32- 3; LeoMat es,
Nonal i gnment : Theor y and Cur r ent Pol i cy
( Bel gr ade,
1972) , pp.
53- 4.
13.
Geor ge Padmor e, Pan- Af r i cani sm
or Communi sm( Gar den Ci t y, NY
: Anchor
Books,
1971) , pp. 83- 148; Col i nLegum,
Pan- Af r i cani sm: AShor t Pol i t i cal
Gui de ( New
Yor k:
Pr aeger , 1965) , pp. 15- 37. Gi vent hat
Padmor ewas an act i ve
par t i ci pant i n t he
Pan- Af r i can
Congr esses, we have chosen
t o f ol l owhi s number i ng of
t he var i ous
Congr ess meet i ngs.
14. St avr i anos, op. ci t . , pp.
349- 66.
15. Loui s L. Snyder ,
Macr o- Nat i onal i sm: AHi st or y of
Pan- Movement s ( West por t ,
Conn. : Gr eenwood
Pr ess, 1984) , p. 5.
16. K. R. Nar ayanan,
' Nel i r u' s Non- al i gnment :
Or i gi n and Ear l y Phase' ,
Mai nst r eam, 18: 46
( 12J ul y 1980) , pp. 9- 12, 30. Agood
summar y of t he ear l y r ol e of
t hese t hr ee l eader s can
be f oundi n Pet er Lyon,
Neut r al i sm( Lei cest er Uni ver si t y
Pr ess,
1963) , especi al l y pp.
105- 6, 120- 51. Oneof t he
f ewt o t ake except i ont o Nehr u' s r ol e
as a f ounder
of t he Movement i s Al vi n Rubi nst ei n
who al so ar gues t hat Ti t o was
t he
cr uci al ar chi t ect
of non- al i gnment . See hi s
Yugosl avi a and t he Nonal i gned
Wor l d
( Pr i ncet on, NJ :
Pr i ncet on Uni ver si t y Pr ess,
1970) , pp. 112- 18. Yugosl av
di pl omat
and aut hor Leo
Mat es, who was a
par t i ci pant obser ver i n
t he ear l y st ages of t he
Movement ,
however , acknowl edges t he
pi oneer i ng r ol e of Nehr u and
I ndi a i n hi s
cl assi c
wor k, Nonal i gnment : Theor yand
Cur r ent Pol i cy ( Bel gr ade, 1972) , pp.
57- 92, 175-
249. Mat es ser ved as t he Gener al
Secr et ar y of t he Bel gr ade Conf er ence i n
1961 and
was
Yugosl avi a' s Assi st ant Secr et ar y of
St at e f or For ei gn Af f ai r s at
t he t i me.
17. Shashi Bhushan,
Non- Al i gnment : Legacy of Nehr u
( New Del hi , I ndi a:
Pr ogr essi ve Peopl es Sect or
Publ i cat i ons, 1976) , pp. 17- 20, 35;
Mi chael Br echer ,
Nehr u: APol i t i cal Bi ogr aphy
( Bost on: Beacon Pr ess,
1962) , pp. 53- 4, 212- 18, 224- 5;
J ansen, op. ci t . , p.
29, 115- 18; Sadhan Mukher j ee, ' New
Per spect i ves of Non-
Al i gnment ' , i n Col ombo
Summi t ( NewDel hi : Peopl e' s
Publ i shi ng House, 1976) , pp. 2- 3;
B_ .
N. Pandey, Nehr u: A
Bi ogr aphy ( NewYor k:
St ei n &Day, 1976) , p. 117.
18. St avr i anos,
op. ci t . , pp. 623- 31.
19. I bi d. ; see
al so pp. 589- 622.
74
Ant ecedent s and Or i gi ns
20. Br echer , op. ci t . , pp. 226- 8; J ansen, op. ci t . , pp. 51- 98.
21.
Ci t ed i n I naugur al Addr ess of Pr i me Mi ni st er J . R. J ayewar dene, mi ni st er i al
meet i ng
of t heCo- or di nat i ngBur eau of non- al i gned count r i es, Col ombo, Sr i Lanka,
6J une 1979, p. 2.
22. Bahgat Kor any, Soci al Change, Char i sma and I nt er nat i onal
Behavi or : Towar d a
Theor y of For ei gn Pol i cy- maki ng i n t he Thi r d
Wor l d (Geneva: A. W. Si j t hof f - Lei den,
I nst i t ut Uni ver si t ai r e des Haut es Et udes
I nt er nat i onal es, 1976) , pp. 373- 7; Bushan, op.
ci t . , pp. 22- 4; J ansen, op.
ci t . , pp. 115- 81; Pandey, op. ci t . , pp. 257, 277- 8.
23. Kor any, op. ci t . , pp. 174- 6
.
24. The f ol l owi ng count r i es
par t i ci pat ed: Af ghani st an, Bur ma, Cambodi a,
Ceyl on, Peopl e' s Republ i c of Chi na, Egypt ,
Et hi opi a, Gol dCoast , I ndi a, I ndonesi a,
I r an, I r aq, J apan, J or dan, Laos, Lebanon, Li ber i a,
Li bya, Nepal , Paki st an, Phi l i ppi nes,
Saudi Ar abi a, Sudan, Syr i a, Thai l and, Tur key,
Democr at i c Republ i c of Vi et nam, St at e
of Vi et nam, and Yemen.
25. J ansen, op. ci t . , pp. 185- 6, 192- 3.
26.
i bi d. , pp. 182- 226.
27.
Odet t eJ ankowi t sch and Kar l P. Sauvant , The Thi r d Wor l d Wi t hout Super power s
:
The Col l ect ed Document s of t he NonAl i gned Count r i es (Dobbs Fer r y, NY:
Oceana
Publ i cat i ons, 1978) ,
Vol I , pp. l xv- l xvi .
28.
Pandey, op. ci t . , pp. 371- 2, 375- 6.
29. Thi s
i s wel l summar i zed by J ansen i n hi s chapt er ent i t l ed ' Bandung
ver sus
Bel gr ade' ,
op. ci t . , pp. 363- 83.
30. Thi s was
poi nt edout ear l i er byJ ansen, i bi d. , p. 367. Seet hemont hl yYugosl av
j our nal
Revi ewof I nt er nat i onal Af f ai r s (Bel gr ade, Yugosl avi a) . I n an except i on t o t hi s
cont empor ar y
Yugosl av i nt er pr et at i on, Leo Mat es has r ef er r ed t o t he Bandung
Conf er ence as ' t he f i r st mass
mani f est at i onof amovement whi chwas l at er t o become
t he movement of non- al i gned' count r i es'
(see p. 227) .
31. Legum, op. ci t . , pp. 39- 59; St avr i anos,
op. ci t . , pp. 646- 7, 667- 8; Fr ed
Hal l i day, The Maki ng of t he Second Col dWar (London:
Ver soEdi t i ons andNLB, 1983) ,
p. 83.
32. J ansen, op. ci t . , p. 282.
33. Kor any, op. ci t . , p. 177; Mat es, op. ci t . , pp. 175- 217;
Rubi nst ei n, op. ci t . ,
Chapt er s 2 and 3.
34. St avr i anos, op. ci t . , pp. 671- 4, 716- 18; Henr y F. J ackson,
Fr omt he Congo t o
Sowet o (NewYor k: Wi l l i amMor r ow, 1982) , pp. 21- 42.
35. Keesi ng' s Cont empor ar y Ar chi ves (1960) , pp. 17870- 8
.
36. I bi d. (1961) , pp. 17878, 17917- 30; Lyon, op.
ci t . , pp. 178- 9.
37. Rubi nst ei n, op. ci t . , pp. 104- 5; J ankowi t sch and
Sauvant , op. ci t . , p. 33; Lyon,
op. ci t . , p. 179.
38. Or i gi nal par t i ci pant s wer e Af ghani st an, Bur ma, Cambodi a,
Ceyl on, Et hi opi a,
Ghana, Gui nea, I ndi a, I ndonesi a, I r aq, Mal i , Mor occo, Nepal , Saudi Ar abi a,
Somal i a,
Sudan, Uni t ed Ar abRepubl i c, Yemen andYugosl avi a. The
pr ovi si onal gover nment
of Al ger i a j oi ned t he meet i ng af t er i t st ar t ed. J ankowi t sch
and Sauvant , op. ci t . ,
pp. 33- 4.

,
39. I bi d. , pp. 34- 7.
40. I bi d. , p. 38.
75
Over vi ew
41 . i bi d . , pp.
36- 8.
42. J ansen, op. c i t . , p.
286; Lyon, op. c i t . , pp. 181- 3;
Rubi nst ei n, op. c i t . , pp. 106- 7.
43. J ayewar dene, I naugur al
Speec h, Col omboBur eau,
1979, p. 5.
PARTI I
:
TheNon- al i gned
Movement
i n I nter nati onal
Hi stor y
:
the Pol i ti cs of
Col l ecti ve Resi stance
4. TheFi r st , Secondand
Thi r d
Summi t s : The
For mat i ve
Year s
The
Non- al i gnedMovement camei nt obei ng i nan agewhent he
wor l dwas
al r eady
i nt egr at ed i n a manner unpr ecedent ed i n human
hi st or y
:
l i nked
pol i t i cal l y, economi cal l y, t echnol ogi cal l y, sci ent i f i cal l y and
i ncr easi ngl y even
cul t ur al l y. Thi s gl obal i nt er dependency, as i t i s now
commonl y cal l ed, i s t he
r esul t of wor l d- wi dei nt er act i on onascal e
unknownbef or e. Thest r uct ur al
i nt egr at i on of t he peopl es of t he wor l d r equi r es
newf or ms of anal yses and
i nt er pr et at i ons f r omi t s schol ar s . Oneof t hesei s t he
devel opment of awor l d
hi st or y as i nt egr at edas t hesubj ect mat t er i t sel f . Unf or t unat el y
t hi s f i el dhas
been gr ossl y over l ooked by st udent s of i nt er nat i onal
r el at i ons pr i mar i l y
because
hi st or i ans, l i ke soci al sci ent i st s, have concent r at ed on
nat i onal
hi st or i es
andnegl ect edwor l dhi st or y. '
Thef i r st poi nt
of depar t ur et heni s t o st udy t heNon- al i gnedMovement as
par t of agl obal
syst em. For suchamovement cannot beunder st ood
wi t hi nt he
conf i nes of t r adi t i onal
i nt eknat i onal pol i t i cs ( i . e. f or ei gnpol i ci es of
i ndi vi dual
nat i onst at es and
r el at i ons bet weenst at es) , or i nt er nat i onal economi cs
( i . e.
t r ader el at i ons
bet ween st at es) or even wi t hi n t he st udy of
i nt er nat i onal
or gani zat i ons ( e. g.
t hevot i ngbehavi our of st at es i nt heUni t edNat i ons)
. I t i s
necessar y t o
consi der al l t hesevar i abl es and, most i mpor t ant l y, t o
vi ewt he
Movement
wi t hi nt he cont ext of wor l dhi st or y. Toexpl ai n t he
evol ut i onof
t he Non- al i gned
Movement as an i nt er nat i onal gr oupi ng of st at es t hat
f unct i ons as asoci al
movement , wewi l l exami nei t s devel opment t hr oughi t s
maj or meet i ngs f r omsummi t
conf er encet o summi t conf er encewi t hi nt he
cont ext of gl obal event s .
Onl y t hencanweunder st andi t s col l ect i veef f or t s t o
pr omot ei t s pr i nci pl es andr esi st t he
exi st i ng i nt er nat i onal syst emby cr eat i nga
newwor l d or der .
TheSummi t Conf er enceas a
Uni t of Anal ysi s
Any hi st or y of t heNon- al i gnedMovement
must i ncl udeanexami nat i onof i t s
maj or meet i ngs andt hei r
i nt er nat i onal cont ext . Any st udy of non- al i gnment
shoul dexami nenot onl y t he
pol i t i cs of eachsummi t andt hef i nal decl ar at i on,
but howevent s pr i or t o t he
summi t cont r i but et o i t s speci f i c out come. The
79
The Non- al i gned Movement i n I nter nati onal Hi stor y
di f f er ent emphases takenupby non- al i gnedcountr i es at any summi t mayvar y
dependi ngonthe i mmedi ate gl obal i ssues that conf r ont the Movement. 2 I t
i s
al so i mpor tant to consi der the host countr y of each summi t f or , to
some
extent, i ts i nter nal pol i ti cal si tuati on af f ects the outcome.
Thus the pol i ti cs of
each summi t i s i nf l uencedby pr ecedi ng
i nter nati onal events, bythe par ti cul ar
concer ns of the host countr y and,
i n addi ti on, by the degr ee and extent of
suppor t f or the var i ous tendenci es
among the maj or actor s wi thi n the
Movement who attend that gather i ng.

. .
As we noted
i n
Chapter
1 , non- al i gned countr i es shar e a number of
i deol ogi cal
pr emi sses
or
pr i nci pl es . However , i t shoul d not be f or gotten that
the Movement i s a compl ex gr oupi ng of states wi th di f f er ent hi stor i cal
exper i ences, l anguages, r el i gi ons and cul tur es and avar i ety of pol i ti cal , soci al
and economi c systems . Hownon- al i gned countr i es achi eve uni ty wi thi n thi s
di ver si ty r equi r es anunder standi ngof thepol i ti cal andsoci al pr ocesses wi thi n
theMovement. Suchan under standi ng necessi tates af r amewor k f or thestudy
of conf er ence pol i ti cs . Wehave thus f ocused on the summi t conf er ence as a
uni t of anal ysi s
. 3
Non- al i gnedmeeti ngs pr ovi deoppor tuni ti es f or theMovement to
pr omote
i ts pr i nci pl es andor gani ze as a coal i ti on. Summi t conf er ences al l ow
member s
to meet on a r egul ar basi s at the hi ghest
l evel of
heads of state to
di scuss and
anal yse the pr esent state of
i nter nati onal pol i ti cs . They al so enabl e non-
al i gnedl eader s to devel opacommonstr ategy onanumber of i ssues whi chcan
be uti l i zed l ater i n i nter nati onal or gani zati ons wher ethe maj or power s i n the
wor l d systemar e pr esent. At the concl usi on of thei r summi ts, non- al i gned
countr i es i ssue a decl ar ati on whi ch becomes a hi stor i c assessment of the
i nter nati onal si tuati on at that speci f i c moment. Thedecl ar ati on i s i n essence
an
agr eement on the cur r ent si tuati on i n wor l d pol i ti cs by the member s
of thi s
i nter nati onal soci al movement . The pol i ti cal method adopted
by the
Movement to ar r i ve at a deci si on i s that of
consensus
and no
deci si on i s made
unti l ther e i s consensus. However , whi l e the
enti r e document i s
a
consensus
document, ther e maybear eas of contr over sy
i n whi chcompr omi ses ar e made.
I naddi ti on, theMovement enabl es
i ndi vi dual states to i ndi cate whether they
agr ee or di sagr ee wi th par ti cul ar aspects of
the decl ar ati on.
I n
other wor ds,
adequate
pr ovi si on has
been
made f or i ndi vi dual states to di ssent f r omthe
maj or i ty consensus.
As we
poi nted out i n Chapter 2 , the non- al i gned have
devel oped somei ntr i cate methods by whi chsuch obj ecti ons and r eser vati ons
can be made. But mor e i mpor tantl y, a cl oser exami nati on of the pol i ti cal ,
economi c and soci al aspects of each decl ar ati on enabl es us to under stand
whi chi ssues the heads of state agr ee upon at any gi ven ti me as bei ng cr i ti cal
f or the cr eati on of an egal i tar i an gl obal system.
I n anal ysi ng the evol uti on of the Non- al i gned Movement thr ough
i ts
summi t meeti ngs, we have emphasi zed thedynami c natur e of the Movement
80
TheFi rst ThreeSummi ts: TheFormati veYears
whi chref l ects thei r responses to changes i n thei nternati onal si tuati on
and
thei r ownacti vi smas they parti ci patei n changi ng
theexi sti nggl obal structure.
As theMovement matured,
non- al i gned countri es conti nuousl y cl ari f i edand
ref i ned
thei r basi c
pri nci pl es and expanded thei r i nterpretati on of these
pri nci pl es. Al soi n responsetogl obal condi ti ons, they havegi ven pri ori ty to
speci f i c pri nci pl es at certai n ti mes. Another aspect of theMovement' s
dynami smi s i ts capaci ty to changechai rpersons whi l eremai ni ng constant to
i ts pri nci pl es and f or non- al i gned countri es to change heads of state,
someti mes wi th di f f eri ng pol i ti cal outl ooks, and sti l l conti nue thei r
membershi p i n theMovement. I n addi ti on, newl eaders andi ssues haveari sen
wi thi n theMovement as needs requi re.
Fi rst Summi t Conf erence
of Non- al i gnedCountri es, Bel grade,
1- 6 September
1961
Theof f i ci al hi story of theNon- al i gned Movement begi ns wi ththeBel grade
Conf erence. I t was ameeti ng of heads of stateor government of non- al i gned
countri es attendedby 25 parti ci pant states and3 observer states, al l f romLati n
Ameri ca, observers f rom19 l i berati on movements, al l f romAf ri ca,
representati ves f rom11 l abour and soci al i st parti es f romEurope, Asi aand
Lati n Ameri ca, anda number of other organi zati ons. Theori gi nal members
wereAf ghani stan, Al geri a, Burma, Cambodi a, Ceyl on, theCongo (now
Zai re, Cuba, Cyprus, Ethi opi a, Ghana, Gui nea, I ndi a, I ndonesi a, I raq,
Lebanon, Mal i , Morocco, Nepal , Saudi Arabi a, Somal i a, Sudan, Tuni si a,
Uni ted Arab Republ i c, Yemen and Yugosl avi a' 4 Thi s di verse groupi ng
i ncl uded monarchs, presi dents, pri memi ni sters and l i berati on movement
l eaders. At theFi rst Summi t, therewereal sotwocountri es, Yugosl avi a
and
Cuba, wi than i deol ogi cal
commi tment to aMarxi st- Leni ni st worl d vi ew.
Thosewhoattended
theBel gradeConf erencehadmuchi n common: ahi story
of
col oni al i sm, neo- col oni al i smand raci sm, a condi ti on of economi c
underdevel opment, a
l ack
of i nf l uence i n a worl d domi nated by maj or
powers, af ear that
thei r soverei gnty andi ndependencewerei nj eopardy, and
a
strong i nterest i n non- al i gnment.
The
Bel grade Summi t took pl ace i n a peri od of nucl ear testi ng and
i ncreased
East- West tensi ons over Berl i n, Laos, Cubaand the Congo.
Lumumbahadbeen murderedthat J anuary under ci rcumstances somysteri ous
that years l ater theUSCentral I ntel l i genceAgency (CI A) was i mpl i cated as
bei ngresponsi bl ef oi hi s assassi nati on . Warsof nati onal l i berati on conti nued,
notabl y i n Vi etnam, Al geri aandAngol a. Thei nternati onal si tuati on coul dnot
havebeen moredi sturbed.
Yugosl avi a, thehost country, al so had an ef f ect on theoutcomeof the
conf erence. Ti towas adamant about mai ntai ni ng Yugosl avi a' s i ndependence
81
TheNon- al i gned Movement i n
I nter nati onal Hi stor y
and was anxi ous to
pr omotea pol i cy of peacef ul
coexi stence or equi di stance
between the USand the
USSR. Thr oughi ts own
i nvi tati ons to a number of
soci al i st par ti es and
si mi l ar gr oupi ngs, the Yugosl av
gover nment was al so
attempti ng to
i nvol ve
them
i n the non- al i gned and
to makeYugosl avi a
a
centr e f or the soci al
democr ati c non- communi st
wor l d. Thi s attempt,
however , di d not
succeed
. 5 At
the Bel gr ade
Conf er ence, non- al i gned
countr i es wer e most
concer ned about pol i ti cal
i ndependence, peace and
coexi stence.
The tone of the conf er ence
was set at the f i r st meeti ng
wi th a mi nute of
si l ence to al l thosewhohadgi ven
thei r l i ves so that other s
mi ght bef r ee and
i ndependent . Dur i ngthe
weekof open pl enar y sessi ons,
eachhead of state or
gover nment addr essed
the conf er ence. Repr esentati ves
f r omthe Congo
ar r i ved l ate. Wi ththe
l eader shi p questi on i n the
Congo settl ed, al bei t
onl y
tempor ar i l y, the
Pr i me Mi ni ster and Deputy
Pr i me Mi ni ster spoke at
the
pr oceedi ngs .
The del egates al so pai d tr i bute
to Patr i ce Lumumba, the
l ate
Congol esehead
of state. Another
i mpor tant outcomeof the meeti ng
was the
f ur ther
r ecogni ti ongi vento the pr ovi si onal
gover nment of Al ger i a.
Al though
the
gover nment of Fr ance sti l l r ef used
to negoti ate wi th the
Al ger i an
pr ovi si onal
gover nment, non- al i gned
countr i es madethei r posi ti on
cl ear and
desi gnated the
pr ovi si onal gover nment of
Al ger i a a f ul l member of
the
Bel gr ade
Summi t . I naddi ti on, dur i ngthe
pr oceedi ngs, Cambodi a,
Ghanaand
Yugosl avi a
f or mal l y r ecogni zed the
pr ovi si onal gover nment as the
l egi ti mate
gover nment of Al ger i anb
Non- al i gned
l eader s wer e i n agr eement
on a number of i ssues
.
I n
thei r
speeches, they str essed the need to oppose
col oni al i smand
i mper i al i sm. They
spoke out agai nst war and depl or ed
the cr eati on of mi l i tar y
bl ocs and the
gr owthof ar maments as contr i buti ng
f actor s. They def med
non- al i gnment as
posi ti ve co- or di nated acti on
and not neutr al i ty. They thus
str essed thevi tal
i mpor tance of par ti ci pati on by
smal l and medi um- si zed
newl y i ndependent
states i n wor l d af f ai r s.
Ther ewer e, however ,
di f f er ences i n emphasi s onthe
causes of tensi ons that
coul d l ead to war . For Ti to,
di sar mament and peacef ul
coexi stence wer e
essenti al to endi ngthe
East- West conf l i ct . Heopened
the conf er encewi tha
di scussi on of non- bl oc
pol i cy and expr essed a desi r eto
see theel i mi nati on of
any bl ocs . Many l eader s
l i nked col oni al i smand
neo- col oni al i smto war . As
Soekar no summar i zed
i t, ` i n ever y case, the cause,
the r oot of i nter nati onal
tensi ons, i s
i mper i al i smand col oni al i smand the
f or ci bl e- di vi si on of nati ons'
.
Af r i can l eader s,
i n par ti cul ar , made the
anti - col oni al str uggl e a pr i or i ty,
but
depl or edthe
deathanddestr ucti on r esul ti ng
f r omawar of nati onal
l i ber ati on.
Nkr umah
spoke of col oni al i smas the
f undamental cause of war
because i ts
unequal
systemgener ated hate and
pr oduced conf l i ct between
nati ons . He
sought the
l i ber ati onof al l Af r i caandthe
uni ty of theconti nent as a
pr eventi ve
82
The Fi r st Thr ee Summi t s: The For mat i ve Year s
agai nst war . Nasser , t oo, spoke of t he need t o st r uggl e agai nst r aci smand
col oni al i sm. I n addi t i on, he ar gued t hat neo- col oni al i smhad t o be opposed
and dr ewat t ent i on t o t he cr eat i on of cl i ent st at es, suchas I sr ael i n hi s r egi on,
whi chwas ser vi ng as a ' br i dge- headof neo- col oni al i smi n Af r i ca and a
t ool of
i t s ambi t i on' . Soekar no andD' Or t i cos of Cubaal so war ned of t he
danger s
of
neo- col oni al i smandt heneedt o addr ess pr obl ems of economi c devel opment
.
Nehr u gave pr i or i t y t o peace and was especi al l y concer ned about war as a
t hr eat t o anat i on' s i ndependence and sover ei gnt y . Hear guedt hat backwar d
and under devel oped count r i es had no f ut ur ewi t hout an end t o war . For onl y
wi t hpeacecoul d t her ebeposi t i ve andconst r uct i ve oppor t uni t i es t o bui l df r ee
soci et i es.
Non- al i gned l eader s t ended t o see t he t hr eat t o peace as l ar ger t han
t he
East - West st r uggl e. For t hem, t her e coul d be no peace
unt i l t her e was
peacef ul coexi st ence, by whi cht hey meant
not per pet uat i on of t he st at us quo,
but f r eedomf or ever y nat i on t o devel opas
i t sees f i t wi t hout bei ng hamper ed
by ext er nal pr essur es or
i nt er f er ence. They decl ar edt he exi st i ng i nt er nat i onal
syst emunequal and based on
expl oi t at i on.
As
newl y emer gent nat i ons, t hey
i nt endedt o chal l enge
t he exi st i ng wor l d or der and est abl i sh a newonebased
on j ust and equal
r el at i ons . ?
At t he suggest i on of
Nasser on t he second day of t he conf er ence, a dr af t i ng
commi t t ee
was f or med t o dr awup a st at ement and r esol ut i ons on var i ous
i ssues
.
These
wer er evi ewedandaccept edat t he endof t he pr oceedi ngs as t he
Fi nal Decl ar at i on of t he conf er ence. The Fi nal Decl ar at i on of any non-
al i gned meet i ng i s a consel i sus document and r epr esent s a . synt hesi s of t he
debat e. At Bel gr ade, di f f er ences i n emphasi s r ef l ect edr egi onal concer ns anda
nat i on' s st age of pol i t i cal and economi c devel opment r at her t han di f f er ences
i n subst ance. Thi s was l ar gel y a r esul t of t he degr ee of col oni al i st
expl oi t at i on
exper i encedby t hevar i ous member s andt hef act t hat some
count r i es hadbeen
i ndependent l onger t han ot her s . Al l t he f undament al
pr i nci pl es of non-
al i gnment wer e cl ear l y evi dent i n t he Fi nal Decl ar at i on of
t he Bel gr ade
conf er ence, but gi ven t he exi st i ng i nt er nat i onal
si t uat i on i n 1961, non- al i gned
count r i es st r essed t he i mpor t ance of peace andt he
need f or t hedemocr at i zat i on
of i nt er nat i onal r el at i ons, t hat
i s,
t he
i ncr eased par t i ci pat i on of newst at es i n
gl obal pol i t i cs
.
Fr om
t he Fi r st Summi t , non- al i gned count r i es have used t hei r Fi nal
Decl ar at i on as a
st at ement of t hei r vi ews on t he exi st i ng i nt er nat i onal
si t uat i on .
I n
spi t e of t he t ense i nt er nat i onal r el at i ons pr i or t o t he Bel gr ade
conf er ence, non- al i gned count r i es di dnot accept war as i nevi t abl e, not even
t he Col d War . I n t hei r Bel gr ade Decl ar at i on, t hey expr essed conf i dence i n
humani t y t o est abl i sh a peacef ul wor l d. They di d st r ongl y oppose t he
exi st ence of mi l i t ar y bl ocs whi ch` necessar i l y pr ovoke
per i odi cal aggr avat i ons
of i nt er nat i onal r el at i ons' . They
sought
peacef ul
coexi st ence t o avoi d t he
83
TheNon- al i gned
Movement i n I nter nati onal
Hi stor y
possi bi l i ty of
nucl ear di saster .
I nthei r vi ew,
peacef ul coexi stence
was based
on
the r i ght of
peopl e to
sel f - deter mi nati on,
i ndependence
and the
f or mof
devel opment
of thei r
own choi ce.
The pr eambl e
thus decl ar es
that
i mper i al i sm
i s on the
wane. I t i s
vehementl y
anti - col oni al ,
l i nki ng these
str uggl es
wi th peace. I t
expl ai ns why:
TheHeads of
State or
Gover nment of
Non- Al i gned
Countr i es noti ng
that
ther e
ar ecr i ses that l ead
towar ds a
wor l dconf l i ct
i n the tr ansi ti on
f r oman ol d
or der based
on domi nati on
to a new
or der based on
co- oper ati on
between
nati ons, f ounded on
f r eedom,
equal i ty and soci al
j usti ce f or
the pr omoti onof
pr osper i ty
; consi der i ng
that thedynami c
pr ocesses
and f or ms of soci al
change
of tenr esul t i nor
r epr esent a
conf l i ct between
the ol destabl i shed
andthe new
emer gi ng nati onal i st
f or ces; consi der i ng
that a
l asti ng peacecan be
achi eved
onl y i f
thi s conf r ontati on
l eads to a
wor l d wher e
the domi nati on
of
col oni al i sm- i mper i al i sm
and
neo- col oni al i sm
i n al l thei r
mani f estati ons i s
r adi cal l y
el i mi nated;
And
r ecogni zi ng the f act
that acute
emer genci es
thr eateni ng wor l d
peace
nowexi st i nthi s per i od
of conf l i ct
i n Af r i ca, Asi a,
Eur opeand
Lati nAmer i ca
and Bi g
Power r i val r y
l i kel y to r esul t
i n wor l d
conf l agr ati on cannot
be
excl uded
; that to
er adi cate basi cal l y
the sour ce
of conf l i ct i s
to er adi cate
col oni al i sm
i n al l i ts
mani f estati ons and
to accept and
pr acti ce a pol i cy
of
peacef ul
co- exi stence i n
the wor l d. $
Non- al i gned
countr i es al so
noted that the
pr esent- day
wor l d was
char acter i zed
by the
exi stence of di f f er ent
soci al
systems . They
r egar dedthe
i mposi ti onby
somenati ons
of thei r
soci al r pol i ti cal
systemon
other s as a di r ect
thr eat to
wor l d
peace; they
suppor ted` the
r i ght of peopl es
tosel f - deter mi nati on
of the
f or ms
andmethods
of economi c,
soci al and
cul tur al devel opment'
as the basi s
of
al l i nter nati onal
r el ati ons .
Al together
theBel gr ade
Decl ar ati on
l i sted 27 separ ate
i tems, 14 deal i ng
wi thanti - col oni al i sm,
sel f - deter mi nati on
andnon- i nter f er ence,
si x r el ated
to
di sar mament,
thr ee to economi c
devel opment,
thr eeto the
Uni ted Nati ons
and oneto the
Ger man pr obl em
. I t suppor ted
the UN
Decl ar ati on on
the
Gr anti ng of
I ndependenceto
Col oni al
Countr i es andPeopl es
anddemanded
an i mmedi ate
stop to ar med
acti on and
other f or ms of
r epr essi on agai nst
l i ber ati on
str uggl es . I t cal l ed
f or the seati ng
of the gover nment
of thePeopl e' s
Republ i c of
Chi na at the
Uni ted Nati ons
as the l egi ti mate
r epr esentati ve
of
that countr y.
I t r eaf f i r med
that ` al l
nati ons have the r i ght
of uni ty,
sel f -
deter mi nati on,
and
i ndependenceby
vi r tue of whi chr i ght
they candeter mi ne
thei r
pol i ti cal status
and f r eel y
pur sue thei r economi c,
soci al and
cul tur al
devel opment wi thout
i nti mi dati onor
hi ndr ance. '
Consequentl y, i t
demanded
r espect
f or the r i ght
of Cuba to
choose i ts own
path of devel opment
. The
Decl ar ati on al so
suppor tedtheongoi ng
str uggl es of
thepeopl es of
Al ger i a and
Angol a. I t opposed
thecur r ent
f or ei gni nter venti on i n
Tuni si aandthe
Congo
TheFi rst ThreeSummi ts: TheFormati veYears
(nowZai re) . I t condemnedaparthei d
i n SouthAf ri ca andsupportedthef ul l
restorati onof al l theri ghts of the
Arabpeopl eof Pal esti nei n accordancewi th
theUNCharter andresol uti ons.
I t sought a reducti on of East- West
tensi ons everywhereandcal l ed f or the
UNGeneral Assembl y to convene
a speci al sessi on on di sarmament, ani dea
ori gi nal l y suggested by Ti to.
Non- al i gned countri es recommended that
armaments expendi tures betransf erred
to soci al andeconomi cdevel opment .
They al so recommended that steps
betaken to cl osethegap between the
devel opedandl ess devel oped
countri es - a consequenceof col oni al i smand
i mperi al i sm. They cal l ed f or the
establ i shment of a Uni ted Nati ons capi tal
devel opment f und to ai d devel opi ng
countri es. They cal l ed f or al l countri es
af f ected by the `economi c bl ocs of i ndustri al
countri es' to co- operateand
consi der meeti ng i n an i nternati onal conf erence
to promotethei r mutual
devel opmental concerns.
Fi nal l y,
thenon- al i gned expressed thei r support
f or theUni ted Nati ons,
but obj ected
to thi s i nternati onal organi zati on bei ng a mere
ref l ecti on of the
exi sti ng
gl obal power structure. They consi deredi t essenti al
that theSecuri ty
Counci l
be expanded to i ncorporate the newThi rd
Worl d membershi p
wi thi n the
UNand that the Secretari at too ref l ect
the changes that the
decol oni zati on
process had brought to the i nternati onal
communi ty. 9
On
the
f i nal day of the Summi t, del egates
approved the Bel grade
Decl arati on
anda separateStatement ontheDanger
of War andAppeal f or
Peace. Thi s
separatestatement was madeat thesuggesti on
of Nehruandwas
speci f i cal l y
di rectedat theUSAndUSSR, proposi ng
that theymi ght, i n anage
of nucl ear weapons
andthepossi bi l i ty of total gl obal
destructi on, i mmedi atel y
suspend thei r
preparati ons f or war andbegi n negoti ati ons
f or di sarmament
andpeace. I n addi ti on,
theconf erencedeci ded to sendi denti cal
messages to
Presi dent Kennedy and
Premi er Khrushchev i ndi cati ng theconcern
of the
non- al i gned countri es
that conti nui ng strai nedEast- West rel ati ons
contri buted
to a general
deteri orati on of the gl obal si tuati on. 1
I n essence, non- al i gned
countri es were
asserti ng that bi g powers al onecoul d not
determi neworl d
events andthat
theyhadtheri ght as members of thei nternati onal
communi ty,
thoughf ormer
col oni es and devel opi ng soci eti es, to parti ci pate
i n gl obal
pol i ti cs. Moreover,
as countri es commi tted to certai n pri nci pl es
of non-
al i gnment, theyi ntended
to parti ci patei ni nternati onal af f ai rs f or the
purpose
of creati ng a peacef ul
and morej ust worl d.
Thesi gni f i canceof the
Bel gradeSummi t i s that non- al i gnedcountri es:
(a)
adoptedpri nci pl es andcri teri a
f or membershi p; (b) gaveconcretesupport
to
nati onal l i berati on i n the
f ormof f ul l membershi p to a provi si onal
government ; (c) f ormul ated a
gl obal f ramework f or thei r acti vi ti es; (d)
asserted thei r ri ght as smal l and
mi ddl e- si zed states to parti ci patei n worl d
pol i ti cs
- a concept they cal l ed the
democrati zati on of i nternati onal
85
The
Non- al i gned Movement
i n I nter nati onal
Hi stor y
r el ati ons
; and ( e) took
di r ect acti on
to br i ng
about
i nter nati onal peace
and
secur i ty
thr ough thei r
ef f or ts to
r educe East- West
tensi ons
.
Fr om
Bel gr ade
to Cai r o
A
second summi t
meeti ng of
non- al i gned
countr i es was
hel d i n
Cai r o i n
October 1964. I n
the year s between
Bel gr ade
and Cai r o
ther e wer e-a
number
of
si gni f i cant changes
i nthe gl obal
system.
The East- West
conf l i ct
r eacheda
hi gh
poi nt over the
Cuban
mi ssi l e cr i si s of
October 1962
and near l y
br ought
the wor l d to a
nucl ear hol ocaust
. Af ter war ds,
tensi ons
between the US
and
USSRbeganto
di mi ni sh and
the f ol l owi ng
year the two
countr i es
agr eedona
Li mi ted Nucl ear
Test- Ban
Tr eaty. Ther e
wer e al so
si gns of
a l essened
emphasi s
on di vi di ng the
wor l d i nto
r egi onal mi l i tar y
pacts. For
the Uni ted
States ther e
was no
f undamental
change i n i ts
doctr i ne of
contai ni ng the
expansi on
of communi sm
. Dur i ng
these year s,
however , the US
gover nment
modi f i ed
i ts stance
towar ds the
non- al i gnedand
other Thi r d
Wor l dcountr i es
.
The
Kennedy admi ni str ati on
sought
to gai nthe suppor t
of the
Thi r dWor l d
by
i denti f yi ng
wi th thei r
str uggl e
f or i ndependence
and
thei r ef f or ts
f or
economi c
devel opment
. Techni cal
assi stance
and economi c
ai d, such as
the
Al l i ance
f or Pr ogr ess
pr ogr amme
i n Lati n
Amer i ca, wer e
war ml y of f er ed
to
devel opi ng
countr i es,
whi l e at
the same
ti me mi l i tar y
and i ntel l i gence
agenci es
f uncti oned
cover tl y to
secur e Thi r d
Wor l d
gover nments
f avour abl e
to US
i nter ests .
El sewher e
di f f er ences
between the
USSRand
Chi na had
gr own to the poi nt
wher e' they
coul dnot be
r esol ved
andwer e soonto
af f ect
thei r r el ati ons
wi th the
Thi r d Wor l d.
Chi na' s
i sol ati on i n
the wor l d
communi ty
conti nued and
was not hel ped
bythe
Si no- I ndi an
bor der conf l i ct
of 1962.
The
non- al i gned
wor l d cel ebr ated
vi ctor y
i n the Al ger i an
War of
I ndependence
i n 1962. I n
the Thi r d
Wor l d, mor e
col oni es i n
Af r i ca and the
Car i bbean
gai ned thei r
i ndependence
l ar gel y
thr ough peacef ul
means. I n
other ter r i tor i es,
such as
South East
Asi a and
Por tuguese
Af r i ca, the
i ndependence
str uggl e
r equi r ed ar ms to
be taken up
agai nst
col oni al i smand
neo- col oni al i sm
. I nthese
year s, the
wor l dconti nued
to see the
expansi on and
i ntensi f i cati on
of l i ber ati on
str uggl es
i n the Thi r d
Wor l d. The
Congo ( now
Zai r e)
r emai nedan
i nter nati onal i ssue.
Shor tl y
af ter the Bel gr ade
Summi t, the
Uni ted
Nati ons l ost i ts
Secr etar y- Gener al ,
Dag
Hammar skj ol d,
i n anai r cr ash
dur i ng
a mi ssi on. t
o r esol ve
thi s conti nui ng
cr i si s whi ch
thr eatened
to
exacer bate
gl obal
tensi ons . Recent
studi es
have conf i r med
the suspi ci on of
non- al i gned
countr i es at that
ti me that i nter nal
di vi si ons
i n the Congo
wer e
bei ng exter nal l y
mani pul ated
. The Congo
pr obl em
al so r esul ted i n
deep
di vi si ons between
Af r i can
countr i es andthe
cr i si s r eveal ed
anear l y attempt
to
destabi l i ze the
Non- al i gned
Movement.
86
TheFi rst
ThreeSummi ts: TheFormati veYears
Ona moreposi ti venote, i nJ ul y 1962, duri ng
theUni ted Nati ons Fi rst
Decade
of Devel opment, anumber of non- al i gned
countri es hel d a Speci al
Conf erence i n
Cai ro onthe Probl ems of Economi c
Devel opment . Thi s
meeti ng l ed
i ndi rectl y tothecreati onof theGroup of 77.
They di scussed the
growi ng di spari ty
betweendevel oped and devel opi ng
countri es and howto
promoteeconomi c
devel opment and co- operati onwi thi n
thef ramework of
UNacti vi ti es. "
Sucha conf erencehad been
cal l ed f or i ntheBel grade
Decl arati on. The
f ol l owi ng year, i ndependent
Af ri canstates resol vedsomeof
thei r di f f erences
and f ormedaregi onal groupi ng,
theOrgani zati onof Af ri can
Uni ty
(OAU), whi chpromptl y adopted a pol i cy
of non- al i gnment.
I n1963, Presi dent
Nasser and Pri meMi ni ster Bandaranai ke
of Ceyl on
(now Sri Lanka)
proposed another non- al i gned conf erence
whi chwas
supported by Nehruand
Ti to. 12 I ndonesi a, i nturn, had beencal l i ng
f or a
second Af ro- Asi anmeeti ng si mi l ar
tothe1955Bandung Conf erence, onei n
whi chChi naand Paki stanwoul d
beabl eto parti ci pate. Soekarno' s ef f orts
wereopposed by thosewhosawa
stri ctl y Af ro- Asi anmeeti ng, especi al l y one
under thei nf l uenceof Chi na, as a
chal l engetothenewl y f ormedNon- al i gned
Movement whi chwas more
i nternati onal i nrepresentati onandbroader i ni ts
pri nci pl es and obj ecti ves. Thetwo
meeti ngs thus becameentangl ed i nthe
Si no- Sovi et spl i t . I ntheend, the
Af ro- Asi angroupi ngf ai l ed togai nsuf f i ci ent
support andwas f orced topostpone
i ts meeti ng i ndef i ni tel y. Eventual l y much
of i ts membershi p merged i nto
theNon- al i gned Movement .
13
Col omboPreparatory Meeti ng,
23- 28 March1964
Yugosl avi a,
Egypt andCeyl oncal l ed apreparatory
meeti ngi nFebruary 1964
to pl an
a second non- al i gned summi t
conf erence. I t was hel d at the
ambassadori al
l evel i nCol ombobetween23 and
28 Marchcoi nci di ng wi th
the begi nni ng
of the UN Conf erence on
Trade and Devel opment
(UNCTAD) i nGenevawheretheGroup of 77 was
f ormed. Pri meMi ni ster
Bandaranai ke
noted i nher openi ng address that
a second conf erencewas
needed
toreaf f i rmand strengthenthegoal s of the
Movement andtorespond
to
changes i nthei nternati onal si tuati on,
especi al l y thei mproved rel ati ons
between
theUSandUSSRThemeeti ngsought
worl dpeaceand securi ty and
speci f i cal l y noted theemergenceof newnati onal i st
f orces i ni nternati onal
af f ai rs.
A pri mary
concernof themeeti ngwas to expand
themembershi p at the
next summi t.
Del egates vi ewed as potenti al
members the many newl y
i ndependent
Af ri canstates as wel l as thosecountri es
that had adopted the
general ai ms of
non- al i gnment si nce1961. Thus i nvi tati ons
weresent tothe
member states of the
OAUandtothosestates whi chparti ci pated
i ntheArab
Summi t Conf erenceof
J anuary 1964.
Thepreparatory meeti ng
di vi ded i ts work among
subcommi ttees f or :
8
7
The Non- al i gned
Movement i n I nter nati onal
Hi stor y
i nvi tati ons
and r epr esentati on,
the dr af t agenda, the
dr af t j oi nt communi que,
and
even
secr etar i al expenses . The
most i mpor tant f or
the hi stor y of the
Movement
was
the subcommi ttee cr eated
to make
r ecommendati ons on the
r epr esentati on
of
nati onal i st movements i n
non- sel f - gover ni ng
ter r i tor i es andnew
pr ovi si onal
gover nments. Consi sti ng of
del egates f r om
Al ger i a, Ghana, I ndi a
and Mor occo,
thi s subcommi ttee made
the f ol l owi ng
r ecommendati ons :
88
( a)

Al l nati onal i st
movements f r om
Col oni al ter r i tor i es whi ch
have not yet
attai ned i ndependence
ar e wel come to
pr esent thei r vi ews to
the
Conf er ence
and the host
countr y wi l l be r equested to
gi ve themal l
f aci l i ti es to do so.
( b)

Shoul d any new
pr ovi si onal
gover nment be f or med i n Af r i ca
between
nowand
the hol di ng
of the Conf er ence,
and be r ecogni zed by
the
Or gani zati on of
Af r i can
Uni ty, the Standi ng Commi ttee
shoul d extend
an i nvi tati on to
that pr ovi si onal
gover nment as a f ul l member
.
( c)

Shoul d any new
pr ovi si onal
gover nment be f or med i n any
col oni al
ter r i tor y i n conti nents
other than the
Af r i can conti nent, between now
and the hol di ng
of the
Conf er ence, the Standi ng
Commi ttee shoul d
consi der the matter and.
af ter consul ti ng
and obtai ni ng the appr oval
of al l
Member States, extend
an i nvi tati on as
obser ver or f ul l member . l a
I n
accepti ng these r ecommendati ons
unani mousl y, non- al i gned
countr i es
took
another step towar ds l egi ti mi zi ng
and
f aci l i tati ng the i nvol vement
of
nati onal l i ber ati on movements
andpr ovi si onal
gover nments i n gl obal
pol i ti cs .
However , whi l e the non- al i gned
wer e agr eed
that nati onal i st
movements
shoul d par ti ci pate i n thei r
meeti ngs, ther e was
as yet no consensus
as to the
f or mof the associ ati on.
Wi th r egar d to speci f i c
si tuati ons, the
pr epar ator y meeti ng
agr eed to i nvi te
Nyasal and
( nowMal awi ) , Nor ther n
Rhodesi a ( now
Zambi a) and Br i ti sh
Gui ana
( nowGuyana) as member s i f they
obtai ned thei r
i ndependence bef or e
the conf er ence.
I n addi ti on, the
pr ovi si onal gover nment
of Angol a was
unani mousl y
i nvi ted to par ti ci pate as a
f ul l member of
the conf er ence.
The
pr epar ator y meeti ng agr eed that
the Second Summi t
woul dbehel d
i n
Cai r o, i n
October 1964, and pr epar ed
a dr af t agenda.
They al so deci ded to
hol d a f or ei gn
mi ni ster s meeti ng
pr i or to the conf er ence
of heads of state or
gover nment at the same venue.
Over the year s,
thi s has become
i nsti tuti onal i zed
andi s now
standar d pr acti ce
wi thi n the Movement.
Fi nal l y,
i n thei r communi que, non- al i gned
countr i es expl ai ned
that they wer e
cal l i ng a
second conf er ence on an
enl ar ged
basi s, wi th the obj ect
of pr omoti ng and
consol i dati ng the pr i nci pl es
of the pol i cy of
non- al i gnment i n or der
to saf eguar d peace
and to assi st the
peopl es of the wor l d i n the
attai nment of thei r
aspi r ati ons f or i ndependence,
r el axati on of i nter nati onal
tensi on and pr ogr ess
.
i
s
TheFi r st Thr ee Summi t s: TheFor mat i ve Year s
The i nt er nat i onal si t uat i on was vast l y
di f f er ent on t he eve of t he Second
Summi t when t he Movement was st i l l comi ng i nt o
bei ng. The East - West
t ensi ons t hat had domi nat ed t he Bel gr ade Conf er ence
wer e gr eat l y r educed.
Bot ht heSovi et Uni on and t he Uni t ed St at es wel comed t heCai r o Conf er ence
as a peace- maki ng ef f or t , but wi t h di f f er ent emphases . Pr avda not ed, wi t h
al l usi ons t o t he Af r o- Asi an gr oupi ng, t hat t hi s gat her i ng woul d assi st i n t he
st r uggl e agai nst i mper i al i smwi t hout di vi di ng suppor t er s `on a geogr aphi cal
or
any ot her basi s'
. 16
Pr esi dent J ohnson i n hi s messaget o t he
conf er encet ookt he
oppor t uni t y t o woo t he hear t s and mi nds of t he Thi r d Wor l d.
He
not ed t he
r ol e t heUni t ed St at es was t aki ng t o achi eve di sar mament and, wi t h al l usi ons
t o t he Sovi et Uni on, war ned t he non- al i gned not t o become conf used by
`ot her f or ms of i mper i al i sm' . 17
Mor ei mpor t ant l y,
t he number of newl y i ndependent st at es had i ncr eased,
but t he Si no- Sovi et spl i t , wi t h
i t s own set of t ensi ons, was begi nni ng t o spi l l
over i nt o t heThi r dWor l d. TheUni t ed
Nat i ons was showi ng gr eat er at t ent i on
t o t he pr obl ems of devel opi ng count r i es . I nt er nat i onal
suppor t f or ant i -
col oni al st r uggl es was gr owi ng, but conf l i ct si t uat i ons i n
Vi et nam, Cuba, t he
Congo and Cypr us, f or exampl e, st i l l t hr eat ened
t o become ar enas of
i nt er nat i onal conf l i ct t hat coul d r esul t i n gl obal war . Fi nal l y,
i n May 1964, a
f ewshor t mont hs bef or e t he Cai r o Summi t , Nehr udi ed. The
Movement l ost
one of t he f ounder s of non- al i gnment and a maj or i nt el l ect ual and
pol i t i cal
f or ce i n t hese st i l l f or mat i ve year s of t he or gani zat i on.
Second Summi t Conf er ence of Non- al i gned Count r i es,
Cai r o,
5- 10 Oct ober 1%4
TheSecond Summi t
of
heads
of st at e or gover nment of non- al i gned count r i es
i n Cai r o, i n Oct ober 1964,
mar ked t hebegi nni ngof a shi f t of t heMovement ' s
cent r ef r omAsi a t o
Af r i ca, one whi chwas t o becomef ul l y evi dent i n t heyear s
t o f ol l ow. Member shi p i n t he
Movement had al most doubl ed f r om25 i n
Bel gr ade t o 47 i n Cai r o
. Of
t he
22 newmember s, 20wer e Af r i can st at es, a
r esul t of t he ongoi ng
i ndependence movement s on t he cont i nent . The new
member s wer e Angol a, Bur undi ,
Camer oon, Cent r al Af r i can Republ i c,
Chad, Dahomey ( Beni n) , Maur i t ani a,
J or dan, Kenya, Kuwai t , Laos, Li ber i a,
Li bya, Mal awi , Ni ger i a, Senegal , Si er r a
Leone, Syr i a, Togo, Uganda, Uni t ed
Republ i c of Tanganyi ka and Zanzi bar ( nowTanzani a) ,
and Zambi a. 18 The
number of obser ver st at es had al so i ncr eased f r omt hr ee
t o t en, wi t h t he
maj or i t y comi ngf r omLat i n Amer i ca and t he Car i bbean.
I n
t hr ee year s,
t he
Movement had been st r engt hened by i t s i ncr eased member shi p and br oader
i nt er nat i onal r epr esent at i on.
Theconf er ence was i nf l uenced by t he newi nt er nat i onal si t uat i on and t he
f act t hat t he meet i ngwas bei ng hel d i n Af r i ca and i n an Ar ab st at e. At hawi n
89
The Non- al i gned
Movement i n I nt er nat i onal
Hi st or y
t heCol dWar
and t hei ncr ease i n
nat i onal l i ber at i on st r uggl es
r esul t ed i n mor e
at t ent i on bei ng
gi ven t o
ant i - col oni al i smt han t o t he
East - West conf l i ct
whi ch
had per vaded
t he Bel gr ade
Conf er ence, I n addi t i on,
bet ween 23Mar ch
and
15 J une
1964 t he f i r st UN
Conf er ence on
Tr ade and Devel opment
(UNCTAD)
met i n Geneva:
devel oped and l ess
devel oped count r i es
met t o
di scuss
condi t i ons of wor l d
t r ade as a basi s f or
pr omot i ng devel opment
. The
Gr oup of
77 was t hus bor n
andwas composed
mai nl y of count r i es f r om
t he
Non- al i gned
Movement . Thi s
gr oup was t o be
i n many ways t he
economi c
ar mof
t he Movement at
i nt er nat i onal meet i ngs .
Ther i se
of Nasser as a Thi r d
Wor l dl eader and
t he choi ce of Egypt
as t he
host
count r y al so r ei nf or ced
t hi s shi f t . Egypt ' s
moder n hi st or y was
one of
r ebel l i on
and ar medr esi st ance
agai nst f or ei gn
i nt er f er ence, andof
r evol ut i on
t o end
monar chi cal r ul e
andf eudal i sm. Egypt
was a cr ossr oads
l i nki ng Asi a,
t he
Ar ab wor l d and t he
Af r i can wor l d. Egypt
was a member
of t he Uni t ed
Nat i ons Secur i t y Counci l
andof t he
Di sar mament Commi t t ee
f or medi n 1961
by
t he UNGener al
Assembl y. Cai r o
was al so ani nt er nat i onal
meet i ng pl ace,
havi ng beenpr evi ousl y
chosen as t hevenue
of a number of
Thi r d Wor l d, non-
al i gned andAf r i can
gat her i ngs . Nasser
was r ecogni zed as mor e
t han Egypt ' s
head
of st at e. Few
had chal l enged
t he West er n wor l d as
he had by
nat i onal i zi ng t he Suez
Canal . Hehadbecome
an Ar ab nat i onal i st
and def ender
of
t he r i ght s of t he
Pal est i ni an peopl e
. He f avour ed
soci al i smas a pat h of
soci o- economi c
devel opment . Hewas
cl ear l y an act i vi st who
sought a l ar ger
r ol ef or hi s
count r y i n r egi onal and
wor l d af f ai r s as
demonst r at ed by hi s ef f or t s
t o medi at e di f f er ences
bet ween
var i ous Af r i can
gr oupi ngs and t o r educe
t ensi ons i n such
i nt er nat i onal
cr i ses as Kor ea,
Cuba and t he Si no- I ndi an
conf l i ct
.
19
Non- al i gned
f or ei gn mi ni st er s
met on 2 Oct ober
pr i or t o t he summi t
and
appr oved
changes i n t he
conf er ence agenda.
The Movement ' s
shi f t i n
emphasi s
was si gnal l ed by
t he i ncr eased
at t ent i on gi ven t o
el i mi nat i ng
col oni al i sm
and neo- col oni al i sm
wi t ht he addi t i on
of suchi t ems f or
di scussi on
as `concer t ed
act i on f or . nat i onal
l i ber at i on of
dependent count r i es' and
' sel f -
det er mi nat i on'
. Z0 Thi s shi f t i n.
emphasi s al so appear ed
i n t he speeches of
t he
heads of
st at e and l ed t o a
di scussi on of peacef ul
coexi st ence.
Ther e
wer e, i n f act , di f f er ent
i nt er pr et at i ons of
peacef ul coexi st ence
. Thi s
had been
appar ent at Bel gr ade,
but was suppr essed
by t he
over whel mi ngl y
t ense East - West
r el at i ons .
Ti t o pr omot ed
peacef ul coexi st ence,
wi t h an
emphasi s on
ant i - bl oc or
equi di st ance bet ween
t he US and USSR
as t he
pr edomi nant
concer n of
non- al i gnment .
Yugosl avi a' s own
si t uat i on,
par t i cul ar l y
i t s f ear of Sovi et
i nt er vent i on
i n i t s i nt er nal af f ai r s,
i nf or med
Ti t o' s
concer t ed ef f or t t o
have smal l st at es
pl ay an act i ver ol ei n
opposi ng war
and
gr adual l y el i mi nat i ng
bl ocs. But t hemaj or i t y
of non- al i gned
l eader s, wi t h
Soekamo,
Nkr umah and
Shast r i (t he new
Pr i me Mi ni st er of
I ndi a) bei ng
90
TheFi rst ThreeSummi ts: TheFormati veYears
amongthemost vocal , f ound theYugosl avvi ew
f ar toonarrow
. As f ormer
col oni es of Westernpowers, thei r experi ences
werevastl y di f f erent f romthat
of Yugosl avi a. They concl uded that
peacef ul coexi stence coul d onl y come
wi ththe
el i mi nati on
of
col oni al i sm, i mperi al i sm, neo- col oni al i sm, raci smand
other
f orms
o
Western domi nati on and expl oi tati on
21
Thi s vi ew
prevai l ed. .
However, there
were
al sosomecompromi ses i nthef i nal decl arati onwi th
themoremi l i tant stances
of conf rontati on wi ththemaj or powers removed i n
exchange
f or
i tems condemni ng nucl ear bases abroad and the economi c
bl ockadeof
Cuba. 22 Thusdecol oni zati on, sel f - determi nati onandraci smwere
themaj or concerns at theCai roConf erence. Peacewassti l l paramount, but i ts
achi evement wasvi ewed wi thi nthef ramework of anti - col oni al i sm, anti - neo-
col oni al i smand anti - i mperi al i sm and not wi thi n the f ramework
of
negoti ati ons between thetwomaj or powers.
TheCai roDecl arati onwas staunchl y anti - col oni al i st and
anti - i mperi al i st .
I ts concerns al so ref l ected theappearanceof the
many newl y i ndependent
Af ri canstates and thei r desi reto support peopl es
everywheresti l l struggl i ng
f or i ndependence, especi al l y thosewi thi n thei r
own conti nent . I n thei r
anal ysi s of thei nternati onal si tuati on, non- al i gned
countri es wel comedthe
i mprovement i n East- West rel ati ons si ncethe
Bel grade Conf erence, but
warned that as l ongas powerf ul i mperi al i st
i nterests persi sted i nusi ng f orce
` to def end thei r i nterests and to mai ntai n
thei r pri vi l eges' worl d peacewas
endangered. Thebasi c goal s andobj ecti ves
of non- al i gnment wereel aborated
i ntheel even secti ons of theFi nal
Decl arati onwhi chwas nearl y doubl ethe
l engthof theBel grade
Decl arati on.
Therewerea number of i mportant devel opments si ncetheFi rst Summi t
meeti ng. Fi rst, non- al i gnedcountri es madeal i nk betweenwar andpersi stent
f orei gn domi nati on i n al l i ts f orms. Thi s was stated i n the
secti on on
` Concerted Acti on f or theLi berati on of theCountri es
Sti l l Dependent:
El i mi nati on oCol oni al i sm, Neo- Col oni al i smand
I mperi al i sm' :
TheHeads of Stateor Government otheNon- Al i gnedCountri es decl arethat
l asti ngworl d peace
cannot
be
real i zed sol ongas unj ust condi ti ons prevai l and
peopl es under f orei gn domi nati on conti nue to be depri ved of
thei r
f undamental ri ght to
f reedom, i ndependenceand sel f - determi nati on.
I mperi al i sm, col oni al i smand neo- col oni al i smconsti tutea basi c
sourceof
i nternati onal tensi on and conf l i ct becausethey endanger worl d peaceand
securi ty . . . At present aparti cul ar causeoconcern
i s
the
mi l i tary or other
assi stanceextended- tocertai n countri es toenabl ethemtoperpetuateby f orce
col oni al i st andneo- col oni al i st
si tuati ons whi charecontrary tothespi ri t of the
Charter of theUni ted Nati ons.
I mperi al i smuses many
devi ces toi mposei ts wi l l oni ndependent nati ons.
Economi c pressure and domi nati on, i nterf erence,
raci al di scri mi nati on,
91
The
Non- al i gned Movement i n
I nter nati onal Hi stor y
subver si on,
i nter venti on and the thr eat of
f or ce ar e neo- col oni al i st devi ces
agai nst whi chthe newl y
i ndependent nati ons haveto def end
themsel ves. The
Conf er ence
condemns al l col oni al i st,
neo- col oni al i st and i mper i al i st pol i ci es
appl i ed i n
var i ous par ts of the wor l d.
23
I n thei r anal ysi s,
pol i ti cal i ndependence
and sel f - deter mi nati on
wer e
condi ti ons f or peace.
Non- al i gned countr i es
speci f i cal l y cal l ed attenti on
to
i nter nati onal tensi ons
caused by exter nal
i nter f er ence i n such countr i es
as the
Congo, Cypr us
and Cuba, and i n the
I ndo- Chi na r egi on wher e
peopl e
wer e str uggl i ng f or
thei r own path to
pol i ti cal and soci o- economi c:
devel opment . Si nce
wor l d peace was based
on f r eedom, equal i ty and
j usti ce,
peacef ul coexi stence
i n the vi ewof
the non- al i gned r equi r ed the
abol i ti on of
i mper i al i sm,
col oni al i smand
neo- col oni al i sm.
I n Def ence of
Ar med Str uggl e
f or Nati onal Li ber ati on
Wi th
thi s i n mi nd,
non- al i gned countr i es concl uded
that ` the pr ocess of
l i ber ati on
i s i r r esi sti bl e
and i r r ever si bl e' , and
expanded thei r suppor t f or
nati onal l i ber ati on
movements. They f i r st cl ar i f i ed
thei r posi ti on on ar med
str uggl e andstated under
whi chcondi ti ons f or ce
coul d beuti l i zed. Thenon-
al i gned
af f i r med the r i ght of
peopl es to sel f - deter mi nati on
and condemned
any ef f or t, especi al l y theuse
of f or ce, to pr event peopl es
f r omchoosi ng thei r
own desti ny. They
conf i dentl y def ended the
use of f or ce f or nati onal
l i ber ati on and asser ted that
col oni zed peopl es had the
l egi ti mate r i ght to r esor t
to ar ms when col oni al
power s conti nue to oppose
thei r ` natur al aspi r ati ons'
.
They al so r ecommended
that member s gi ve
pol i ti cal , mor al and mater i al
assi stance to
l i ber ati on movements .
At Cai r o,
non- al i gned countr i es r ecogni zed
nati onal i st movements as
bei ng
the` authenti c
r epr esentati ves' of col oni al
peopl es and cal l ed var i ous
col oni al
power s to
negoti ate wi th the l eader shi p
of these movements
. They
par ti cul ar l y noted the
i mper i al i st ef f or ts
to mai ntai n contr ol
i n Angol a,
Mozambi queand
other Por tugueseter r i tor i es,
the souther n Af r i can
states, the
Mi ddl e East and Lati n
Amer i ca. They cal l ed
attenti on to the str uggl es
of
col oni al peopl es
ever ywher e. Gi venthel ocal eof
themeeti ng, the
Movement
pai d speci al attenti on
to the str uggl es of the
Ar ab peopl e of Pal esti ne
and the
Af r i can peopl es
agai nst col oni al i sm and
r aci sm. The conf er ence
al so
suppor ted the
i nal i enabl e r i ghts of the
Ar ab peopl e of
Pal esti ne to sel f -
deter mi nati on,
i ncl udi ng the r estor ati on
of thei r r i ghts to
thei r homel and.
The conf er ence
pl aced gr eat
emphasi s on opposi ng
r aci al di scr i mi nati on.
TheDecl ar ati on
str ongl y condemned
the pol i cy of
apar thei d i n South Af r i ca
as genoci dal ,
r aci st anda thr eat to
wor l dpeace, and
cal l ed f or sancti ons agai nst
the
Republ i c of SouthAf r i ca. I t
al so opposed the
ef f or ts to establ i sh a r aci st
mi nor i ty
r egi me i n Souther n
Rhodesi a (nowZi mbabwe)
.
92
TheFi rst ThreeSummi ts: TheFormati ve Years
TheMovement al so expanded i ts peace concerns. They i ntroduced the
concept of peacezones f or thef i rst ti meandappl i edi t heretoocean
areas. The
Decl arati onal sorecommended theestabl i shment of
denucl eari zed zones and
cal l edagai nf or theconveni ng of aworl d
di sarmament conf erence. I t opposed
mi l i tary pacts because they
hei ghtened gl obal tensi ons. I t opposed the
presenceof f orei gntroops
and
mi l i tary
bases i n theterri tori es of others as a
vi ol ati on of soverei gnty
and a
threat to
pol i ti cal i ndependence. Thenon-
al i gned recogni zed the
potenti al
danger
of border di sputes, especi al l y
between Thi rd Worl d
countri es,
and cal l ed
f or peacef ul settl ements of
boundary di f f erences. I t
conti nued
to
support theUni ted Nati ons as the
i nternati onal bodyto
promotepeace
and
j usti ce.
Oneconomi c
matters, thenon- al i gned beganto l i nk devel opment wi th
peace. I nthei r
vi ew, peacerequi res asoundeconomi c base. Foreshadowi ng a
maj or economi c statement adoptedbytheMovement at i ts Fourth
Summi t i n
Al gi ers i n 1973, thenon- al i gned stated that the`persi stenceof poverty
poses a
threat to worl d peaceand prosperi ty. ' Peopl es and nati ons have
theri ght to
control thei r nati onal weal th and resources f or thei r own
economi c
devel opment. They concl uded that `a newand j ust economi c
order' was
neededtoenabl eal l nati ons tol i vewi thout f ear, want or despai r
. I nthei r f i rst
expanded statement on cul ture, sci ence and technol ogy,
the non- al i gned
expl ai ned why they supported cul tural equal i ty as a pri nci pl e.
Cul turehel ps towi denthemi nd and enri chl i f e; that al l human
cul tures have
thei r speci al val ues and can contri bute
to thegeneral progress; that many
cul tures weresuppressed and cul tural rel ati ons i nterrupted
under col oni al
domi nati on; that
i nternati onal understandi ng and progress requi re a revi val
and rehabi l i tati on of these cul tures
;
a
f reeexpressi on
of
thei r i denti ty and
nati onal character, and adeeper mutual appreci ati on of thei r val ues soas
to
enri chthecommoncul tural heri tageof man
. 24
The
Decl arati on then cal l ed f or cul tural , sci enti f i c and educati onal
co-
operati on
at the i nternati onal and regi onal l evel .
At the
Cai roConf erence, non- al i gned countri es adopted f or the
f i rst ti me
thepracti ceof
`reservati on' wherebyaf ter theFi nal Decl arati onwas adopted,
countri es
coul d i ndi cate thei r di ssent onspeci f i c i tems whi l esupporti ng
the
consensus document
as awhol e. General l y, reservati ons ref l ect a
country' s
i mmedi ate
nati onal i nterests onaparti cul ar matter rather
thandi f f erences of
substance
and are submi tted af ter di scussi on wi ththe
homegovernment.
Reservati ons, f or themost part, arerareand f ewi nnumber
. Theydoprovi de
opportuni ti es f or f l exi bi l i ty and thus permi t
members of theMovement to
f uncti on both col l ecti vel y and, when
necessary, i ndi vi dual l y, wi thout
di srupti ng thecoal i ti on.
Non- al i gned countri es had now
hel d twosummi t meeti ngs. I n these
93
The
Non- al i gned Movement
i n I nter nati onal
Hi stor y
gather i ngs, they
f ound other s who
shar ed si mi l ar
convi cti ons, goal s
and
obj ecti ves . They
had gr own i n
member shi p, wer e
l ear ni ngto wor k
wi thone
another , and
had taken some steps
towar ds bui l di ng
an or gani zati on
. Thei r
decl ar ati ons
f r omsummi t to
summi t had gr own
mor emi l i tant . They
had al so
become mor e
acti on or i entated. A
number of
r ecommendati ons
madei n
Cai r o, especi al l y
wi th r egar d to
nati onal
l i ber ati on str uggl es,
wer e l ater
adopted at theUN
l ar gel y thr ough
the ef f or ts of
the non- al i gned
member s .
Thesei ncl uded,
f or exampl e, the
suspendi ng of
r el ati ons wi th
Por tugal f or i ts
r epr essi on of
nati onal l i ber ati on i n
i ts Af r i can
col oni es and
si mi l ar l y wi th
SouthAf r i ca
f or i ts apar thei dpol i cy.
Non- al i gned
countr i es wer e
al so abl e to
secur e:
the hol di ng of a
consti tuti onal conf er ence
on the
questi on of
Zi mbabwe,
then Souther n
Rhodesi a, wi th
the i ncl usi on of
al l pol i ti cal
gr oupi ngs
; another
Geneva Conf er enceon I ndo- Chi na
to achi eve
peace; the
seati ng
of the Peopl e' s
Republ i c of
Chi na at the Uni ted
Nati ons ;
the
consi der ati on
of the
si tuati on i n Puer to
Ri co; and many
other s . z 5
The si gni f i cance of
the Cai r o Summi t
i s that non- al i gned
countr i es :
( a)
i ncr eased thei r
member shi p wi th
addi ti onal r epr esentati on
f r omthe
Af r i can
conti nent, begi nni ng
the Af r i cani zati on
of the Movement
; ( b) expanded
suppor t
f or nati onal
l i ber ati onby
def endi ngthe l egi ti mate
r i ght of apeopl e
to
take
up ar ms, i f necessar y,
to obtai n
i ndependence; ( c)
madethe i nal i enabl e
r i ghts
of the
Pal esti ni an peopl e,
i ncl udi ng r i ghts to
thei r homel and,
a
centr epi ece of the
Movement' s
acti vi ti es ; ( d) adopted
measur es to oppose
r aci smand col oni al i sm,
especi al l y i n
Af r i ca; ( e) br oadened
peace ef f or ts by
cal l i ng f or the cr eati on
of peace
zones; and ( I )
began to l i nk
economi c
devel opment wi th peace
.
But the non- al i gned
wer e
sti l l a gr oupi ng
and had yet to
become the
i nter nati onal soci al
movement
that woul d
f uncti on as a
coal i ti on i n the
i nter nati onal
communi ty tochange
the exi sti ng
wor l dor der .
Si x year s wer eto
pass bef or e
a thi r d non- al i gned
Summi t
Conf er ence was
hel d i n Lusaka i n
1970. These
si x year s wer etobe
di f f i cul t ones
f or non- al i gned
andother Thi r d
Wor l d
countr i es .
Fr om
Cai r o
to
Lusaka
Not l ong
af ter the Cai r o
Summi t,
chi na expl oded a
nucl ear weapon,
expandi ng thenucl ear cl ub.
Thewor l d was
r emi nded agai n
of the need
f or
gl obal
peaceand secur i ty to
ensur ethesur vi val
of humani ty.
I nthel atter
par t
of
the 1960s, tensi ons between
theUSand
USSR, though
i mpr oved,
r emai ned
str ai ned wi th the
conti nuati on of the US
war i n Vi etnam
and the
Sovi et
i nter venti on i n
Czechosl ovaki a i n 1968.
However , i t
was not
East- West
r el ati ons but the
Thi r dWor l dthat was
thef ocus of
i nter nati onal
attenti on i n
the year s between
the Cai r o and Lusaka
Summi ts. Mor e
mi l i tant and
r adi cal
94
TheFi r s t Thr ee Summi t s
: TheFor mat i ve Year s
nat i onal i s t gover nment s
began t o make t hei r appear ance,
f or exampl e i n
Li bya,
wi t ht he over t hr owof
t he monar chy and t he
emer gence of Gadaf y .
Exi s t i ng
nat i onal l i ber at i on
movement s i nt ens i f i ed
t hei r s t r uggl e and new
ones
made t hei r appear ance. Ther e
was act i vi t y i n al l
r egi ons f r omI ndo-
Chi na
i n As i a, Pal es t i ne i n t he
Mi ddl e Eas t , Cypr us
i n Eur ope, s ever al Lat i n
Amer i can count r i es , and
t hr oughout . s out her n Af r i ca
and t he Por t ugues e
Af r i can col oni es . Res i s t ance
agai ns t col oni al i s mand
neo- col oni al i s m al s o
s hi f t edt o ar med
s t r uggl e. Thes ucces s es of Chi na,
Cuba, Al ger i a andVi et nam
cont r i but ed t o t he
l ar ge- s cal e adopt i on of peopl e' s
war agai ns t i mper i al i s m
us i ngguer r i l l a f or ces
ands t r at egy. Theher oes
of
t he
daywer eMaoTs e- t ung,
Vo Ng- uyen Gi ap,
Fr ant z Fanon and Che Guevar a
( and s hor t l y t her eaf t er
Ami l car Cabr al ) , whos e
wr i t i ngs wer er ead as much
f or t hei r mi l i t ar y as t hei r
pol i t i cal i deas
. 26
Thepol i t i cal act i vi s mand
r evol ut i onar y s t r uggl e
of
t he
Thi r d Wor l d had
r eper cus s i ons i n t he Wes t .
I n Eur ope, t he l ongs t andi ng
I r i s h and Bas que
nat i onal i s t s f ound new
s uppor t er s . Lef t i s t gr oupi ngs
t hr oughout Wes t er n
Eur ope, es peci al l y i n
Fr ance andI t al y, wer e act i vel y
mobi l i zi ng i n t he s t r eet s .
I n t he Amer i cas , i ndependence
movement s i n Quebec
and Puer t o Ri co wer e
gal vani zed. The `Thi r d
Wor l d wi t hi n' t he Uni t ed
St at es , Bl ackAmer i cans ,
Nat i ve Amer i cans
( Amer i can I ndi ans ) ,
As i an Amer i cans and Chi canos
( Mexi can Amer i cans )
or gani zed i n at t empt s
t o f r ee t hems el ves f r om
expl oi t at i on,
r aci s mand ot her f or ms of
oppr es s i on whi cht hey anal ys ed
as a
condi t i on of `i nt er nal
col oni al i s m' . 27
Ther es ul t of
t hi s ups ur gei mant i - i mper i al i s t
andant i - col oni al i s t act i vi t y
was
a mas s i ve as s aul t
on t he Thi r d Wor l d, es peci al l y
non- al i gned count r i es , as
Wes t er n power s
l edbyt heUni t edSt at es s ought
t o cont r ol t hedegr eeof s oci al
and pol i t i cal change
t hr oughout t he gl obe.
As Fr ed Hal l i day has s ucci nct l y
s ummar i zed, t he
ef f or t t o cont r ol t he Thi r d
Wor l d was f our f ol d: `di r ect
mi l i t ar y i nt er vent i on,
i ncr eas ed s uppor t f or
r i ght - wi ng r egi mes , des t abi l i zat i on
of pos t - r evol ut i onar y
s t at es , economi c
pr es s ur es ' .
28
I n t hes e year s ,
f or exampl e, t he Uni t ed
St at es l anded mar i nes i n t he
Domi ni can
Republ i c i n 1965
and i nt ens i f i ed i t s ef f or t s t o
def eat t he
Vi et names e
wi t h an ai r war i n 1966.
Li kewi s e, Por t ugal became
mor e
r epr es s i ve,
s t eppi ng up i t s ef f or t s
t o' r et ai n i t s Af r i can col oni es ,
whi l e i n t he
Mi ddl e
Eas t , t he J une - 1967 war t r ans f or med
r el at i ons i n t he r egi on.
I n a
s ur pr i s e
at t ack agai ns t Egypt , Syr i a
andJ or dan, I s r ael occupi ed t he
Si nai , Gaza,
Wes t J or dan,
Syr i an bor der ar eas andt he
ci t y of j er us al em, wi deni ngt he
conf l i ct
whi chhas
r emai nedunr es ol vedt o
t hi s day. El s ewher el eadi ng non- al i gned
heads
of s t at e wer e
t oppl ed. Not abl y, Soekar no
of I ndones i a and Nkr umah
of Ghana
wer e bot h
f or ci bl y di s pl aced i n
1966 by mi l i t ar y coups s uppor t ed
by t he US
CI A, weakeni ng t he r adi cal and
nat i onal i s t s uppor t wi t hi n t he
Non- al i gned
Movement
. The f ol l owi ng year
i n Lat i n Amer i ca, Che
Guevar a was
95
The
Non-al i gned
Movement
i n
I nternati onal
Hi story
assassi nated i n
Bol i vi a,
al so wi th
the
assi stance
of theCI A.
Thus
theNon-
al i gned
Movement
was under
attack
i n every
regi on
i n the
worl d.
The
humi l i ati onof
Nasser
andthe
el i mi nati on
f rom
power of such
stal warts
of
the
Movement as
Soekarno
and
Nkrumah
were
earl y ef f orts
to
cri ppl e
the
coal i ti on and
certai nl y
contri buted to
a peri od
of subdued
acti vi ty.
The
absence
of
Nehruwas
cl earl y
f el t i n
thi s peri od
.
I n
addi ti onto
these
external
pressures,
many
non-al i gned
countri es
hadto
deal
wi thi nternal
matters
. I ndi a,
f or
exampl e, had
border
conf l i cts
wi thChi na
and
Paki stan.
Other
countri es
experi enced
achange
o
l eadershi p
duri ngthi s
peri od.
Acti vi st
l eaders
l i ke
Kei ta of
Mal i , UNu
of Burma,
and
Si ri mavo
Bandaranai ke
of
Ceyl on, al l
of whom
coul d
pl ay
i mportant
rol es, were
removed
f rom
of f i ce
andrepl aced
by
conservati ve
regi mes.
These
combi ned
f orces hel pto
expl ai n
whythe
Movement
di d
not meet
agai nf or si x
years. A
cl oser
exami nati onof
the
acti vi ti es of
non-al i gned
countri es,
however,
reveal s
that
they
werenot
i nacti ve,
but had
chosen
i nstead to
address the
i ssues
of
peaceand
di sarmament
andof
economi c
devel opment at
theUni ted
Nati ons
.
I t
was
wi thi n thi s
i nternati onal
body
that they
concentrated
thei r
energi es.
The
Cai ro
Decl arati on
had cal l ed
f or
the
conveni ng of
a
Worl d
Di sarmament
Conf erence
under the
auspi ces
of the
Uni ted
Nati ons
.
I mmedi atel y
af ter
theSecond
Summi t,
non-al i gned
countri es worked
towards
bri ngi ng
thi s to
f rui ti on.
Through
i ts members
on the
UN
Di sarmament
Commi ttee,
thi s
proposal
was
consi dered
andbrought
bef ore
the
General
Assembl y
i n1965.
Wi ththe
overwhel mi ng
support of
non-al i gned
countri es,
theGeneral
Assembl y
adopted
a
resol uti on
that year
whi ch
woul destabl i sh
a
preparatory
commi tteeto
takesteps
towards
conveni ng
aworl d
di sarmament
conf erence
not
l ater than
1967.
( Thef ast
Speci al
Sessi on of
the
General
Assembl y
on
Di sarmament
was not
actual l y
hel d,
however,
unti l 23
Mayto 1
J ul y 1-978
. ) None
thel ess,
the
Movement
attemptedto
keep
thequesti on
of
di sarmament
bef ore
the
i nternati onal
communi ty.
Al l of
I ndo-Chi na
-
the US
war i n
Vi etnam,
US
i nterventi on
i n
Cambodi a,
and
theci vi l
war i n Laos -
was of
maj or
concernto
non-al i gned
countri es
. As the
USand
South
Vi etnam
governments
begana
seri es of
ai r
rai ds on
North
Vi etnami n
1965,
non-al i gned
countri es
parti ci pated
i n
tal ks
andwere
part of
a 17-nati on
decl arati on
appeal i ngf or
an end
to hosti l i ti es
.
Shastri of
I ndi a
andTi toof
Yugosl avi a
al so
i ssuedaj oi nt
communi que
to
stop
the
bombi ng of
North
Vi etnam
. Throughout
thi s
peri od,
non-al i gned
countri es
conti nued to
seek a
peacef ul
sol uti onand
cal l edf or
the
parti es to
meet
and conf er
29
Economi c
devel opment
was
thepri mary
concern
of most
non-al i gned
and
Thi rd
Worl d
countri es
. At the
regi onal
l evel , anumber
of states
i n
SouthEast
Asi af ormed
the
Associ ati onof
South-East
Asi a
Nati ons
( ASEAN) i n
1967 to
TheFi rst Three
Summi ts: TheFormati veYears
f urther economi c
co- operati on. On a gl obal
l evel , devel opi ng countri es
f ormed acaucus, the
Group of 77, at theGeneva
Conf erenceof theUni ted
Nati ons Conf erenceon
TradeandDevel opment (UNCTAD
I ) , topromote
thei r obj ecti ves,
whi chthey f ound di f f ered wi del y
f romthoseof thedevel oped
countri es. TheGeneva
Conf erencewas a non- al i gned
concept havi ng been
suggested by Ti to at
theBel gradeSummi t, adopted
by theMovement, and
promoted by i t i n the
UNGeneral Assembl y
unti l i ts acceptance. Wi ththe
numeri cal strengthof
thedevel opi ng countri es, but
over theobj ecti ons of the
Westerni ndustri al
countri es, UNCTADbecamea
permanent uni t wi thi n
the
Uni tedNati ons andsymbol i zed
thehopes of
devel opi ng countri es f or greater
economi c j usti ce.
Thi s was onl y thebegi nni ng of
theNorth- Southpol i ti cal
debates.
I n October
1967, ami ni steri al meeti ng of
theGroupof 77 cal l ed to
prepare
f or UNCTADI I
was hel di nAl gi ers, capi tal
of Al geri a, anon- al i gned
country
andi nspi rati on
toThi rdWorl dl i berati on
struggl es. Thegovernments
of both
Ben
Bel l a and Boumedi ennewere
staunchl y nati onal i sti c, not
onl y on the
i ssue of
pol i ti cal i ndependence, but
al so on that of nati onal
control over
economi c
resources. Al geri a
now
shi f ted
i ts mi l i tancy f rom
pol i ti cal
i ndependence
to economi c i ndependence.
I n hi s openi ng
address, Boumedi ennepl aced
theprobl emof
devel opi ng
countri es wi thi n
thecontext of North- Southand
not East- West
rel ati ons.
Theeasi ng of
East- West tensi ons had not
i mproved the condi ti ons
of
devel opi ng
nati ons, henoted. Thepri mary
conf rontati oni n theworl d
today,
heargued,
i s `between i mperi al i smand
theThi rdWorl d' . AstheThi rd
Worl d
had been
pi l l aged and expl oi ted i n
the past to makethe
devel oped worl d
weal thy, so today theUni ted
States as thepredomi nant i mperi al
power was
wagi ng
awar i nVi etnamtocrush
theef f orts of peopl es tol i berate
themsel ves.
Theenti remeeti ng was gui ded by
hi s anal ysi s of the
probl emof economi c
underdevel opment as a pol i ti cal
questi on. Al geri a' s acti vi sm
and mi l i tancy
wereal so harbi ngers of events to
comei n f uture
non- al i gned meeti ngs.
Hereaf ter, devel opi ng countri es
recogni zed thepol i ti cal
context of economi c
dependenceand underdevel opment
. Thus any sol uti on to
gl obal economi c
i nequi ty requi red thepol i ti cal
wi l l of devel opedcountri es
toal ter theexi sti ng
structure
of North- Southrel ati ons
.
Thi rd Worl d countri es ended
themeeti ng wi tha strong
senseof group
sol i dari ty and a Charter l i sti ng
a set of proposal s as a f i rst
step towards
ref ormi ng thei nternati onal
economi c system. They movedto
theUNCTAD
I I meeti ng wi tha
great senseof hope. They weresadl y
di sappoi nted. Af ter
twomonths of meeti ngs i n
NewDel hi , f romFebruary to
March1968, the
devel opedworl d
conceded l i ttl e. Havi ng expended
muchenergy worki ng
wi thi n theUN
systemwi thl i mi ted resul ts,
non- al i gned members of the
Group of
77
turned
back to theMovement
30
9
7
The Non- al i gned
Movement i n I nter nati onal
Hi stor y
Gi ven
Yugosl avi a' s past
hi stor y wi th the USSR,
Ti to was especi al l y
concer ned about the r ecent
Sovi et i nter venti on
i n Czechosl ovaki a. At
hi s
ur gi ngs, speci al
gover nment
r epr esentati ves of non- al i gned countr i es
attended
a consul tati ve meeti ng
i n Bel gr ade i n J ul y
1969. Unti l thi s ti me,
the
Movement i n i ts sear ch
f or peace and pol i ti cal
i ndependence had
expr essed i ts
opposi ti on to
i mper i al i sm, col oni al i sm
and neo- col oni al i sm.
Di scussi ons
r eaf f i r med thi s
and condemnati ons
of US acti vi ti es i n
Vi etnamwer e
vehement,
whi l e l ess was made of the
Sovi et Uni on' s r ol e i n
Czechosl ovaki a.
The
Czechosl ovaki a i nci dent, however ,
was the begi nni ng of a
di l emma f or
non- al i gned
countr i es. The communi que
of the meeti ng r emai ned
consi stent
wi th
non- al i gned pr i nci pl es,
but i ncor por ated the concer ns
of Ti to who was
abl e to
gai n suppor t f or hi s
equi di stance thesi s . Thus the
communi que states
that the tr ends i n the
wor l d wer e bei ng deter mi ned by
the `conf r ontati on'
between peopl es str uggl i ng
f or thei r i ndependence i n
al l f or ms and `the f or ces
of i mper i al i sm, col oni al i sm,
neo- col oni al i smand
al l other f or ms of
f or ei gn
domi nati on' . Fur ther mor e,
these f or ces wer e
of ten r esor ti ng to
`power
pol i ti cs and pr essur e'
i n the `i nter nal af f ai r s of
i ndependent states'
ther eby
j eopar di zi ng the
sover ei gnty and ter r i tor i al
i ntegr i ty of
i ndependent
states .
3 1
At thi s meeti ng,
the non- al i gned al so deci ded
to take a mor e
acti ve
appr oach
i nter nati onal l y and wi thi n the Uni ted
Nati ons. They
consi der ed
ways and
means by whi ch they coul d meet mor e
r egul ar l y and
consi der ed
hol di ng
another conf er enceof heads of state
or gover nment. That
September ,
i n NewYor k dur i ng the Gener al
Assembl y, non- al i gned f or ei gn
mi ni ster s met
and accepted the of f er of
the gover nment of Tanzani a to
host a pr epar ator y
meeti ng to pl an
another summi t conf er ence
3 2
Dar - es- Sal aam
Pr epar ator y Meeti ng,
13 - 17 Apr i l 1970
Economi c
devel opment and suppor t f or
nati onal l i ber ati on wer e the key
i ssues of the
Dar - es- Sal aammeeti ng. I n
hi s openi ng message, Pr esi dent
Nyer er e took up
the pr obl emof soci o- economi c
devel opment set f or th by
Boumedi enne at
Al gi er s and cal l ed
f or economi c l i nkages between
devel opi ng
countr i es . He speci f i cal l y
opposed any pr acti ce of gi vi ng
economi c ai d to
non- al i gned countr i es
wi th condi ti ons so bi ndi ng as to be
unacceptabl e.
To meet the gr owi ng
i mpor tance of economi c concer ns,
the
meeti ng di vi ded
i tsel f i nto two
wor ki ng commi ttees, a pol i ti cal commi ttee
and
an
economi c and techni cal
commi ttee. The r esul t was a document
on
economi c devel opment and
co- oper ati on whi ch r ecogni zed the
ef f or ts of the
UNSecond Decade of
Devel opment and UNCTAD, but depl or ed
the sl ow
pr ogr ess . Non- al i gned
countr i es wer e hi ghl y cr i ti cal of
the f ai l ur e of the
devel oped countr i es ' to i mpl ement
measur es of str uctur al
adj ustments at any
ear l y date' and asser ted
that ther e was a `notabl e l ack of
pol i ti cal wi l l ' 3 3
98
The
Fi r st Thr ee Summi t s : The For mat i ve Year s
Themaj or pol i t i cal i ssues wer e
i nt er vent i on, speci f i cal l y i n t he Mi ddl e
East
and
Vi et nam, and decol oni zat i on and
r aci smon t he Af r i can cont i nent
. The
non- al i gned r eaf f i r med t hei r suppor t
f or t he r i ght s of t he Ar ab
peopl e of
Pal est i ne t o t hei r homel and and of
t he peopl e of Vi et namt o
choose t hei r
dest i ny wi t hout ext er nal
i nt er f er ence. The meet i ng consi der ed
I sr ael i
occupat i on of Ar ab l ands and
t he escal at i on of mi l i t ar y act i vi t i es
agai nst
ci vi l i ans as maj or 9bst acl es t o
peace andj ust i ce i n t he r egi on. I t cal l ed
f or t he
i mmedi at e and uncondi t i onal
wi t hdr awal of f or ei gn f or ces f r om
Vi et namas a
pr er equi si t e t o a peacef ul
sol ut i on. I t cal l ed f or an end t o
Por t uguese
col oni al i smi n Af r i ca, t he
apar t hei d r egi me i n Sout hAf r i ca, and
t he i l l egal
r aci st mi nor i t y r egi me
i n
Zi mbabwe
.
34
Two quest i ons on
par t i ci pat i on - t he r epr esent at i on of
t he Cambodi an
gover nment and
t he admi ssi on t o member shi p of t he
pr ovi si onal r evol ut i onar y
gover nment
of Sout hVi et nam- gener at ed a gr eat deal
of debat e, but coul d
not be
r esol vedandwer epost poned. Request s f r om
bot hPr i nce Si hanoukand
Gener al
Lon Nol t o r epr esent Cambodi a di vi ded
t he conf er ence. The
r epr esent at i ves deci dedt hat gi ven t hecompl exi t y of
t he Cambodi an si t uat i on
a
subcommi t t ee of f i vemember s, Tanzani a, Al ger i a,
Af ghani st an, Ceyl on and
Gui nea,
shoul d be f or med t o i nvest i gat e t he
mat t er , meet wi t h bot h
del egat i ons
and r epor t back.
On
t hequest i on of Sout hVi et nam' s r epr esent at i on,
about 30count r i es, hal f
of t hem
non- al i gned, had gi ven de j ur e r ecogni t i on
t o t he pr ovi si onal
r evol ut i onar y gover nment of Sout h Vi et nam, but
t her ewas st i l l di sagr eement
over accept i ng i t as a f ul l member of t he non- al i gned
. Those i n f avour , l edby
Al ger i a, poi nt ed out t he pr ecedent of
admi t t i ng t he PRGof Al ger i a and t he
Revol ut i onar y Gover nment of
Angol a i n Exi l e at pr evi ous summi t
conf er ences . They not edt hat t hePRG
of Sout hVi et namwas i n cont r ol of t he
t er r i t or y and si nce i t suppor t ed
non- al i gnment , t he Movement woul d be
enhanci ng peace ef f or t s i n
t he r egi on by admi t t i ng i t . Fur t her mor e,
member shi p i n t he
non- al i gned need not be i nt er pr et ed, by t hose who
opposed i t s admi ssi on, as a
r ecogni t i on of t he gover nment . Those who spoke
agai nst t he member shi p of
t he
PRG,
however , vi ewed Sout hVi et namas par t
of a di vi dedcount r y;
t her ef or e, t hey hel d, t he PRGdi d not t r ul y r epr esent
t he
count r y. Ther e was,
t her ef or e, no anal ogy wi t h pr evi ous PRGs . A
t hi r d
gr oupi ng of non- al i gned
count r i es sought a compr omi se and
r ecommended
t hat t he PRGbe gr ant ed
obser ver st at us dur i ng t he pr epar at or y meet i ng
and
t hat t he mat t er be
f or war ded t o t he heads of st at e f or a deci si on
. Thi s was
adopt ed.
Non- al i gned count r i es al so r eaf f i r med t hei r cr i t er i a f or
member shi p and
set t l ed t he
quest i on of Paki st an' s admi ssi on. Paki st an hadnever
i t sel f f or mal l y
appl i ed f or admi ssi on, al t hough i t s member shi p
had been pr oposed at t he
Bel gr adeconsul t at i vemeet i ngandwas bei ng
r ecommendedat t hi s meet i ngby
99
The Non- al i gned Movement i n
I nter nati onal Hi stor y
J or dan. Paki stan
hadpar ti ci pated i nthe Cai r oeconomi c meeti ngof J ul y
1962
andnadi catedan
i nter est i nnon- al i gned pr i nci pl es andacti vi ti es. However , i t
r emai ned
a member of mi l i tar y al l i ances, and thi s was not per mi tted by
the
Movement
. Non- al i gned countr i es di d r ecogni ze that mi l i tar y al l i ances and
bases
wer e not al ways of thei r choosi ng and wer e of ten f or ced upon Thi r d
Wor l d
countr i es. The Movement, ther ef or e, mer el y r equi r ed that
a
countr y
i ndi cate i ts desi r e
to r el i nqui sh these i mposed attachments, Ther e wer e many
i n suppor t
of Paki stan, i ncl udi ngYugosl avi a, af oundi ngmember , whohoped
that
thi s coul d encour age other countr i es i n si tuati ons si mi l ar to Paki stan' s to
di sengage f r omthei r mi l i tar y al l i ances andj oi n the Movement . Other s, l edby
I ndi a, wer e i n opposi ti on, ar gui ng that Paki stanwas not maki ng
any ef f or t to
detach i tsel f f r ommi l i tar y al l i ances . They ar gued that
admi tti ng Paki stan
woul dwater downthe pr i nci pl es of the Movement
and deval ue the gr oupi ng
i n the eyes of the maj or power s .
The
questi on
was decl ar edi r r el evant at thi s
ti me, however , as Paki stan had
not of f i ci al l y appl i ed f or member shi p. The
meeti ng deci ded to mai ntai n
the cr i ter i a f or member shi p establ i shed i n 1961
and to consi der onl y those who
made appl i cati on35 Thi s debate, none the l ess,
ser ved to cl ar i f y
thei r thi nki ng on the pr i nci pl es and goal s of non-
al i gnment.
The
pr epar ator y meeti ngdi d make a deci si onon the natur e of par ti ci pati on
of l i ber ati on
movements . Unti l a f ur ther r ul i ng by the heads of state,
l i ber ati on
movements woul d be i nvi ted to addr ess non- al i gned conf er ences
and
be
per mi tted to r emai n i n the conf er ence hal l f or the enti r e meeti ng
dur i ng whi ch they made thei r statement. Af r i can l i ber ati on movements
r ecogni zedby the OAUandAsi anl i ber ati onmovements r ecogni zed by
Asi an
or gani zati ons andstates woul dbe hear d. The f ol l owi ngl i ber ati on
movements
made pr esentati ons at the Dar - es- Sal aammeeti ng: the Nati onal
Li ber ati on
Movement of Comor o (MOLI NACO), the Zi mbabwe Af r i can
Nati onUni on
(ZANU), the Zi mbabwe Af r i can Peopl e' s Uni on (ZAP",
the Af r i can
Nati onal Congr ess of South Af r i ca (ANC) and the
Pal esti ne Li ber ati on
Or gani zati on (PLO).
36
These pr epar ati ons f or the Thi r d Summi t r eveal ed
that the Movement
r emai ned a vi tal f actor ' i n wor l d pol i ti cs . They
al so cl ear l y i ndi cated that
pr i or i ti es had shi f ted andthat the nati onal i st
andr adi cal tendenci es wi thi nthe
Movement wer e pr omi nent and
i nf l uenti al , but not i ncontr ol . Changes i nthe
i nter nati onal si tuati on have of ten
pr oducednewl eader s wi thi nthe Movement
to meet the
di f f er ent needs of non- al i gnedcountr i es as they ar i se. The l oss of
f oundi ng l eader s l i ke Nehr u and Nasser thr ough death (Nasser di ed i n
September 1970 on the eve of the LusakaSummi t), and Soekar no, Nkr umah
andother s thr ough pol i ti cal destabi l i zati on, was si gni f i cant, but not
cr i ppl i ng.
Ti to conti nued to pl ay an i mpor tant admi ni str ati ve r ol e i n ensur i ng
that
meeti ngs be cal l ed. Hi s emphasi s on East- West r el ati ons and peacef ul
100
The
Fi r s t Thr ee Summi t s : The For mat i ve Year s
coexi s t encewas at t hat t i mel es s
i mpor t ant t o mos t non- al i gnedcount r i es
t han
economi c devel opment . For Af r i can
count r i es , whi chnowmadeup a
s i zeabl e
par t of t he Movement , t he
pr obl ems of nat i onal l i ber at i on and r aci s m
on t he
cont i nent wer e par amount .
Thus i n t he next er a, Af r i can l eader s
wer e t o
domi nat e. Thi s had al r eady
been appar ent wi t h t he r ol e t aken
ear l i er by
Nas s er at t he Cai r o Summi t
and now was agai n wi t h t he
act i vi s m of
Boumedi enne of Al ger i a
and Nyer er e of Tanzani a.
Thepr epar at or y meet i ng
t hus agr eed t o have a Thi r d Summi t
Conf er ence
of non- al i gnedcount r i es pr i or t o
t he25t h s es s i on of t he Uni t edNat i ons
andt o
hol d i t i n Af r i ca. A
St andi ng Commi t t ee of 16 member s t o
co- or di nat e
ar r angement s f or t he
Summi t was al s o f or med wi t hr epr es ent at i on
f r omal l
r egi ons ( ni ne Af r i cans , f i ve
As i ans , one f r omLat i n Amer i ca
and one f r om
Eur ope; t hes e
i ncl uded f our f r omt he Ar ab Wor l d. I n
r ecogni t i on of t he
i mpor t ance of
Bl ack Af r i ca t o t he Movement andt o hel p
cons ol i dat e Af r i can
uni t y,
Al ger i a wi t hdr ewi t s i nvi t at i on t o hos t t he
Summi t Conf er ence i n
f avour of Zambi a.
Theheads of s t at e or gover nment
of non- al i gnedcount r i es
woul d next
meet i n Lus aka. 37
Thi r d Summi t
Conf er enceof Non- al i gned
Count r i es , Lus aka,
8- 10 Sept ember
1970
The i nt er nat i onal s i t uat i on at t he t i me of
t he Thi r d Summi t was one of
begi nni ng det ent e bet ween t he USand USSR
. Thet hr eat of nucl ear war had
l es s ened s l i ght l y and t he t wo maj or
power s had commenced s t r at egi c ar ms ,
l i mi t at i on t al ks i n 1969. The
cr i s i s poi nt s wer e i n t heThi r dWor l d,
es peci al l y
t heMi ddl eEas t , Sout hEas t
As i a andSout her n Af r i ca, wher et he
pos s i bi l i t y of
r egi onal conf l i ct
expandi ng i nt o i nt er nat i onal conf l i ct r emai ned
r eal .
I n
1969,
Pr es i dent Ni xon had
announced t he `Vi et nami zat i on' of t he war
wher eby US
t r oops wer ebei ng
wi t hdr awn t o be r epl acedby Sout h Vi et names e
s ol di er s .
The USgover nment now
adopt ed a pol i cy of del egat i ng t o a number
of s el ect
Thi r d Wor l d count r i es
t he r es pons i bi l i t y f or mi l i t ar y
cont ai nment of
r evol ut i onar y change i n
t he Thi r d Wor l d. 38 I n t he economi c
s pher e, t he
r es ur gence of Wes t er n
Eur ope and t he appear ance of J apan
as maj or
economi c power s pr es ent ed
a chal l enge t o t he Uni t ed St at es .
Mor eover , t he
i ndus t r i al i zed Wes t er n
wor l d was s haken i n 1968 and
f or ced t o begi n
r ecogni zi ngi t s dependence
onThi r dWor l dr es our ces whena
number of Ar ab
s t at es i ncr eas ed
t he pr i ce of oi l af t er t he Ar ab- I s r ael i
Si x Day War .
I n
t he Thi r dWor l d, many r adi cal andnat i onal i s t
movement s wer ecr us hed
or des t abi l i zed, but a newr evol ut i onar y
gover nment was es t abl i s hed i n Sout h
Yemen i n 1967 . Thedecol oni zat i on
pr oces s was pr ogr es s i ng, but wi t hf i er ce
and cont i nued oppos i t i on t o t he
s el f - det er mi nat i on of Af r i can peopl es
i n
s out her n Af r i ca and t he Por t ugues e
col oni es . Hol di ng t he non- al i gned
The Non- al i gned
Movement i n I nter nati onal Hi stor y
Summi t
i n souther n Af r i ca hel ped to
f ocus attenti on on the pr obl ems
of
r aci sm, mi l i tar y
expansi oni smand
i mper i al i st oppr essi on i n the r egi on
.
Af ter
many year s of pol i ti cal
i ndependence, the maj or concer n
of Thi r d
Wor l d
countr i es was economi c
devel opment . The
Uni ted Nati ons,
cel ebr ati ng
i ts 25th anni ver sar y
i n 1970, was bei ng tr ansf or med
by. the
i ncr eased
number of Thi r d
Wor l d countr i es. The Secur i ty
Counci l , f or
exampl e,
was f or ced to br oaden
i ts non- per manent member shi p
f r omsi x to
ten andto r ef l ect r egi onal di str i buti on
. At the i nsi stence of the
Thi r d Wor l d,
especi al l y non- al i gned countr i es,
the Uni tedNati ons hadal so
taken up many
i ssues
r el ati ng to devel opi ng
countr i es . Thus the Non- al i gned
Movement,
par ti cul ar l y thr ough the
Gener al Assembl y, was
begi nni ng to democr ati ze
i nter nati onal r el ati ons .
Fol l owi ng the
pr acti ce f i r st i ntr oduced at the
Cai r o Conf er ence, the Lusaka
Conf er ence was
pr eceded by a meeti ng of the
f or ei gn mi ni ster s of non-
al i gned countr i es
. For two days, 6 and 7 September ,
the f or ei gn mi ni ster s took
car e of pr ocedur al
pr obl ems, such as the
or gani zati on of wor k, the el ecti on
of
of f i cer s, the agenda
i tems and member shi p
questi ons, so that the heads of state
or gover nment
woul d deal onl y wi th substanti ve
i ssues .
39
Cambodi an
r epr esentati on and member shi p of
the pr ovi si onal r evol uti onar y
gover nment of South
Vi etnamwer e di scussed agai n
. These i ssues r eveal ed
that spl i ts wer e
emer gi ng wi thi n the Movement .
Lacki ng i nf or mati on about
condi ti ons i n
Cambodi a and i nstr ucti ons f r om
thei r gover nments,
the
subcommi ttee
f or med at the Dar - es- Sal aam
pr epar ator y meeti ng had
been
unabl e to submi t
a r epor t on Cambodi a' s
r epr esentati on. The matter came
bef or e
the f or ei gn mi ni ster s.
Cambodi a, under the l eader shi p of
Pr i nce
Si hanouk,
was an or i gi nal member of
the Movement . The countr y
was nowi n
the
mi dst of a ci vi l war , a vi cti m
of exter nal i nter venti on
. Thr ee maj or
posi ti ons wer e taken i n the
debate. Most of the suppor t
went to the
gover nment of Pr i nce Si hanouk
. Hi s def ender s ar gued that
Si hanouk was the
tr ue r epr esentati ve of the
Cambodi an peopl e, that hecontr ol l ed
two- thi r ds of
the
ter r i tor y, and that hi s was
a pol i cy of peace, neutr al i ty and
non- al i gnment .
The
Somal i an r epr esentati ve
war ned hi s Af r i can col l eagues
that what had
happened to Cambodi a
coul d al so occur i n souther n
Af r i ca. As the
r epr esentati ve f r omSouth
Yemen summed up the def ence,
the
Cambodi an peopl e wer e r ef usi ng
to accept the author i ty of
the new
Gover nment and
had engaged i n ar med str uggl e to
l i ber ate thei r countr y f r om
the i mper i al i st i nvader s . One
of the basi c pr i nci pl es of
non- al i gnment was
opposi ti on to
i mper i al i sm, and the
non- al i gned states shoul d stand by that
pr i nci pl e
. 40
Thus the
conf er ence' s suppor t f or Si hanouk
woul d mean the r ef usal of non-
al i gned
countr i es to be passi ve i n the f ace
of i mper i al i st aggr essi on.
102
TheFi r st Thr ee Summi t s : TheFor mat i ve Year s
Suppor t er s of t he LonNol gover nment
wer ef ewer , but ar guedt hat hi s was
t he r ecogni zed gover nment i n t he
capi t al of PhnomPenh, t hat t he Uni t ed
Nat i ons had accept ed t he cr edent i al s of t he new
gover nment , and t hat t hi s
gover nment al so pr ocl ai med adher ence t o t he
pr i nci pl es of non- al i gnment .
For t he Mal aysi an r epr esent at i ve and ot her s l i ke
hi mwho opposed i n
pr i nci pl e t he par t i ci pat i on of gover nment s i n exi l e
. t hedef act o gover nment
was r i ght f ul l y t hedej ur e gover nment and ent i t l ed
t o occupy Cambodi a' s seat
at non- al i gned meet i ngs.
At hi r d gr oupi ng ar gued t hat Cambodi a' s seat
shoul d r emai n vacant
t empor ar i l y. Anumber of r easons wer e pr esent ed.
Somesuggest ed t hat t he
conf er enceshoul d not
i nt er vene i n t he i nt er nal af f ai r s of amember . st at e and
t hat t he deci si on of whi chgover nment shoul d r epr esent Cambodi aought t o
bel ef t t o i t s own
peopl et o set t l e. Ot her s ar gued, ont he ot her hand, f or t he
non- al i gned t o t ake
` posi t i ve act i on' t o hel p t he Cambodi anpeopl et o f r ee
t hemsel ves f r omi mper i al i sm.
No consensus coul d be r eached
on t he Cambodi an quest i on. Of t he 40
speaker s i n t he debat e, 21 suppor t ed
Pr i nce Si hanouk, seven suppor t ed
Gener al LonNol , andt wel vef avour edl eavi ngt he
seat vacant . Thesedi vi si ons
wer e mani f est at i ons of t he di f f er ent i deol ogi cal
t endenci es t hat wer e
emer gi ng wi t hi n t he Movement . Mar xi st - Leni ni st
and r adi cal nat i onal i st
count r i es, i ncl udi ng Yugosl avi a, Yemen, Tanzani a,
Al ger i a, Mal i , Cuba and
I r aq, f or exampl e, wer e among t he suppor t er s of Si hanouk .
Conser vat i ves,
l ar gel y neo- col oni al dependent capi t al i st st at es, such as Lesot ho, Bot swana,
Swazi l andandMal aysi a, suppor t ed LonNol . Awi der angeof count r i es,
such
as Ceyl on
(nowSr i Lanka) , I ndonesi a, Mor occo, Kenya, Egypt , I ndi a, Ghana
andAf ghani st an,
most l y l i ber al soci al democr aci es, t endedt o advocat el eavi ng
t he seat vacant as a compr omi se
or t empor ar y sol ut i on. Gi ven t he l ack of
consensus, t hi s posi t i on pr evai l ed.
Thus whi l e l ef t - l eani ng non- al i gned
count r i es had t he l ar gest number of
suppor t er s ont hi s i ssue, t her i ght coul d
st i l l l i mi t t hei r abi l i t y t o act . St i l l t he
l ef t coul d be sat i sf i ed t hat t hey had
achi eved t hei r maj or obj ect i ve
by pr event i ng t he seat i ng of t he Lon Nol
gover nment , t hecandi dat e of
i mper i al i st f or ces. Bot hr i val del egat i ons f r om
Cambodi a at t ended t he conf er ence, but t he
seat was l ef t empt y. 41
The quest i on of t he par t i ci pat i on of
t he pr ovi si onal r evol ut i onar y
gover nment of Sout hVi et namal so r esul t ed i n a compr omi se
deci si on. I ndi a
pr oposed t hat t hePRGbegr ant ed obser ver st at us at
t he Summi t Conf er ence,
as i t had beenat t hepr epar at or y meet i ngi n Dar - es- Sal aam. Though
l ef t and
r adi cal nat i onal i st member s of t heMovement woul d havepr ef er r ed
t he PRG
t o par t i ci pat eas a f ul l member , t hey r ecogni zed t hat t her ewas gener al suppor t
f or t he obser ver st at us. Onl y f our count r i es, Li ber i a, Swazi l and, t he
Democr at i c Republ i c of t heCongo (Zai r e) and Lesot ho, di sappr oved, agai n
on t he pr i nci pl e t hat such an act i on mi ght i mpl y gener al r ecogni t i on of
103
The
Non- al i gned Movement i n
I nt er nat i onal Hi st or y
pr ovi si onal gover nment s or
gover nment s i n
exi l e. Fear f ul of compl i cat i ons
i n
t he f ut ur e, t hey submi t t ed
r eser vat i ons . However ,
t he I ndi an pr oposal
was
adopt ed by consensus
wi t h l i t t l e debat e
as
Bot h deci si ons wer e
cl ear i ndi cat i ons t hat
whi l e t he Movement
was i n
gener al agr eement
on a number of
f undament al pr i nci pl es, speci f i c
i ssues
coul d br i ng t o t he
f or egr ound t he di f f er ent
i deol ogi cal t endenci es
wi t hi n i t .
The quest i on of
Cambodi a' s ( l at er Kampuchea' s)
r epr esent ai on woul d
come
up sever al t i mes . As t he
Movement
evol ved t hese t endenci es
became
i dent i f i ed wi t h a cor e
gr oup of count r i es, wi t h
each t endency
gai ni ng new
suppor t er s as t he non- al i gned
gr ewi n
member shi p. These t endenci es
woul d
nowbe expl oi t ed by
opponent s of t he
non- al i gned count r i es i n an
at t empt t o
dest r oy t he ef f ect i veness
of t he Movement
.
Fi f t y- t hr ee member
count r i es, t en
obser ver count r i es ;
and t wo guest
count r i es, Aust r i a
and Fi nl and, at t ended
t he Thi r d Conf er ence
of Heads of
St at e or
Gover nment i n Lusaka.
Repr esent at i ves f r omt he Uni t ed
Nat i ons and
t he Or gani zat i on of
Af r i can
Uni t y wer e al so pr esent as
obser ver s . New
member s wer e
Bot swana, Congo
Ki nshasa ( separ at e f r om
Congo Br azzavi l l e,
al r eady a member ) ,
Equat or i al
Gui nea, Guyana, J amai ca,
Lesot ho, Mal aysi a,
Rwanda, Sout h
Yemen, Si ngapor e,
Swazi l and, and Tr i ni dad
and Tobago.
Nat i onal
l i ber at i on movement s such
as t he Af r i can Nat i onal
Congr ess ( ANC)
of Sout h
Af r i ca, Af r o- Asi an
Peopl e' s Sol i dar i t y
Or gani zat i on, FRELI MO
( Mozambi que
Li ber at i on Fr ont ) ,
Pan- Af r i can Congr ess ( PAC) ,
and UNI TA
( Nat i onal Uni on f or t he Tot al
I ndependence of
Angol a) , at t ended as guest s
and
addr essed t he gat her i ng.
Thi s was ani mpor t ant par t of
t he f unct i oni ng
of
t he Movement as t hei r
pr esent at i ons pr ovi ded
up- t o- dat e i nf or mat i on on
t he
st at us of t he var i ous
l i ber at i on st r uggl es, i ncl udi ng
t hei r advances and
t hei r
di f f i cul t i es, enabl i ng
t he non- al i gned t o f or mul at e
act i on on t hei r behal f
at t he
Uni t ed Nat i ons. I n
addi t i on, t hese meet i ngs
pr ovi ded oppor t uni t i es
f or t he
l i ber at i on st r uggl es t o
shar e t hei r exper i ences
wi t h one anot her and
t o gai n
advi ce and suppor t f r om
non- al i gned member s
.
43
The Non- al i gned
Movement l ost anot her of
i t s maj or advocat es wi t h
t he
deat h of Pr esi dent Nasser
of Egypt j ust pr i or t o
t he Thi r d Summi t . Thi s
l ef t
Ti t o, t he onl y sur vi vi ng
f oundi ng l eader , t o assume
much of t he r esponsi bi l i t y
f or mai nt ai ni ng cont act s
among t he member
st at es.
The Lusaka Conf er ence
was pr i mar i l y a
r eaf f i r mat i on of non- al i gnment
and a cal l f or i t s member s
t o r ededi cat e
t hemsel ves t o t he f undament al
goal s
andobj ect i ves of t he
Movement . Member shi p
and i nt er est i n t he
Movement
cont i nued t o gr ow.
The need f or t he
Movement was appar ent
gi ven t he
cont i nui ng gl obal pr obl ems
of war , t he
ar ms r ace, r aci sm, and
pol i t i cal , soci al
and economi c
i nequal i t y . These
wer e t he maj or concer ns
dur i ng t he
di scussi ons.
The pr i mar y obj ect i ves of
peace, decol oni zat i on,
non- i nt er f er ence
and suppor t
f or t he UNwer e
r ei t er at ed. Mor e at t ent i on
was gi ven t o
104
The
Fi rst ThreeSummi ts: The
Formati veYears
economi c devel opment,
ref l ecti ng
thedi si l l usi onment of
thenon- al i gned
countri es wi th
the l ack of progress
duri ng the f i rst UN
Decade of
Devel opment and
thei r hopes f or
a better second
decade. They thus
recogni zed the
need f or moreacti on
and set l ong- term
goal s and el aborate
programmes to
create a newworl d
order.
TheFi nal
Decl arati onconsi sted of
twoseparate
decl arati ons, onepol i ti cal ,
theother economi c,
and a number
of resol uti ons. Not
havi ng met f or a
number of years at
thel evel of heads of
state, non- al i gned
countri es took the
opportuni ty i n thei r
Pol i ti cal Decl arati on,
`Peace, I ndependence,
Devel op-
ment, Co- operati on
and Democrati zati on
of I nternati onal
Rel ati ons' , to
expl ai n why they
camei ntobei ng:
Thepol i cy of
non- al i gnment has emerged
f romthe
determi nati on of
i ndependent
countri es to saf eguard
thei r nati onal
i ndependenceand
the
l egi ti materi ghts of thei r
peopl es. Thegrowth
of non- al i gnment
i ntoabroad
i nternati onal
movement cutti ng
across raci al , regi onal
andother barri ers,
i s an
i ntegral
part of
si gni f i cant changes i nthe
structureof the
enti rei nternati onal
communi ty.
I t i s the resul t of
theworl d
anti - col oni al revol uti on
and the
emergenceof al arge
number of newl y
l i berated countri es
whi ch, opti ng f or
an
i ndependent
pol i ti cal ori entati on
anddevel opment,
haveref usedtoaccept
the
repl acement of
centuri es- ol d f orms of
subordi nati onby new
ones
.
At theroot
of these
changes l i es theever
morecl earl y expressed
aspi rati on of
member-
nati ons f or f reedom,
i ndependenceand
equal i ty, and thei r
determi nati on to
resi st al l
f orms of oppressi onand
expl oi tati on. Thi s
hasbeenthesubstance
and
meani ng of our
stri vi ngs andacti ons;
thi s i s aconf i rmati onof
theval i di tyof
the
Bel grade
and Cai ro
Decl arati ons. At a ti me
when thepol ari sati on
of the
i nternati onal
communi ty on a bl oc
basi s was bel i eved
to bea permanent
f eature
of i nternati onal
rel ati ons, and the
threat of anucl ear
conf l i ct between
thebi g powers
an ever- present
spectrehoveri ng
over manki nd,
thenon-
al i gned countri es opened
up newprospects
f or the
contemporary worl d and
paved theway f or
rel axati on of i nternati onal
rel ati ons44
Non- al i gned countri es
asserted that the
need was not to
redef i nenon-
al i gnment,
but tostrengthen
thei r support f or
i ts basi cpri nci pl es and
ai ms. For
the
f i rst ti me, theMovement
stated these
i n somedetai l . The
pri nci pl es
i mportant to thenon- al i gned
weregi ven as
f ol l ows:
theri ght
of thepeopl es who
arenot yet f reeto
f reedom, sel f - determi nati on
and i ndependence; respect
f or thesoverei gnty
and terri tori al
i ntegri ty of al l
States
;
the
ri ght of al l States to
equal i tyandacti ve
parti ci pati oni n
i nternati onal
af f ai rs ; theri ght of
al l soverei gn nati ons
todetermi ne,
i n f ul l f reedom, the
paths of
thei r i nternal pol i ti cal ,
economi c, soci al
andcul tural devel opment
; the
ri ght of al l peopl es
tothebenef i t of
economi c devel opment
and thef i ui ts
of
the
sci enti f i c andtechnol ogi cal
revol uti on;
ref rai ni ng f romthe
threat or useof
f orce,
and thepri nci pl eof
peacef ul settl ement
of . di sputes. 45
105
TheNon-al i gnedMovement i n I nternati onal Hi story
I n addi ti on, the ai ms of the Movement were to i ncl ude:
thepursui t of worl dpeace and
peacef ul co-exi stencebystrengtheni ngtherol e
of non-al i gned countri es wi thi nthe Uni tedNati ons so that i t wi l l be amore
ef f ecti vei nstrument agai nst al l f orms
of aggressi ve acti onandthe threat or use
of f orce agai nst the f reedom, i ndependence, soverei gnty and terri tori al
i ntegri tyof anycountry; thef i ghtagai nst col oni al i sm
andraci al i smwhi chare a
negati on
of humanequal i ty anddi gni ty; thesettl ement of di sputes bypeacef ul
means; the endi ng of the arms race f ol l owed
by uni versal di sarmament;
opposi ti on to
great power mi l i tary al l i ances and pacts; opposi ti on to the
establ i shment of f orei gnmi l i tarybases andf orei gntroops
onthe soi l of other
nati ons i n the context of
great power conf l i cts and col oni al and raci st
suppressi on; the uni versal i ty of , andthe strengtheni ngof the ef f i cacy of the
Uni tedNati ons; andthe struggl e f or economi c
i ndependence andmutual co-
operati ononabasi s of equal i ty andmutual benef i t. 46
The Pol i ti cal Decl arati on strongl y rei terated the opposi ti on
of non-al i gned
countri es toi nterventi oni nthe i nternal af f ai rs of states, especi al l y the wars
bei ngwagedi ntheMi ddl eEast andI ndo-Chi na, the conti nued
oppressi onof
Af ri canpeopl es i n southernAf ri ca, andthe arms race. The
f orces of raci sm,
aparthei d, col oni al i smand i mperi al i smwere to be
opposed because they
threatenedworl dpeace. Theycal l edf or the democrati zati on
of i nternati onal
rel ati ons, co-operati onbetweendevel opi ngcountri es, and
acl osi ngof thegap
betweenthe devel oped andl ess devel opedworl ds.
I nthei r decl arati onon' Non-al i gnment andEconomi c Progress' , non-al i gned
countri es concl udedf or the f i rst ti me that a ` structural weakness i nthe present
worl deconomi c order' was responsi bl e f or poverty andeconomi c dependence.
Past
col oni al i smandi ts present f orm, neo-col oni al i sm, endangeredthepol i ti cal
andeconomi c
i ndependence of devel opi ngcountri es andcontri butedtogl obal
i nequal i ty
.
They
pl edgedthemsel ves toa` spi ri t of sel f -rel i ance' , nati onal soci o-
economi c progress,
and mutual co-operati on. A Programme of Acti on was
i ntroduced i n the areas
of pl anni ng, trade, producti on, and sci enti f i c and
technol ogi cal exchange,
to be accompl i shed through j oi nt rel ati ons between
devel opi ng
countri es and wi thi n the acti vi ti es of the Uni ted Nati ons. The
Decl arati on appeal ed
to the UNto recogni ze the devel opmental process as a
gl obal probl emrequi ri ng
' i nternati onal acti on' , i f both devel opi ng and
devel opedcountri es were
tobenef i t, andf or thi s bodytouse i ts machi neryto
rapi dl ytransf ormtheworl d
economi c system. Thenon-al i gnedthus pl acedthe
probl emof devel opment i n a gl obal f ramework
and cal l ed f or i ncreased
hori zontal l i nkages among themsel ves and f or i nternati onal co-operati on
throughtheUN. Theyweredetermi nedtostrengthentheUNsystem
to
support
the restructuri ng o the gl obal economi c systemand cal l ed f or another
mi ni steri al meeti ng toprepare f or UNCTADI I I schedul ed f or Apri l 1972. 47
106
TheFi rst ThreeSummi ts: TheFormati veYears
At Lusaka, the
non- al i gned al sobegan apracti ceof adopti ng resol uti ons on
concerns they deemed cri ti cal and i n needof support . Gi ven thei r anal ysi s of
the
current i nternati onal si tuati on and thei mmedi ateconcerns of thehost country
and regi on, i mperi al i st i nterventi on gl obal l y and thedecol oni zati on of
southern
Af ri cawerethekey i ssues of theThi rd Summi t . Therewereseparate
resol uti ons
opposi ng f orei gn i nterventi on, occupati on andwars i n I ndo- Chi na, the
Mi ddl e
East, Cyprus, Zi mbabwe, Nami bi a and thePortuguesecol oni es of
Angol a,
Mozambi queand Gui nea- Bi ssau. Theseresol uti ons supported thevari ous
anti -
col oni al and anti - i mperi al i st struggl es and the' ri ghts of peopl es tochoose
thei r
own f uture. Thenon- al i gned cal l ed f or, respect f or the terri tori al i ty
and
soverei gnty of al l states, nomatter howsmal l . They condemned theacti vi ti es
of
f orei gn f i nanci al i nterests i n thePortuguesecol oni es and Nami bi af or
expl oi ti ng
the natural and human resources thereand f or obstructi ng
the progress of
i ndependence. I n addi ti on, there were
separate resol uti ons i n support of
decol oni zati on and i n opposi ti on to
aparthei d and raci al di scri mi nati on. The
non- al i gned condemned by name
thosecountri es, especi al l y NATOstates, f or
di rectl y or i ndi rectl y strengtheni ng
col oni al and raci st regi mes and f or thei r
col l aborati on, pol i ti cal , economi c
and mi l i tary, wi ththegovernment of South
Af ri ca, enabl i ng i t to mai ntai n i ts
aparthei d pol i cy.
I n thei r resol uti on ondi sarmament,
non- al i gned countri es conti nued toseek a
worl ddi sarmament conf erence
and wel comed theUni ted Nati ons desi gnati on
of the1970s as the`Di sarmament
Decade' . Recogni zi ng thedanger that nucl ear
weapons presented to
humani ty, they al so set up a number of pri ori ti es wi th
emphasi s on thenucl ear f i el d, suchas cal l i ng f or a hal t i n theproducti on of
nucl ear weapons, atest ban and thereducti on and destructi on of stockpi l es of
nucl ear weapons, as wel l as theprohi bi ti on of thedevel opment, producti on
and
stockpi l i ng of chemi cal and bi ol ogi cal weapons.
Non- al i gned countri es al so i ssued aseparate
statement i n support of the
Uni ted Nati ons. They conti nued tovi ew
the
UN
as themost i mportant vehi cl e
f or promoti ng peaceand securi ty, and
co- operati verel ati ons between states.
Twonewproposal s weremade: the I ndi an
Ocean as a zoneof peaceand
peacef ul uses of theseabed. However, the
non- al i gned werecri ti cal of themany
UNmember states whodi d not
parti ci patei n thei nternati onal organi zati on to
f i nd sol uti ons totheexi sti ng gl obal
probl ems and strongl y urged theUNtobe
moreef f ecti vei n anumber
of areas, especi al l y di sarmament and economi c and
soci al devel opment
Fi nal l y, theheads of
stateturned thei r attenti on to thef uncti oni ng of the
Movement i tsel f .
Presi dent KennethKaunda expressed thi s concern i n hi s
openi ng statement
:
Acal l f or acti on i s not enough
unl ess thereexi sts an adequatemachi nery tocarry
i t out . Perhaps thi s i s theonef actor towhi chnot much
attenti on was gi veni n the
past . . . I t i s f or thi s reason that
wegenui nel y needthemachi nery f or mai ntai ni ng
107
TheNon- al i gned
Movement i n I nter nati onal Hi stor y
contact among
us
to
ensur e conti nui ty i n the devel opment
of thenon- al i gned
movement
and the i mpl ementati on of our
deci si ons
49
Whi l e
r esi sti ng the establ i shment of a
f or mal and al ter nati ve str uctur e
that
coul d
detr act f r omthewor ki ngs of the
Uni ted Nati ons, non- al i gned
countr i es
r eal i zed
the i mpor tance of devel opi ng
mechani sms to
f aci l i tate and
consol i date
the acti vi ti es of the Movement
. Ther e was no agr eement
on the
char acter of
the or gani zati onal
machi ner y other than f l exi bi l i ty,
especi al l y
si nce the Movement
l acked f i nanci al
r esour ces . They then
adopted a
r esol uti on `On
the Str engtheni ng of
the Rol e of theNon- al i gned
Countr i es' .
The r esol uti on was
del i ber atel y open
. i t entr usted the chai r man
`wi th the
f uncti on of
taki ng al l necessar y
steps to mai ntai n contacts
among member
States, ensur e
conti nui ty, and
car r y i nto ef f ect the deci si ons,
r esol uti ons and
di r ecti ves of the Conf er ence of
Non- Al i gnedCountr i es' .
Ther esol uti on al so
r equested r epr esentati ves of
non- al i gned countr i es to
wor k i n co- oper ati on
wi thi n the UNand i ts
agenci es to achi eve the goal s
and obj ecti ves of the
conf er ence. so
Af ter a l apse of si x year s,
non- al i gned countr i es wer e
deter mi ned to bui l d
up thei r or gani zati on.
Wi th the death of Nehr u and
nowNasser and the
advanced age of Ti to
who was i n hi s l ate seventi es,
the Movement r ecogni zed
the need to devel op new
l eader shi p. At the same ti me,
the gr owi ng number s
hadmadei t mor edi f f i cul t
f or member s to mai ntai n
contact, whi l e the gl obal
si tuati on necessi tated
that they conf er r egul ar l y to
shar e common concer ns
and pl an j oi nt acti vi ti es
. Thus the non- al i gned
countr i es deci ded to conti nue
the Standi ng
Commi ttee establ i shed at Lusaka
and desi gnated as chai r man
wi thspeci f i c
r esponsi bi l i ti es ti l l the next
Summi t the head of stateof the
host
countr y, Pr esi dent
Kenneth Kaunda of
Zambi a.
The Lusaka
Summi t r eveal ed that
non- al i gned countr i es wer e a
tenaci ous
gr oupi ng and
had: ( a) r emai ned
commi tted to thei r pr i nci pl es i n
spi teof a l ong
del ay between
summi ts; ( b) i ni ti ated
a concept and pr ogr amme
of mutual
economi c
co- oper ati on among
themsel ves, l ater to be known
as col l ecti ve
sel f - r el i ance;
( c) expanded and suppor ted
the r ol e of theUni ted
Nati ons i n the
ar eas of di sar mament
and economi c
devel opment ; ( d) madethe
decol oni zati on
of souther n Af r i ca
a pr i or i ty i n
conj uncti on wi th opposi ng
i mper i al i st
i nter venti on gl obal l y
; and( e) establ i shed
thebegi nni ngs of an
or gani zati onal
machi ner y wi thi n
theMovement to
co- or di nate thei r acti vi ti es .
Af ter Lusaka,
the heads of state
woul dmeet agai n i n
Al gi er s thr ee year s l ater , i n
1973. Wi th
the conf i r mati on
of thei r basi c pr i nci pl es
and the
begi nni ngs of an
or gani zati onal
str uctur e, the f or mati ve
year s of the Movement
wer e comi ng
to an end.
10
8
FromLusakatoAl gi ers
The Fi rst Three Summi ts: The Formati ve
Years
Twooverri di ng f actors domi nated the i nternati onal si tuati on i n the earl y
1970s. Fi rst, therewasaf i nal spl i t between the USSRand Chi na. Di f f erences
betweenthetwostateserupted af ter thei r 1969 border i nci dent andespeci al l y
as Chi nacametoportray the USSRas an ` i mperi al i st' or ' soci al - i mperi al i st'
power. Thi s shi f t i n Chi na' s atti tude towards the Sovi et Uni on ref l ected
i nternal changes of pol i cy whi ch al sohel ped topave the way f or i ts new
rel ati ons wi ththe Uni ted States. Secondl y, and morei mportantl y, there was
the dramati c change i n USf orei gn pol i cy, pri mari l y towards the communi st
worl d, and toa l esser extent towards the Thi rd Worl d. Duri ngthe Ni xon
years wi thHenry Ki ssi nger as the presi dent' s key advi ser, the Uni ted States
pursued
apol i cy of detente, thef i rst si gni f i cant rel axati on of aconf rontati oni st
strategy tocontai nthe expansi on of communi smgl obal l y si nceWorl dWarI I .
Theworl dthus experi enced athawi n the Col d War, al thoughi n hi ndsi ght i t
was onl y abri ef respi te i n East- West tensi ons.
I n 1972 wi th Ni xon' s hi stori c vi si t toBei j i ng, the Uni ted States opened
rel ati ons wi ththe Peopl e' s Republ i c of Chi naand f urther wi dened the Si no-
Sovi et spl i t . I n pl ayi ng the ` Chi nacard' Ni xon hoped touse Chi natoof f set
theSovi et Uni onandtogai n Chi na' s i nf l uencei n theThi rd Worl d, especi al l y
i n resol vi ng the si tuati on i n I ndo- Chi na. That sameyear the USand USSR
si gned the SALT- I agreement . I n the spi ri t of detente, Ni xonvi si ted Brezhnev
i n Moscowand the f ol l owi ng year, Brezhnev came tothe Uni ted States.
As part of the Ni xon Doctri ne and l argel y because of the USf ai l ure to
control eventsi n I ndo- Chi naandthe strongdomesti c opposi ti on tothewari n
Vi etnam,
the US
government
conti nued i ts pol i cy of transf erri ngthemi l i tary
responsi bi l i ty of
managi ng
securi ty probl ems tospeci f i c countri es i n di f f erent
parts
of
the
worl d. Commenci ng wi th the Vi etnami zati on pol i cy, the US
began
to
wi thdrawf rom
di rect and overt mi l i tary i nterventi on. I nstead i t
entrusted
tosel ect
governments
i n vari ousregi ons, suchasI ran, I ndonesi aand
Brazi l , the taskof
protecti ng
USi nterests gl obal l y
and
gave themthe mi l i tary
means tof ul f i l
that task
. sl
Therewere
a
numberof
changes
i n the Thi rd
Worl d
. I n Lati n Ameri ca, the
el ecti on of Sal vador
Al l ende i n
Chi l e and the ef f orts of hi s Popul ar Uni ty
government toadopt a
soci al i st model
of devel opment attracted worl d- wi de
attenti on. Panamasought
toregai n soverei gnty
of
the
Canal ZoneandPeru' s
ci ti zens secured
a
greater
measure
of
pol i ti cal control
and soci al progress.
Soci al - democrati c governments cametopower
i n
1972 i n GhanaandJ amai ca.
I n Af ri ca, the armed struggl ef or i ndependence i n the terri tori es and
col oni es
of southern
Af ri ca
and Portuguese Af ri ca conti nued. I n the Mi ddl eEast, a
number of Arabcountri es sought the return of thei r terri tori es occupi ed
by
I srael af ter the 1967 war. I n I ndo- Chi na, the Uni ted States conti nued i ts
109
The
Non-al i gnedMovement i n
I nternati onal , Hi story
bombi ngof Cambodi awhi l e
proppi ngup theLonNol
government. Thewar
i nVi etnam, however,
wasf i nal l ydrawi ngtoacl ose.
Thedetermi nati onof
the
Vi etnamesepeopl e
andthei r decades of sacri f i ce
al ongwi ththei nternati onal
support gi vento
thei r struggl e, f i nal l yl edthe
Uni tedStates to concl ude
the
Pari s Accords i n
J anuary 1973. TheUS
government f i nal l y began
maki ng
preparati ons to
wi thdrawi ts f orces at theend
of theyear.
I ntheeconomi c
arena, devel opi ngcountri es
usedthesecondmeeti ngof
the
Groupof 77 at Li ma
i nautumn1971 andthe
thi rdmeeti ngof UNCTAD
at
Santi agoi nspri ng
1972 toseekgreater parti ci pati on
i nref ormi ngworl d
trade
andthei nternati onal
monetarysystem. Both
meeti ngs def endedi n
pri nci pl e
theri ght of devel opi ng
countri es tobei nvol ved
i n economi c deci si on-maki ng
at thegl obal
l evel .
The
Non-al i gned Movement, i n contrast
to the previ ous
peri od, was
extremel y
acti ve and i ni ti ated aseri es of
meeti ngs to
f ol l ow up theLusaka
Decl arati on
and to prepare f or the
Al gi ers Summi t.
They hel d regul ar
conf erences
at a number of representati ve
l evel s.
TheMovement al so i nsi sted
on
meeti ngi ndi f f erent regi ons of
theworl dto enabl e
i ts members tobecome
more
f ami l i ar wi theachother' s
si tuati on.
Thedeci si ontakenat Lusakato
createachai r to
co-ordi natetheacti vi ti es of
the
non-al i gned countri es greatl y
enhanced the
devel opment of a di verse
groupi ngi nto ani nternati onal
soci al movement
.
As
host country of thel ast
summi t, Zambi a assumed the
chai rshi p of the
Movement and under Paul
Lusaka' s abl el eadershi pas
hi s country' s representati ve
at theUni tedNati ons,
theMovement met twi ce
i n NewYork at UN
headquarters, f i veti mes i n
SouthAmeri ca, twi ce
i nAsi a, andtwi cei n
Af ri ca, i nthethreeyears between
thesummi ts.
Al most
i mmedi atel y af ter the
Lusaka Conf erence, non-al i gned
f orei gn
mi ni sters
went to theUni ted
Nati ons to preparef or theGeneral Assembl y
.
Duri ng
several days of consul tati ons
i n the l atter hal f of September,
the
mi ni sters
consi dered theprobl ems
of peaceandi nternati onal securi ty
and
ways to
promotetheLusaka
Decl arati on at the General Assembl y
sessi on.
Wi ththesupport
of non-al i gned
countri es, the26thsessi on of the
General
Assembl y
passedaresol uti ononthe
decl arati onof theI ndi anOceanas
azone
of peace,
adoptedadecl arati onon
i nternati onal securi ty, andf i nal l y
seatedthe
Peopl e' s
Republ i c of Chi naas a
member of theUni tedNati ons,
recogni zi ngi t
as the
l egi ti materepresentati ve
of thepeopl eof Chi na.
Non-al i gnedcountri es next
hel da seri es of preparatory
meeti ngs to pl an
the thi rd conf erence of
non-al i gned f orei gn mi ni sters. At
Georgetown,
Guyana, thef i rst non-al i gned
meeti ngontheSouthAmeri can
conti nent, f rom
17 to19 February
1972, andat Kual aLumpur,
Mal aysi a, f rom23 to
26 May
1972, muchof the
di scussi onwas oneconomi c
matters. Theywel comedthe
rel axati onof East-West
tensi ons, but notedthat
al thoughthebi -pol ar power
TheFi rst ThreeSummi ts: TheFormati ve Years
structure had become
i ncreasi ngl y mul ti - pol ar wi th the expansi on and
consol i dati on of theEuropean
Economi c Communi ty and thepromi nenceof
J apan, themaj or
powers sti l l determi ned gl obal deci si on- maki ng, notabl y at
theUni ted
Nati ons, wherethey wereabl ethroughtheSecuri ty Counci l veto
to oppose
thewi l l of themaj ori ty i n theGeneral Assembl y . Furthermore, as
thePri me
Mi ni ster of Mal aysi astatedi n hi s openi ng speechat Kual aLumpur,
thei nternati onal
pol i ti cal power structure mi ght bebecomi ng mul ti - pol ar,
but i t was sti l l
economi cal l y bi - pol ar - di vi ded between the ri ch and
devel oped
and the poor and underdevel oped. Non- al i gned countri es al so
submi tted topi c
papers f or consi derati on by themembers whi chserved as a
means
of
generati ng di scussi on and of keepi ng eachother i nf ormed of
devel opments i n thei r regi on of theworl d. For exampl e, at theKual aLumpur
meeti ng, Mal aysi apreparedpapers on SouthEast Asi aas azoneof peace
and
on thel awof thesea, whi l eYugosl avi amadesuggesti ons on the
purposeand
f uncti on of themi ni steri al meeti ng, and Egypt descri bed the
most recent
events i n the Mi ddl eEast, parti cul arl y I srael ' s aggressi ve
and expansi oni st
pol i ci es.
5 2
On 2 5 J ul y 1972 , theCo- ordi nati ng Commi tteeof non- al i gned
countri es
met i n NewYorkwhereAl geri asubmi tted i ts request toserveas the
venuef or
theFourth, Summi t. Accordi ng to thepracti ceof thenon- al i gned,
thi s and
other matters were ci rcul ated among the members and
f orwarded to
Georgetown wherethef orei gn mi ni sters meeti ng was schedul ed
. 5 3
Twomoremeeti ngs werehel d i n Georgetown
bef orethef orei gn mi ni sters
conf erence. Acommi tteeof economi c
experts f romthenon- al i gnedcountri es
met on 3 0J ul y and 1 August .
Theexperts recommended aseri es of proposal s
to i mpl ement the Lusaka
Economi c Decl arati on. Occurri ng a f ewmonths
af ter the UNCTAD
I I I meeti ng i n Santi ago, the non- al i gned experts
expl ai ned
thei r acti on:
I n advanci ng newi ni ti ati ves
among the non- al i gned countri es the steps
proposed arei n noway i ntended toconf l i ct wi thbut tostrengthen theoveral l
perspecti ves andpol i ci es of the`Group
77'
as
outl i nedi ntheCharter of Al gi ers
and theLi maDecl arati on towards thei mpl ementati on of theUni ted Nati ons'
I nternati onal Devel opment Strategy. Rather, they
arei ntended tof ormthe
basi s not onl y f or generati ng andconti nui ng thepressuresby al l thedevel opi ng
countri es f or thesol uti on of
outstandi ng economi c i ssues wi ththedevel oped
countri es but al so f or encouragi ng greater sel f - rel i ance and cooperati on
among the
devel opi ng countri es. Accordi ngl y, the wi der purpose of the
recommendati onsandActi onProgrammewhi chf ol l owi s toseek toensurethe
adherence of al l the countri es i n the `Group 77' to theprogrammes and
strategi es suggested f or thenon- al i gned countri es.
5
a
Or, as one expert argued, the Thi rd Worl d coul d not depend on the
TheNon- al i gned Movement i n I nt er nat i onal Hi st or y
economi st s f r omt he devel oped wor l d t o `pr ovi de a newsyst emas i t woul d
be i nevi t abl e t hat t hey woul d t end t o devi se a syst emof wor l d t r ade and
i nt er nat i onal f i nance whi ch woul d best ser ve t he i nt er est s of t hei r own
count r i es' . He t hus cal l ed upon t he non- al i gned t o r el y on t hei r own
i ni t i at i ve and i ngenui t y t o devi se a syst emt hat woul d best ser ve t hei r
needs . 5 5
Theexper t s concl uded t hat gr eat er pr essur eont hedevel oped count r i es was
needed i f t her e was t o be a r est r uct ur i ng of t he gl obal economi c syst emand
t hat mor e sel f - r el i ance shoul d be encour aged al ong wi t h r egi onal and
i nt er r egi onal economi c co- oper at i on. They made a number of pr oposal s on
f i nanci ng, t r ade, i nvest ment s, t echnol ogy and ot her ar eas wi t hanemphasi s on
Sout h- Sout h l i nkages . I n addi t i on, t hey r ecogni zed t he uneven devel opment
wi t hi n t he Thi r d Wor l d and cal l ed f or gr eat er at t ent i on t o
t he `l east
devel oped' count r i es 5 6 Af ewdays
l at er , t he week bef or e t he f or ei gn
mi ni st er s conf er ence, t he
pr epar at or y commi t t ee gat her ed i n Geor get ownt o
concl ude i t s
f i nal
ar r angement s .
5 7
Thi r d Conf er ence of
Mi ni st er s of For ei gn Af f ai r s of Non- al i gned
Count r i es, Geor get own,
8- 12 August 1972
The Geor get own
meet i ng of mi ni st er s of f or ei gn af f ai r s of non- al i gned
count r i es was
i mpor t ant f or t he at t ent i on pai d t o economi c mat t er s . But t he
Decl ar at i on was
pol i t i cal i n or i ent at i on and i ncl uded a det ai l ed Act i on
Pr ogr amme f or Economi c Co- oper at i on. Geor get own i s hi st or i cal l y
i mpor t ant f or t he or gani zat i on of t he Movement i n t hat i t demonst r at ed t he
need f or member s t o meet at t he l evel of f or ei gn mi ni st er s i n t he per i od
bet ween t he summi t s t o assess t he i nt er nat i onal si t uat i on. Her eaf t er f or ei gn
mi ni st er s meet i ngs woul d be f i el d on a r egul ar basi s.
Theat t endance at Geor get own was over whel mi ng. Fi f t y- ni ne st at es wer e
pr esent i ncl udi ng t he pr ovi si onal r evol ut i onar y gover nment of t he
Republ i c
of Sout h Vi et namas a f ul l member , al t hough f i nal appr oval was
not gi ven
unt i l t he f or t hcomi ng Summi t and t her e wer e st i l l a f ewr eser vat i ons .
Pr i nce
Si hanouk was al so r ecogni zed as t hel egi t i mat e and excl usi ver epr esent at i veof
t he peopl e of Cambodi a. Wi t h t hese deci si ons, non- al i gned
count r i es
cont i nued t hei r suppor t f or nat i onal l i ber at i on and f ur t her ext ended
t hei r
pol i t i cal and mor al sol i dar i t y wi t h t he st r uggl es of t he peopl e of
I ndo- Chi na
f or sel f - det er mi nat i on wi t hout ext er nal
i nt er f er ence and f or t he r i ght t o
choose t hei r own f or mof devel opment
.
The meet i ng di vi ded
i nt o pol i t i cal and economi cs commi t t ees . Each
r evi eweda number of
wor ki ngpaper s submi t t ed by t he var i ous count r i es and
pr epar ed i t s
own r epor t . Theeconomi cs commi t t ee was most concer ned wi t h
t her i ght of nat i ons t o
cont r ol t hei r own nat ur al r esour ces and wi t h t her ol e of
t r ansnat i onal cor por at i ons
.
I n
t hei r pr eambl e, t hey pl aced t he economi c
TheFi r st Thr ee Summi t s: The For mat i ve Year s
pr obl ems of t he non- al i gned wi t hi n a pol i t i cal cont ext and l i nked
devel opment wi t h peace and secur i t y :
TheMi ni st er s of For ei gn Af f ai r s . . . decl ar e t hat i mper i al i sm
cont i nues t o be
t hemaj or obst acl ei n t heway of devel opi ngcount r i es, andof t heNon- Al i gned
Count r i es i n par t i cul ar , at t ai ni ng st andar ds of l i vi ng consi st ent wi t ht he most
el ement ar y nor ms
of
human di gni t y
.
I mper i al i sm not onl y opposes t he
pr oposal s madeby t he count r i es of t he Thi r dWor l dbut assumes a bel l i ger ent
at t i t udet her et o, andsyst emat i cal l y at t empt s t o under mi ne
i t s soci al , economi c
and pol i t i cal st r uct ur es i n or der
t o
mai nt ai n economi c col oni al i sm, dependence,
and neo- col oni al i sm. Thi s st at e of af f ai r s, apar t f r omvi ol at i ng
sover ei gnt y and
i ndependence, t akes ont hechar act er i st i cs of anaggr essi on agai nst t heeconomi es
of t he peopl es who
donot submi t t o
i t s r ul es
and
di ct at es, goi ng so f ar as t o f ost er
pover t y and even war s i n l ar ge ar eas of t he wor l d . . .
TheNon- Al i gned Count r i es bel i eve i t i s f undament al l y i mpor t ant t o st r ess
t hat t hef ul l exer ci se of t hei r sover ei gnt y over nat ur al r esour ces i s
essent i al f or
economi c i ndependence, whi chi s cl osel y l i nked
t o
pol i t i cal i ndependence,
andt hat t he l at t er i s consol i dat ed by st r engt heni ng t he f or mer . The
sover ei gn
r i ght of each St at e t o di spose of i t s nat ur al weal t h and r esour ces, i ncl udi ng
nat i onal i z at i on, i s i nher ent i n t he pr i nci pl es of sel f - det er mi nat i on of t he
peopl es
and of non- i nt er vent i on. Any t hr eat and any measur e or
ext er nal
pr essur e const i t ut es an act of aggr essi on and, consequent l y, a t hr eat t o
i nt er nat i onal peace and secur i t y. 5 8 '
I n addi t i on, t hey denounced t he pr act i ces and act i vi t i es of t r ansnat i onal
cor por at i ons whi chvi ol at ed t he sover ei gnt y of devel opi ng count r i es and
i nt er f er ed wi t ht he sel f - det er mi nat i on of peopl es . I n t hei r Act i onPr ogr amme
f or Economi c Co- oper at i on among Non- Al i gned Count r i es, t he mi ni st er s
emphasi z edsel f - r el i ance and economi c co- oper at i on among t hemsel ves. Task
gr oups ar ound speci f i c economi c i ssues wer e al so f or med of count r i es on a
r egi onal basi s.
5 9
The pol i t i cal commi t t ee i n i t s r evi ew of t he i nt er nat i onal si t uat i on
wel comed t he adopt i on of t he Decl ar at i on on i nt er nat i onal Secur i t y by t he
UNGener al Assembl y and pr epar ed i t s own St at ement on I nt er nat i onal
Secur i t y andDi sar mament . I n i t t henon- al i gnedemphasi z ed t he needt o end
mi l i t ar y al l i ances, t or educet hear ms r ace, i ncl udi ng pr ogr ess t owar ds nucl ear
di sar mament , and cal l ed agai n f or a wor l d di sar mament conf er ence. I n t hei r
vi ew,
t he gr owi ng economi c di spar i t y bet ween t he devel opedanddevel opi ng
count r i es r epr esent ed a t hr eat t o wor l d peaceandsecur i t y and r ecommended
t hat t he
savi ngs f r oma pol i cy of di sar mament shoul d be t ur ned over t o
devel opment
pr ogr ammes. bo
The Geor get own
Decl ar at i on not ed t he i ncr eased i nt er dependency i n
i nt er nat i onal r el at i ons
as exempl i f i ed by t henewmul t i - pol ar syst emat t he
same t i me t hat aspi r at i ons f or
i ndependence, sel f - r el i ance and cont r ol over
The Non- al i gned Movement i n
I nt er nat i onal Hi s t or y
t hei r nat ur al r es our ces
wer e bei ng s t r ongl y ar t i cul at ed by
devel opi ng
count r i es . The f or ei gn
mi ni s t er s wel comed det ent e but
wer e concer ned t hat
t he bi g power s cont i nued
t o domi nat e and t hat t he
Uni t ed Nat i ons was not
bei ng ut i l i zed t o
addr es s gl obal i s s ues . The non- al i gned
al s o not ed t he pr ogr es s
of nat i onal l i ber at i on
movement s and oppos ed t he
ef f or t s of col oni al r egi mes
wi t h t he s uppor t of
t he Wes t er n power s t o br ut al l y
r epr es s t hem. The
conf er ence cal l ed f or
t he r ef or mof t he i nt er nat i onal
monet ar y and t r ade
s ys t ems and adopt ed a
number of r es ol ut i ons i n s uppor t of
decol oni zat i on and
nat i onal l i ber at i on .
I n addi t i on, f ur t her s t eps
wer e t aken f or t he
i ns t i t ut i onal i zat i on of t he
Movement . The conf er ence pas s ed a r es ol ut i on
r ecommendi ng t hat non-
al i gned count r i es
meet at t he mi ni s t er i al l evel at
t he Uni t ed Nat i ons dur i ng
t he
Gener al As s embl y and t hat t he
Movement cons i der cr eat i ng a s t andi ng
commi t t ee bas ed on r egi onal
di s t r i but i on and r ot at i on t o s peci f i cal l y pr epar e
f or t he annual Sept ember mi ni s t er i al
meet i ng. Smal l wor ki ng gr oups of
f our
member s wi t h t he var i ous
r egi ons r epr es ent ed wer e al s o gi ven
s peci f i c
r es pons i bi l i t i es i n t he economi c
ar eas of t r ade, i ndus t r y and t r ans por t at i on,
f i nanci al co- oper at i on among
devel opi ng count r i es , and i nt er nat i onal
co-
oper at i on . 6 l
Thes e r epeat ed gat her i ngs
cont r i but ed t o t he cohes i venes s of t he
non-
al i gned count r i es as abody at
t he 27t h meet i ng of t he Uni t ed Nat i ons
Gener al
As s embl y . Her e t hey act i vel y
pr omot ed t hei r concer ns and wer e
unani mous
on a number of i s s ues , f or
exampl e t hei r s uppor t of t he peopl e of
Vi et namand
Zambi a and t he s t r uggl es
of t he Ar ab peopl es .
6 2
The pr epar at or y
commi t t ee next met i n Kabul , Af ghani s t an,
i n May and i n
Al gi er s i n l at e
Augus t 1973 t o f i nal i ze ar r angement s f or
t he Four t h Summi t
Conf er ence.
I nt er es t i n t he Movement per s i s t ed as mor e
count r i es s ubmi t t ed
r eques t s f or
par t i ci pat i on. I n or der t o pr omot e
co- oper at i on and t o br oaden
s uppor t f or
t he pr i nci pl es of non- al i gnment ,
non- al i gned count r i es i ns i s t ed on
r et ai ni ng
t he or i gi nal cr i t er i a f or member s hi p, but
wer e s ympat het i c t o s ome
f l exi bi l i t y i n
cons i der i ng t hes e r eques t s .
The pur pos e of
t hes e meet i ngs was t o pr epar e
t he dr af t agenda . Ther e wer e
di s cus s i ons on
t he f or mat , namel y, whet her t he
agenda s houl d be s hor t and
s peci f i c or el abor at e and
det ai l ed. Ther e was cons ens us on
t he l at t er t o ens ur e
t hat i s s ues be
f ul l y di s cus s ed. Fur t her mor e,
t he pr epar at or y commi t t ee
deci ded on a
pol i t i cal appr oach t o t he i s s ues wi t h
an emphas i s on act i on.
Us e of Cons ens us
For t he
f i r s t t i me, t he non- al i gned di s cus s ed at
l engt h t hei r us e of cons ens us i n
deci s i on- maki ng
at t he Kabul meet i ng. The
gui del i nes f or adopt i ng s uch a
pr oces s wer e expl ai ned i n det ai l i n t he
chai r ' s s t at ement as f ol l ows :
TheFi r st Thr ee Summi t s: The For mat i ve Year s
The non- al i gned movement t oday encompasses count r i es
f r omdi f f er ent
r egi ons ot he
wor l d wi t hwi del y di f f er i ng et hni c and cul t ur al backgr ounds,
and pol i t i cal and economi c syst ems .
Ami dst t hi s di ver si t y of non- al i gned
count r i es,
however , t her e exi st s a f undament al uni t y of pur pose; i ndeed, t hi s
uni t y i n di ver si t y i s t heessence of t he
st r engt h and vi t al i t y of t he movement .
The
success
of
t he movement , t her ef or e, l i es i n emphasi zi ng poi nt s t hat uni t e
us . At t he samet i me, wer ecogni ze t he r i ght of each
count r y t o t hi nk and act
i ndependent l y
as an essent i al and f undament al i ngr edi ent of non- al i gnment .
Over t he dozen year s si nce t he f i r st
non- al i gned conf er ence was hel d,
pr act i ces and pr ocedur es have evol ved wi t h a vi ew t o synt hesi zi ng
and
har moni si ng t he vi ews of
var i ous count r i es on i mpor t ant i ssues, and deci si ons
have, as a r ul e, been ar r i ved at by `consensus' . Thi s .
t er mhas a cer t ai n
i ndef i nabl e qual i t y; i t i s har d t o expr ess i n wor ds, al t hough we al l know
i nst i nct i vel y what i t means . I t
pr e- supposes under st andi ng and r espect f or
di f f er i ng poi nt s of vi ewi ncl udi ng t hose i n di sagr eement and
i mpl i es mut ual
accommodat i on
on t he basi s of whi ch agr eement can emer ge by a si ncer e
pr ocess of adj ust ment amongst member s wi t h di f f er ent
opi ni ons i n t he t r ue
spi r i t of
non- al i gnment . I n ot her , wor ds, i t si mpl y means a conver gence of
vi ews.
Af t er br oad consul t at i ons amongst member s of t he Pr epar at or y Commi t t ee,
I amgl ad t o r epor t t hat t her e i s a uni ver sal
f eel i ng t hat deci si ons must cont i nue
t o be
t aken
by
consensus, andt hat ol d and est abl i shed pr ocedur es whi chhave
nowbecomet r adi t i onal f or t he
conduct of our meet i ngs must cont i nue t o be
f ol l owed. Ther e i s a convi ct i on t hat we shoul d cont i nue as bef or e wi t h
consul t at i ons at al l l evel s t o
ar r i ve at sol ut i ons t o cont ent i ous i ssues ; t hat t her e
shoul d ber eci pr ocal gi veand t ake wi t ha vi ewt o accommodat i ng al l shades
of
opi ni ons ; t hat
member count r i es shoul d t r y t o beas f l exi bl e as possi bl e wi t ha
vi ewt o accommodat i ng t he vi ews of eachot her
;
t hat t her e
shoul d
be
a t r ue
democr at i c spi r i t i n t henon- al i gned gr oupwher ei n eachcount r y shoul d act i n
t he spi r i t of one who bel ongs t o a f ami l y. 6 3
Her eaf t er , t he phr ase `uni t y i n di ver si t y' was t o bef r equent l y r epeat ed and i s
of t en vi ewed as t he mot t o of t he Movement . Sr i Lanka ( f or mer l y Ceyl on)
of f er ed t o host t he Fi f t h Summi t and t hi s was accept ed6 4
I n vi ew of t he over whel mi ng economi c concer ns f aci ng non- al i gned
count r i es, a commi t t ee of exper t s conf er r ed agai n i n l at e August 1973 , t hi s
t i me i n Sant i ago, Chi l e. The t opi c was pr i vat e f or ei gn i nvest ment . At t hi s
gat her i ng, non- al i gned exper t s wer e cr i t i cal of t he wor seni ng economi c
posi t i on of devel opi ng count r i es. They emphasi zed t he need of non- al i gned
count r i es t o becomei nvol ved i n pol i t i cal mat t er s because i ssues such as t he
expl oi t at i on of nat ur al r esour ces by col oni al power s i n sout her n
Af r i ca and
si mi l ar act i vi t i es by I sr ael i n t he occupi ed Ar ab t er r i t or i es dear l y
i ndi cat ed
t hat pol i t i cs and economi cs wer ei nt er t wi ned. They wer e al so cr i t i cal of
t he
r ol e of mul t i t r at i onal / t r ansnat i onal cor por at i ons i n devel opi ng count r i es and
TheNon- al i gned Movement i n I nter nati onal Hi stor y
r ecommended measur es to contr ol thei r oper ati ons and acti vi ti es, i ncl udi ng
the establ i shment of a centr e f or i nf or mati on on tr ansnati onal cor por a-
ti ons.
65
These var i ous meeti ngs hel d i n South Amer i ca r eveal ed the i ncr eased r ol e
of Lati n Amer i ca i n the Non- al i gned Movement . I n par ti cul ar , the
Movement' s per specti ve of economi cdevel opment was deci dedl y i nf l uenced
by dependency theor y whi ch or i gi nated i n Lati n
Amer i ca. Thus the f or ei gn
mi ni ster s at thei r meeti ng i n
Geor getown advocated an acti vi st r ol e i n
i nter nati onal
economi c af f ai r s
.
Fur ther mor e, they concl uded that a mor e
r adi cal
appr oach to economi cdevel opment was needed i f thegap betweenthe
devel oped and
devel opi ng countr i es was to be cl osed I t i s her e that we f i nd
the begi nni ngs
of a sear ch f or a newi nter nati onal economi c or der . Weal so
f i nd the i ncr eased r ol e
of technocr ats f r omtheCar i bbean andLati n Amer i ca
al ong wi ththe Economi c Commi ssi on
f or Lati n Amer i ca (ECLA) doctr i ne i n
the f or mul ati on
of an al ter nati ve str ategy f or economi c sur vi val and
devel opment .
These f r equent
gather i ngs betweentheThi r dandFour th Summi ts enabl ed
r epr esentati ves
to come to an agr eement on a number of i ssues pr i or to the
meeti ng
of non- al i gned heads of state and i nter nati onal gather i ngs . Al so by
hol di ng thei r meeti ngs i n thevar i ous r egi ons, they becamemor ef ami l i ar wi th
each other ' s si tuati ons and r ecogni zed howmuchthey shar ed, economi cal l y
and pol i ti cal l y. I n wor ki ng together over the year s, member s had become
commi tted to the same basi c pr i nci pl es and no l onger sawthe need f or new
pr i nci pl es or f or r ei ter ati ng al r eady adopted pr ogr ammes. They nowtur ned
thei r attenti on to concr ete acti on. The f or mati on of the pr epar ator y
commi tteeandthe standi ng commi tteeat the Uni ted Nati ons al so contr i buted
to the or gani zati onal str uctur e of the Movement . Thus the i ncr eased acti vi ty
and the commi ttees f aci l i tated the devel opment of the coal i ti on i nto an
i nter nati onal soci al movement. Thenon- al i gned countr i es cameto theAl gi er s
Summi t as a cohesi ve gr oup wi th shar ed pr i nci pl es,
the
begi nni ngs
of an
i nsti tuti onal str uctur e, and a commi tment to acti on.
Notes
1. See Geof f r ey Bar r acl ough, An I ntr oducti on to Contempor ar y
Hi stor y (Har monds-
wor th: Pengui n, 1964), pp. 9- 42. For
an excel l ent exampl e of an i ntegr ated hi stor y
study, see L. S. Stavr i anos,
Gl obal Ri f t: The Thi r d Wor l d Comes of Age (NewYor k:
Wi l l i amMor r ow, 1981) .
2. A. W. Si ngham,
`Non- Al i gnment - Fr omSummi t to Summi t' , Man and
Devel opment, 1 : 3 (October 1979), pp.
16- 17
.
3 . Standar d wor ks on the ear l y
year s of theMovement i ncl ude: C. V. Cr abb, J r ,
TheEl ephant and
the Gr ass: AStudy of Nonal i gnment (NewYor k, 1965); G. H. J ansen,
Af r o- Asi a and
Nonal i gnment (NewYor k: Fr eder i ck A. Pr aeger , 1960) ; Peter Lyon,
The Fi r st Thr ee Summi t s :
The For mat i ve Year s
Neut r al i sm( Lei cest er Uni ver si t y Pr ess, 1963) ; Leo Mat es,
Nonal i gnment . Theor y and
Cur r ent Pol i cy ( Bel gr ade: TheI nst i t ut e of
I nt er nat i onal Pol i t i cs andEconomi cs, 1972) ;
andAl vi n Rubi nst ei n, Yugosl avi a and
t he Nonal i gned Wor l d( Pr i ncet on, NJ : Pr i ncet on
Uni ver si t y Pr ess, 1970) .
4. Odet t e J ankowi t sch andKar l P. Sauvant , The
Thi r d Wor l dWi t hout Super power s:
The Col l ect ed Document s of t he Non- Al i gned Count r i es ( Dobbs
Fer r y, NY: Oceana
Publ i cat i ons, 1978) , I , pp. 11- 32.
5. J ansen, op. ci t . , p. 295.
6. The Conf er ence of Heads of St at e or Gover nment of
Non- Al i gned Count r i es,
Bel gr ade, 1- 6 Sept ember 1961 ( Yugosl avi a, 1961) , pp. 13- 14.
7. I bi d.
8.
Two Decades of Non- Al i gnment . Document s of t he Gat her i ngs of t he Non- Al i gned
Count r i es 1961- 1982 ( NewDel hi , I ndi a: Mi ni st r y of Ext er nal Af f ai r s, 1983) , p.
5.
9. I bi d. , pp. 5- 9.
10. Two Decades of Non- Al i gnment , pp. 9- 10.
11 . J ankowi t sch andSauvant , op. ci t . , pp. 72- 7.
12. J ansen, op. ci t . , pp. 363- 83.
13.
Keesi ng' s Cont empor ar y Ar chi ves ( 1964) , p. 20431.
14
. J ankowi t sch andSauvant , op. ci t . , p. 67.
15. I bi d
. , p. 70.
16.
Ci t edby J ansen, op. ci t . , p. 371.
17. Ci t ed by Mar i cel a Mat eo, ' U. S. For ei gn Pol i cy and t he Non- Al i gned
Count r i es' , Tr i cont i nent al , 65 ( 1979) , p. 24.
18.
J ankowi t sch andSauvant , op. ci t . , pp. xxxi i i - xxxi v.
19. Bahgat
Kor any, Soci al Change, Char i sma andI nt er nat i onal Behavi our . Towar d a
Theor y
of For ei gn Pol i cy- maki ng i n t he Thi r d Wor l d ( Geneva: A. W. Si t j hof Lei den,
I nst i t ut Uni ver si t ai r e
des Haut es Et udes I nt er nat i onal es, 1976) , pp. 309- 10.
20. Keesi ng' s Cont empor ar y Ar chi ves ( 1964) , p. 20431.
21. J ansen, op.
ci t . , pp. 385- 7; Rubi nst ei n, op. ci t . , pp. 301- 2, 314- 16.
22. Keesi ng' s
Cont empor ar y Ar chi ves ( 1964) , p. 20433.
23. Two Decades of Non- Al i gnment ,
p. 18.
24. I bi d. , pp. 17- 27.
25. Ri khi J ai pal , Non- Al i gnment
: Or i gi ns, Gr owt h andPot ent i al f or Wor l dPeace ( New
Del hi : Al l i ed Publ i sher s, 1983) , p. 85.
26. Ger ar d Chal i and, Revol ut i on i n t he Thi r d
Wor l d
( London
: Pengui n Books,
1978) .
27. Donal dC. Hodges andRober t El i as AbuShanab ( eds) , NLF: Nat i onal Li ber at i on
Fr ont s, 1960/ 1970 ( NewYor k: Wi l l i amMor r ow&Co. , 1972) .
28. Fr edHal l i day, TheMaki ngof t he SecondCol d War ( London: Ver so Edi t i ons and
NLB, 1983) , p. 82.
29. Keesi ng' s Cont empor ar y Ar chi ves ( 1965) , pp. 20769- 70, 20937
.
30. Rober t A. Mor t i mer , The Thi r d Wor l d Coal i t i on i n I nt er nat i onal Pol i t i cs ( New
Yor k: Pr aeger , 1980) , pp. 24- 9.
31 . J ai pal , op. ci t . , p. 90; J ankowi t sch andSauvant , op. ci t . , p. 158.
32. I bi d. , pp. 157- 61; RankoPet kovi c, `Poi nt s of Or i ent at i on f or Dar - Es- Sal aam' ,
Revi ew of I nt er nat i onal Af f ai r s, 20: 422 ( December 1969) , pp. 8- 10.
The Non- al i gned Movement i n I nt er nat i onal Hi st or y
33. J ankowi t sch and Sauvant , op. ci t. , pp. 162- 3, 177- 9.
34. I bi d. , pp. 171- 2.
35. I bi d. , p. 168; J ai pal , op. ci t. , pp.
90- 1.
36. J ankowi t sch and Sauvant , op. ci t . , pp. 164- 8.
37. I bi d. , p. 169.
38. Hal l i day, op. ci t . , pp. 102,
206- 7
.
39. J ankowi t sch and Sauvant ,
op.
ci t . , pp.
132- 56.
40. I bi d. , p. 147.
41 . I bi d. , pp. 145- 51.
42. I bi d. , p. 154.
43. J ai pal , op. ci t . , pp.
94- 5.
44. J ankowi t sch and Sauvant ,
op. ci t . , p. 81 .
45. I bi d. , p. 82.
46. I bi d. , p. 83.
47. I bi d. , pp. 85- 90.
48. I bi d. , pp. 91- 110.
49. I bi d. , p. 106.
50. I bi d.
51
.
Hal l i day, op. ci t . , pp. 161- 3, 203- 9.
52
.
J ankowi t sch and Sauvant , op. ci t. , pp. 655- 65, 668- 70.
53.
I bi d
. , pp.
518- 20.
54. I bi d. , p. 703.
55.
I bi d. , p. 723.
56. I bi d. , pp.
700- 27
.
57. I bi d. , pp. 690- 9.
58. I bi d. , p. 447.
59. I bi d. , pp. 446- 58, 475- 91.
60. I bi d. , pp. 459- 61, 492- 8.
61 . I bi d. , pp. 432- 74.
62. J . Zi vi c, `Kabul and Al gi er s' , Revi ew of I nt er nat i onal Af f ai r s, 24: 556 ( 5 J une
1973) , p. 4.
63.
J ankowi t sch and Sauvant , op. ci t. , pp. 529- 30.
64. I bi d. , pp. 522- 32; 533- 653.
65. I bi d. , pp. 729- 39.