Adult Learning

Intelligence and Adult Development Transformative Learning

Assumptions of Andragogy Motives and Barriers for Learning
Kinds of Learning and Settings for Learning Principles for Effective Adult Learning
"Perspectives on adult learning ave canged dramatically over te decades! Adult learning as "een vie#ed as a
process of "eing freed from te oppression of "eing illiterate$ a means of gaining %no#ledge and s%ills$ a #ay to
satisfy learner needs$ and a process of critical self&reflection tat can lead to transformation! Te penomenon of
adult learning is comple' and difficult to capture in any one definition!" (rom) *ranton$ P! +,--./! Understanding
and Promoting Transformative Learning! San (rancisco) 0ossey&Bass$ 1!
2ell$ tere you ave it fol%s&&yet anoter area of adult education tat is difficult to define3 As you #ell %no#$ te
area of adult learning is e'tremely "road! Te information in tis section #ill certainly not do 4ustice to all of te
information tat as "een pu"lised on tis su"4ect! 2at you #ill find ere are some of te main points tat are
e'amined in ADE 5165 +Adult Learning/! As usual$ cec% your list of readings from tis class for a fuller picture of
#at adult learning includes!
Intelligence and Adult Development
What is Intelligence?
Tere are many definitions and teories of intelligence and o# it can or sould "e measured$ "Intelligence as "een
most often studies from te psycometric tradition #ic assumes tat it is a measura"le construct" +Merriam 7
*affarella$ ,---$ p! ,89/! But tere are oter vie#s as #ell: information processing$ conte'tual perspectives$ and
practical intelliegence! Tere are many ;uestions to as% ourselves a"out intelligence)
Does intelligence e'ist<
*an intelligence "e measured< If so$ o#< And #at do #e gain "y measuring it<
Does intelligence consist of a single factor or several factors<
Are tere different %inds of intelligence<
Are #e "orn #it a certain "level" of intelligence or do #e develop tis +or lose tis/ as #e mature<
2at role does culture play in intelligence&&o# could it affect o# #e measure intelligence<
Belo# are "rief e'planations of several #ell&%no#n teories of intelligence! *affarella$ =! 7 Merriam$ S! +,---/!
Learning in Adulthood 2nd Edition! San (rancisco) 0ossey&Bass!
Some Theories of Intelligence
Cattell: Intelligence consists of t#o primary factors +fluid and crystalli>ed intelligence/ eac #it different origins!
(luid intelligence is$ "!!!te a"ility to perceive comple' relations and engage in sort&term memory$ concept
formation$ reasoning$ and a"straction" +p! ,85/! *rystalli>ed intelligence is influenced more eavily "y education
and e'perience! Tere is no single test tat measures "ot fluid and crystalli>ed intelligence! (luid intelligence is
generally tougt to pea% in adolescence and crystalli>ed intelligence is "eleived to increase or remain sta"le during
most of adultood! Tere ave$ o#ever$ "een studies done to see if fluid intelligence can "e restored or improved
as people age +p! ,85/!
Gardner: Intelligence as "een too narro#ly defined&&#e tend to measure only logical and linguistic a"ilities$
ignoring oter areas of competence! ?ardner "elieves tat intelligence is not a single construct&&tere are multiple
intelligences and e as identified eigt %inds) @er"alALinguistic$ Musical$ LogicalAMatematical$ SpatialA@isual$
BodilyAKinestetic$ Interpersonal$ Intrapersonal$ and Baturalist ?ardnerCs teory offers some e'planation as to #y
people can perform certain tas%s very #ell$ "ut perform less #ell or poorly on oters!Dis teory as also spar%ed
muc de"ate in te fields of education and psycology on o# intelligence is measured +pp!,88&6/!
Sternberg: Intelligence is composed of tree su"teories) ! a componential su"teory descri"ing te internal
mental mecanisms and processes involved in intelligence$ "! an e'periential su"teory focusing on o# a personCs
e'perience #it a set of tas%s or situations may affect isAer andling of tose tas%s: and #! a conte'tual su"teory
empasi>ing te role of te e'ternal environment in determining #at constitutes intelligent "eavior in a situation!
Te first part of tis teory is seen as universal and te oter t#o ave universal and relativistic components +p! ,8-/
Merriam and *affarella #rite) "All tree intelligences are interrelated and terefore are needed in adult life!
Stern"erg stresses tat it is not enoug 4ust to ave tese tree a"ilities: rater$ people are successfully intelligent
#en tey are a"le to coose o# and #en to use tese a"ilities effectively" +p! ,69/!
Goleman: ?oleman "elieves tat #e ave t#o #ays of %no#ing) Te rational and te emotional! Bot of tese #ays
of %no#ing are intert#ined$ "ut emotional intelligence is a greater determiner of success in life! Tere are five
domains of emotional intelligence) "%no#ing oneCs emotions$ managing emotions$ motivating oneself$ recogni>ing
emotions in oters$ and andling relationsps" +p! ,6,/! Merriam and *affarella +,---/ note tat ?oleman is not te
only teorist #o sees te importance of emotional intelligence&&"ot ?ardner and Stern"ergCs teories deal in some
#ays #it tis idea!
Intelligence and Aging
Does our intelligence %eep increasing as #e age< Merriam and *affarella ave tis to say) "2eter adults lose teir
intellectual a"ilities as tey age is still open to ;uestion for a num"er of reasons$ including a lac% of consistent
researc metodologies and tools! Te most common response is to tis important issue is tat adult intelligence
appears relatively sta"le$ at least until te si't or sevent decade! If a decline in functioning does e'ist$ it appears to
apply primarily to te ma'imum versus average levels of functioning! In reflecting on te issue of aging and
intelligence$ remem"er tat myts promote po#erful images$ #eter te myt is grounded in fact or fiction! It as
"een difficult for educators and researcers ali%e to give up te stereotype tat young e;uals sarp and older means
dull!" +,--,$ p! ,56/
Learning $rocesses and Aging
Pysical and cognitive canges tat ta%e place as #e age are important to note "ecause tey can ave an affect on
our learning)
Elder learners ave slo#er reaction times tan younger learners! 2e need more time to learn ne# tings as
#e age$ o#ever$ #en adults can control te pace of learning$ tey can often effectively compensate for
teir lac% of speed and learn ne# tings successfully!+,-6,/
@ision generally declines from te age of ,6 to .9! After .9 tere is a sarp decline for te ne't ,5 years$
"ut after age 55 te decline in vision occurs at a slo#er rate! +,-6,/
Around age 89 our earing "egins to decline sarply and #e "egin e'periencing pro"lems #it pitc$
volume$ and rate of response! Loss of earing can "e compensated for troug te use of earing aids$ "ut
often older learners may "e em"arrassed "y teir earing loss and feel less confident! Tis decline in
confidence can "ecome a greater indrance to learning tan te pysical disa"ility! +,-6,/
(e# canges ave "een found in "ot sensory and sort&term memory as #e age$ "ut long term memory
declines! Elder adults ave a arder time ac;uiring and retrieving information and tey e'perience
difficulties in organi>ing ne# material and in processing it! Elder adults are not as a"le as younger learners
in tests of recall$ "ut te differences "et#een older and younger learners in tests of recognition are small or
none'istent! +,--,/
2en conte'tual learning approaces are used$ less decline is found in te memory process as #e age!
+,--,/
Te greatest pro"lems #it memory for older learners occur #it meaningless learning$ comple' learning$
and te learning of ne# tings tat re;uire reassessment of old learning! +,--,/
Ta%en from) Merriam$ S! 7 *affarella$ =! +,--,/! Learning in Adulthood! San (rancisco) 0ossey&Bass$ ,5-&,69!
*ross$ P! +,-6,/! Adults as Learners! San (rancisco) 0ossey&Bass$ ,5F&,65!
Merriam and *affarella +,---/ ma%e tree points a"out o# ne# information on intelligence in adultood is
valua"le for educators)
"Te first is te framing of more olistic conceptions of adult intelligence tat are grounded in te real lives
of adults of all colors$ races$ and etnic "ac%grounds" +p!,66/! 2e no# loo% not only at te individualCs
mind$ "ut also at o# te individual and te conte't interact to mold intellect!
2e are "eginning to ave a "etter understanding of o# internal and e'ternal factors can improve
intellectual a"ilities$ "Tis is especially important as life e'pectancy as increased dramatically$ especially
in developed nations" +pp! ,66&,6-/!
Because #e %no# tat adult intelligence is muc more tan a score on an IG test$ adult educators can ave
a tremendous impact on elping teir learners$ especially older learners$ continue to maintain and even
increase teir intellectual a"ilities$ "2e need to tin% troug carefully #at intellectual a"ilities and s%ills
are te most useful for adults$ "ot young and old$ and could "e amena"le to educational interventions" +p!
,6-/!
Adult Development
2en #e tal% a"out o# cildren learn$ #e often focus on te developmental stages tat cildren go
troug as tey mature! Adults li%e#ise go troug developmental stages #ic can "e grouped cronologically or
sociologically +i!e! grouped according to socially defined roles of adults/! Tere is a difference "et#een life&cycle
pases and developmental stages! Life&cycle pases are pases #ic people pass troug from "irt to deat&&tese
pases are not part of a continuous flo# to#ard gro#t and maturity! Developmental stages are more concerned
#it personality or ego development! 2ile pases and stages may inform one anoter$ tey are not te same ting!
*ross$ P! +,-6,/! Adults as Learners! San (rancisco) 0ossey&Bass$ ,5F&,65!
Anoter e'cellent source for info on adult development is *apter 1 of Dalo>Cs Effective Teaching and
Mentoring +,-6H/! Dalo> presents tree "maps" of o# adults develop)
o Levinson Ene of te famous "pase teorists$" LevinsonCs map divides menCs lives +yea$ I %no#$ ICll
address tat point a "it later/ into four main eras) *ildoodAAdolescence$ Early Adultood$ Middle
Adultood$ and Late Adultood! De pays special attention to transitional times "et#een te eras and
focuses on te patterns of "uilding$ "rea%ing$ and re"uilding of menCs lives as tey age! Dis map can "e
imagined as an ascending stair#ay$ and Levinson is ;uite specific a"out age groups +i!e! at F9$ men enter
te adult #orld$ at 15 tey settle do#n$ etc!/
o %egan KeganCs teory can "e imagined as an up#ard spiraling eli'$ "Beginning stages +Kegan prefers
to call tem "alances$ a term tat "etter catces te dynamic nature of development/ are caracteri>ed "y
impulsiveness and self&centeredness: tese yield to a more Coter&centeredC stance$ in #ic interpersonal
relationsips and mutuality are paramount: tis in turn gives #ay to te "irt of a ne# and more separate
self$ from #ic finally evolves an "interindividual "alance" in #ic te tension "et#een "self" and
"oter" reaces a ne# syntesis! (rom tis position one is a"le "ot to maintain a clear sense of self and
yet to merge #it oters$ dissolving and reforming oneCs separateness #en appropriate" +p! H5/! Dalo>
goes on to point out tat Kegan sees adult development as "a series of transformations of o# #e see
ourselves in relation to oters" +p!HH/!
o $err& Imagine PerryCs model as a continuum #it nine positions! Te positions move from dualistic
tin%ing to greater conte'tual relativism$ "!!!#e #ill function predominantly in one range or anoter$and
altoug a conte'tual tin%er may on occasion operate dualistically$ a dualistic tin%er #ill not tin%
conte'tually!!!PerryCs positions are ierarcical and essentially invariant) eac rests on te one "efore it$
and tere are no sortcuts! At te same time$ o#ever$ people may move troug t#o positions in a "rief
"urst$ or remain for long periods at a single position! Eccasionally$ tey even retreat to an earlier stance"
+p!6,/!
Keep in mind$ o#ever$ tat many developmental teorists$ li%e Levinson$ "ased teir ideas on men's
development&&and as usual$ #eCre tal%ing a"out #ite$ middle&class men!!!so #at a"out te rest of us< +Ene point$
o#ever$ in ,--H$ Levinson replicated is study using #omen$ see The Season's of a Woman's Life! Information
a"out tis is also mentioned in te Fnd ed! of Learning in Adulthood!/*ertainly$ te a"ove models can "e used to
e'amine te adult development of many %inds of people$ "ut more recently$ scolars ave "egun to loo% at o#
socio&economic factors$ gender$ and etnicity can impact development! Belen%y$ *lincy$ ?old"erger$ and Tarule
+,-6H/ used an all&female sample for teir #or% Women's Ways of Knoing La"ouvie&@ief as studied o# conte't
can influence development$ instead of using age as a mar%er$ se suggests loo%ing at ma4or life events! Tese are
4ust t#o e'amples$ for a very informative survey of adult development researc$ see Merriam and *affarellaCs
capter 8 in Learning in Adulthood +,---/!
2ait3 Before you das off to te ne't section$ tin% a"out some of tese ;uestions offered "y Susan Imel$
"2en tin%ing a"out serving older adults$ some ;uestions for adult$ career$ and vocational educators tat emerge
from tese trends include te follo#ing)
2at type of learning activities can "e developed to address te canging #or% and family
responsi"ilities of older adults<
Is it feasi"le to lin% age&integrated programming #it e'isting programs<
Do# can educational institutions support informal$ self&directed learning of older adults< Educational
programs for older adults<
Assumptions of Andragog&
"Andragogy is simply anoter model of assumptions a"out learners to "e used alongside te pedagogical
model of assumptions$ tere"y providing t#o alternative models for testing out te assumptions as to teir CfitC #it
particular situations! (urtermore$ te models are pro"a"ly most useful #en seen not as dicotomous "ut rater as
t#o ends of a spectrum$ #it a realistic assumption in a given situation falling in "et#een te t#o ends!" (rom)
Kno#les$ M! +,-69/! The Modern Practice of Adult Education! "rom Pedagogy to Andragogy 2
nd
ed! Be# Ior%)
Association Press!
Kno#lesC Andragogical Assumptions
*oncept of te
Learner
During te process of maturation$ a person moves from dependency to#ard increasing
self&directedness$ "ut at different rates for different people and in different dimensions of
life! Teacers ave a responsi"ility to encourage and nurture tis movement! Adults ave a
deep psycological need to "e generally self&directing$ "ut tey may "e dependent in
certain temporary situations!
=ole of te LearnerCs
E'perience
As people gro# and develop tey accumulate an increasing reservoir of e'perience tat
"ecomes and increasingly ric resource for learning&&for temselves and for oters!
(urtermore$ people attac more meaning to learnings tey gain from e'perience tan
tose tey ac;uire passively! Accordingly$ te primary tecni;ues in education are
e'periential ones&&la"oratory e'periments$ discussion$ pro"lem&solving cases$ field
e'periences$ etc!
=eadiness to Learn People "ecome ready to learn someting #en tey e'perience a need to learn it in order
to cope more satisfyingly #it real&life tas%s and pro"lems! Te educator as a
responsi"ility to create conditions and provide tools and procedures for elping learners
discover teir "needs to %no#!" Learning programs sould "e organi>ed around life&
application categories and se;uenced according to te learnersC readiness to learn!
Erientation to
Learning
Learners see education as a process of developing increased competence to acieve teir
full potential in life! Tey #ant to "e a"le to apply #atever %no#ledge and s%ill tey gain
today to living more effectively tomorro#! Accordingly$ learning e'periences sould "e
organi>ed around competency&development categories! People are performance&centered
in teir orientation to learning!
A ta"le comparing pedagogy and andragogy can "e found on pp!.1&.. of te a"ove&mentioned "oo%! I ave not
included pedagogy ere "ecause I tin% tat using a ta"le for comparison "tric%s" us into seeing dicotomies!
Andragogy and pedagogy can "e used #it %ids and adults&&tey are ends of a continuum! Still$ #ile loo%ing at
te a"ove cart$ as% yourself if and o# %ids differ from adult learners!
%inds of Learning and Settings for Learning
2en #e discuss adult learning$ #e need to clarify #eter #eCre tal%ing a"out te learning itself$ te design
and facilitation of te learning$ or #ere te learning is ta%ing place! As you can imagine$ tere are scores of
carts and lists out tere descri"ing every possi"le %ind of learning and various educational settings! Belo#$
youCll find a sampling of a fe# of tese ideas +itCs muc easier to digest tat #ay3/!
%inds of Learning
*ranton does a very nice 4o" of ;uic%ly running troug %inds of %no#ledge and %inds of learningJ and it goes
sometinC li%e tis)
'abermas( Three Domains of %no)ledge
Technical %no)ledge: includes information a"out cause and effect relationsips in te environment and
"eavioristic learning teories!
$ractical %no)ledge: *oncerned #it understanding #at oters mean: includes understanding social norms$
values$ political concepts$ and ma%ing ourselves understood&&umanistic learning teories are partly involved in
tis!
*mancipator& %no)ledge: gained troug critical self&reflection and can "e seen as a component of te
constuctivist paradigm! Me>iro#Cs teory of transformative learning is concerned #it tis %ind of %no#ledge!
+p! -/
+e,iro)(s Three Domains of Learning
Instrumental) gaining of tecnical %no#ledge
*ommunicative) gaining of practical %no#ledge
Emancipatory) gaining of emancipatory %no#ledge +p! -/!

Cranton(s Three $erspectives of Adult Learning
Bote) 2ile reading tis$ as% yourself if *ranton is assuming tat tereCs an e'ternal agent involved in
facilitating te learning< 2at a"out self&directed learning<
Sub-ect./riented Learning: Te goal is to ac;uire content +e!g! facts$ pro"lem solving strategies$ practical or
tecnical s%ills/: it is positivistic and most often meets te e'pectations of te learner and is$ terefore$
comforta"le! Te e'pert ma%es te decisions$ not te learner!
Consumer./riented Learning: Ta%es place #en an individual e'presses a need to learn$ loo%s to te
educator for fulfillment of tose needs$ and ten proceeds to learn under te guidance of te educator! Te
learner ma%es eac decision a"out learning&&for tis reason$ tis %ind of learning falls under constructivism!
*mancipator& Learning: A process of freeing ourselves from forces tat limit our options and our control over
our lives$ forces tat ave "een ta%en for granted or seen as "eyond our control! Tis %ind of learning is
constructivist in nature and can "e transformative! At times tis learning occurs independently of te educator:
at oter times it is fostered deli"erately! Knli%e te oter t#o %inds of learning$ emancipatory learning is often a
difficult and painful process! +pp!,9&F9/!
All of te a"ove ta%en from) *ranton$ *! +,--./! Understanding and Promoting Transformative Learning! San
(rancisco) 0ossey&Bass$ 1&F,!
Situated Cognition
Situated cognition sees conte't as central in understanding o# adults %no# someting! It is$ ""ased on te idea
tat #at #e %no# and te meanings #e attac to #at #e %no# are socially constructed! Tus$ learning and
%no#ing are intimately lin%ed to real&life situations" +p!,5H/! Tis is not a ne# idea$ "ut$ as Merriam and
Broc%ett note$ adult educators are "ecoming more committed to respecting te role of conte't in learning "y
loo%ing "eyond individual psycology and "y creating real&life conte'ts for learning! +The Profession and
Practice of Adult Education$ ,--8/!

Settings for Learning
2en you read a"out providers of adult education$ you usually only see te %inds of learning tat are attaced
to specific educational institutions$ "ut learning can appen in many %inds of settings! Several educators ave
attempted to come up #it frame#or%s to include learning in nontraditional settings! Tere is some overlap ere
"et#een te settings and te %inds of learning tat ta%es place in tem! And$ as youCve seen in %inds of learning$
te frame#or% ranges from aving e'ternal direction to self&direction! +Bot are educational$ "ut one tends to
empasi>e instruction$ te oter learning!/ (rom) Apps$ 0 +,-6-/! "Providers of Adult and *ontinuing
Education) A (rame#or%!" In Merriam$ S! and *unningam$ P! +Eds!/ #and$oo% of Adult and &ontinuing
Education' San (rancisco) 0ossey&Bass$ F85&F6H!
Coombs( 0rame)or1
(ormal Learning) Scools and universities
Bonformal Learning) Ergani>ed outside te formal system
Informal Learning) (rom everyday interactions
*oom"s introduced informal learning as a legitimate source of adult learning&&as e;ually important as learning
provided in formal$ full&time study settings! +p! F88/
T&pe of
*ducation
Definition *2amples
(ormal
Education
Se;uences of learning tat are socially
organi>ed$ goal&directed and certified "y
a diploma or degree aving currency in
te pu"lic educational system!
Dig scool education$ diploma&
granting vocational education$
iger education degrees
Bonformal
Education
Se;uences of learning tat are socially
organi>ed and goal&directed "ut are not
certified "y formal education credentials!
*P= training$ on&te&4o" training at
#or%$ Elderostel$ Line dancing
class
Informal
Education
Serendipitous or self&directed individual
learning resulting from daily e'perience
Learning to cange a clutc "y
o"servation$ learning o# to care
for oneCs cildren
Te idea is *oom"sC$ te ta"le migt "e from Paulston +,-8F/! (onfromal Education Tis #as a class andout
and ICm not sure of te reference!
$eterson(s 0rame)or1
Deli"erate Education and Learning
Knintentional Learning
Peterson puts adult education into te conte't of te rest of education: e recogni>es te po#er of te self&
directed learner #o cooses a #ide variety of approaces to learning: and e points out te importance of
unintentional learning at ome$ #or%$ from friends or te mass media$ etc! +p!F88/
Merriam and *affarella +,---/ discuss settings for learning and include$ for nonformal settings$ communit&.
based learning and indigenous learning! *ommunity&"ased learning can ta%e many different forms&&citi>ens
of a to#n gatering to overcome an issue in teir community$ cooperative e'tension programs$ literacy and 4o"
s%ills programs$ "A common tread to all of tese programs is teir focus on social action and cange for te
"etterment of some part of te community" +p!19/ Indigenous learning$ "!!!refers to processes and structures
people #itin particular societies ave used to learn a"out teir culture trougout teir istory" +Brennan$ ,--8
cited in Merriam and *affarella$ ,---$ p! 1,/! Tis %ind of learning is often connected to oral traditions and
indigenous arts and can "e used in oter nonformal learning programs to enance learning!
Self&Directed Learning
"Learning on oneCs o#n$ "eing self&directed in oneCs learning is itself a conte't in #ic learning ta%es place!
Te %ey to placing a learning e'perience #itin tis conte't is tat te learner as te primary responsi"ility for
planning$ carrying out$ and evaluating is or er o#n learning! Participation in self&directed learning seems
almost universal&&in fact$ an estimated -9 percent of te population is involved #it at least one self&directed
learning activity a yearJAdults engaging in self&directed learning do not necessarily follo# a definite set of
steps or linear format! In essence$ self&directed learning occurs "ot "y design and cance&&depending on te
interests$ e'periences$ and actions of individual learners and te circumstances in #ic tey find temselvesJ
Self&directed learning does not necessarily mean learning in isolation&&assistance is often sougt from friends$
e'perts$ and ac;uaintances in "ot te planning and e'ecution of te learning activity!" (rom) Merriam$ S! 7
*affarella$ =! +,--,/! Learning in Adulthood! San (rancisco) 0ossey&Bass$ 5.&55!
A )ord to teachers: Self&directed learners are not necessarily students #o #or% alone and need no guidance
from an instructor! As a teacer or trainer$ you may ave learners #o #is to "e more self&directed tan tey
are capa"le of "eing! Broo%field points out tat our function as facilitators is to callenge our learners to
e'amine teir #ays of tin%ing and doing&&regardless of teir level of self&direction!
"To say one is meeting felt learner needs sounds umanistic$ learner&centered$ and admira"ly democratic$ yet to
do so #itout allo#ing oneCs o#n ideas$ e'perience$ insigts$ and %no#ledge as an educator to contri"ute to te
educational process ma%es te facilitator a service manager$ not a full participating contri"utor! It also
condemns learners to staying #itin teir o#n paradigms of tin%ing$ feeling$ and "eaving!" (rom) Broo%field!
S! Understanding and "acilitating Adult Learning' San (rancisco) 0ossey&Bass$ F,!
Cand&(s 0our Dimensions of SDL
11 Personal Autonomy +SDL as a person attri"ute/
11 Self&Management +SDL as te #illingness and capacity to conduct oneCs o#n education/
11 Learner *ontrol + SDL as a mode of organi>ing instruction in formal settings/
11 Autodida'y +SDL as te individual noninstitutional pursuit of learning opportunities in te "natural
society setting"/
*ranton uses *andyCs dimensions as a frame#or% for some of er #riting on tis su"4ect: See *ranton! P!
+,--H/! Professional )evelo*ment as Transformative Learning! San (rancisco) 0ossey&Bass$ 59&8.!
'o) can I use this in m& practice?
=ead ?erald ?ro#Cs article$ "Teacing Learners to "e Self&Directed!" Te on&line version as cartoons$ too3
Belo# is te a"stract from te article to #et your appetite! (rom) Adult Education +uarterly, -ol' ./, (o' 0$
Spring ,--,$ pp! ,F5&,.-$
A"stract) Based on te Situational Leadersip model of Dersey and Blancard$ te Staged Self&Directed
Learning Model proposes tat learners advance troug stages of increasing self&direction and tat teacers can
elp or inder tat development! ?ood teacing matces te learnerCs stage of self&direction and elps te
learner advance to#ard greater self&direction! Specific metods are proposed for teacing students at eac stage$
altoug many different teacing styles are good #en appropriately applied! Several pedagogical difficulties
are e'plained as mismatces "et#een teacer style and learner stage$ especially te mismatc "et#een a student
needing direction and a non&directive teacer! Te model is applied to a course$ a single class$ and te overall
curriculum!
The Learning /rgani,ation
0ust a ;uic% #ord on one of te latest areas of study! I #onCt go into detail ere&&#e could do a #ole #e" site
4ust on tis +in fact$ te fol%s at Stanford already ave$ visit teir site on Learning Ergani>ations to learn more/&&
also$ #e at (SK offer a course on tis very su"4ect$ ADE 5F69!
"In learning organi>ations$ learning&&#eter done "y individuals$ groups$ or te organi>ation as a #ole&&is a
central$ valued$ and integral part of organi>ational life! Te eart of te learning organi>ation is te #illingness
of organi>ations to allo# teir employees and oter sta%eolders related to te organi>ation to suspend and
;uestion te assumptions #itin #ic tey operate$ ten create and e'amine ne# #ays of solving
organi>ational pro"lems and means of operating! Tis process re;uires tat people at all levels of te
organ>iation "e #illing to tin% #itin a systems frame#or%$ #it te empasis on collective in;uiry$ dialogue$
and action! *reating learning organi>ations could allo# educators of adults$ #eter tey are associated #it
formal or nonformal settings$ to develop learning communities in #ic cange is accepted as te norm and
innovative practices are em"raced" +Merriam 7 *affarella$ ,---$ p! ../!
Transformative Learning
Transformative learning is "asically te %ind of learning #e do as #e ma%e meaning of our lives! ItCs "ecome a
very popular topic in adult education "ecause it doesnCt 4ust involve classroom learning&&it involves learning
a"out our lives! Tis is important "ecause as adults$ te meaning ma%ing process can cange everyting a"out
o# #e loo% at #or%$ family$ and te #orld!
If you read te literature of adult education$ youCll find a lot of teoretical #riting on tis su"4ect and ;uite a fe#
studies! Ene of te "est %no#n e'perts in tis area is a scolar named 0ac% Me>iro#$ #o started studying tis
area in te ,-89s! Me>iro# came up #it a set of pases tat people go troug #en tey e'perience
transformation and tose steps are)
e'periencing a disorienting dilemma
self&e'amination
critical assessment of assumptions
recogni>ing tat oters ave gone troug a similar process
e'ploring options
formulating a plan of action
reintegration
Bo#$ as you can see ere$ transformation is someting tat is usually triggered "y a pro"lem$ and very often
transformative e'periences are painful to go troug! After identifying teir pro"lem or callenge$ people seem
to enter a pase #ere tey reflect critically on tis&&tis is typically a pro"lem tat youCve never e'perienced
"efore$ so it ta%es a lot of tin%ing and tal%ing to oters to #or% troug! During te tin%ing pase$ people may
find tat tey can no longer %eep teir old #ays of tin%ing and "eing&&tey are compelled to cange! (inally$
tere is an action pase #ere people decide to do someting! Tis could mean tat you ave to "rea% off
certain relationsips tat donCt fit your "eliefs anymore: it could mean tat you decide to ma%e a career cange&&
action can ta%e many forms! Also$ te process itself may ta%e a long time! Iou could reflect on someting for
years "efore you are ready to accept ne# "eliefs and act on tem!
So clearly$ transformative learning is not "little" learning$ and tis is one of te pro"lems tat people ave #it
tis #ole teory! (or e'ample$ #at if you go "ac% to scool and get a degree&&ave you transformed yourself<
Tis is a toug ;uestion and te ans#er #onCt "e te same for every"ody! 2at Me>iro# says is tat learning
"can consist of a cange in one of our "eliefs or attitudes" +Merriam 7 *affarella$ ,---$ p! 1F9/: tis is #at e
calls a "meaning sceme!" But tis isnCt transformational learning in Me>iro#Cs opinion! ItCs only #en #e
cange our entire perspective on someting + our meaning perspective/ tat #e really transform! So for
e'ample$ if you said$ "2ell$ I met someone from anoter country and no# I tin% totally differently a"out tat
culture$" for Me>iro# tis #ouldnCt really "e considered a moment of transformative learning! Me>iro# #ould
say tat youCd ave to engage in all te pases of transformation first&&"ut tis encounter #it tis person could
lead you to start ;uestioning your assumptions a"out a lot of tings and tat could$ in turn$ eventually lead to
transformation!
A 3uic1 Word About Critical 4eflection
Me>iro# distinguises among tree %inds of reflection&&and reflection is %ey in te transformation process)
Content 4eflection: Individuals may reflect on te content or description of a pro"lem! Tis is similar to
De#eyCs ideas on pro"lem solving +p!6,/!
$rocess 4eflection: Involves tin%ing a"out te strategies used to solve te pro"lem rater tan te content of
te pro"lem itself&&tis is ;uite a rational and orderly %ind of reflection tat does not incorporate intuition!
$remise 4eflection: Leads us to ;uestion te relevance of te pro"lem itself&&te assumptions$ "eliefs$ or
values underlying te pro"lem are ;uestioned! Tis process is distinct from pro"lem&solving and can lead to
transformative learning +p! 6F/!
If te process of reflection leads to an a#areness of an invalid$ undeveloped$ or distorted meaning sceme or
perspective: if tat sceme or perspective is ten revised: and if te individual acts on te revised "elief$ te
development as "een transformative +p! ,,1/!
(rom) *ranton$ P! +,--H/! Professional )evelo*ment as Transformative Learning! San (rancisco) 0ossey&Bass$
85&,,8!
And $eople 4eall& 5u& This Stuff?
As you migt ave guessed$ many people ave critici>ed Me>iro#Cs ideas! Some of tem feel tat te idea of
pases +see te "ulleted list a"ove/ is rater artificial&&isnCt it possi"le to transform instantly< *ouldnCt it also "e
possi"le to transform #itout critical reflection< Some people also criti;ue Me>iro#Cs teory for dealing too
muc #it individuals: tey "elieve tat transformation involves society and tat te individual can never "e
isolated from society! Eter scolars also feel tat transformative learning as to "e put into a conte't to "e
really understood as transformation! Basically$ #atCs important to understand is tat tis issue is still not
settled$ and altoug Me>iro# is considered "y many to "e te guru of transformative learning$ even e doesnCt
represent everyoneCs ideas a"out tis!
As instructors$ #at sould tis area of learning mean to us< Several adult education e'perts$ Me>iro# +of
course/$ Broo%field$ and (reire ave also #ritten on tis area and tey see tis %ind of learning as central to te
goals of adult education! Again$ conte't plays a role ere$ and you migt disagree #it tis notion completely!
But "asically$ te idea is tat "y "callenging our a"ilities to communicate$ understand$ and learn" +Merriam 7
*affarella$ ,---$ p! 1FF/$ #e "ecome a"le to free ourselves from our o#n distorted ideas of te #orld&&tis$
according to some$ is #at adult education is all a"out!
A Word on *thics and Transformative Learning
As an educator or trainer$ you ave to develop your o#n pilosopy a"out all of tis! Iou migt not feel tat
tis is te goal of adult education! Do#ever$ you also need to "e a#are of te %inds of learning tat you are
promoting in your classroom! Sometimes #e set up activities or assignments tat get people started on critically
reflecting on someting&&#at if you as%ed your learners to discuss #y tey #erenCt unioni>ed after tey told
you a"out o# unappy tey #ere #it teir employer< Tings li%e tis can get people tin%ing$ and #ile tis
certainly isnCt a "ad ting$ it can "e inappropriately disruptive&&remem"er transformative learning can "e a
painful process! Ef course$ our learners are all adults$ tey ave to ma%e teir o#n decisions and it is almost
impossi"le for us$ as educators$ to %no# o# to censure everyting tat could cause our learners to tin%3
Te point is$ tat tere are times #en #e are in te position to trigger some critical reflection and #e ave to
"e careful o# #e go a"out doing tis! At te same time$ #e canCt force people to critically reflect on anyting
and #e certainly cannot "scedule in" transformative learning e'periences! In oter #ords$ #e need to engage in
some critical reflection of our o#n #en it comes to our o#n teacing and training practices)
2y do #e teac or train te #ay #e do<
2at are our goals for our learners and for ourselves as professionals<
Is critical reflection someting needs to "e fostered in te conte't in #ic #e teac or train<
Ence #eCve "ecome a little clearer on tese ;uestions$ #eCll "e closer to formulating our o#n opinions on te
#ole topic of transformative learning and o# it fits into our practice!
(or most of te info a"ove and more on tis su"4ect see) Merriam$ S! 7 *affarella$ =! +,---/! Learning in
adulthood! A com*rehensive guide, 2nd Ed' San (rancisco) 0ossey&Bass!
+otives and 5arriers for Learning
Wh& do )e participate in learning?
Iou can pro"a"ly come up #it a long list of reasons on your o#n$ "ut as a lo#ly student$ your opinion doesnCt
count3 DereCs #at some of te BI? ?KIS ave come up #it)
'oule) Doule divides adult learners into tree separate learning orientations!
?oal Eriented learners use education as a means of acieving some oter goal
Activity Eriented learners participate for te sa%e of te activity itself and te social
interaction it provides!
Learning Eriented learners see% %no#ledge for its o#n sa%e!
Doule admits tat tese are not "pure" types: te orientations can overlap!

5oshier6 +orstain and Smart: Doule #asnCt good enoug for tese guys&&tey ad to go out and come up #it
an even longer list of #y adults participate in learning +tereCs a lot of "list comparison" tat goes on in
educational researc$ isnCt tere</! Tey came up #it si' factors for participation)
Social =elationsips) ma%e friends and meet oters!
E'ternal E'pectations) complying #it te #ises of someone else #it autority!
Social 2elfare) desire to serve oters andAor community!
Professional Advancement) desire for 4o" enancement or professional advancement!
EscapeAStimulation) to alleviate "oredom andAor to escape ome or #or% routine!
*ognitive Interest) learning for te sa%e of learning itself!
Bote) Tin% critically a"out tis3 *ross notes tat Doule is classifying groups of people and Bosier$ Morstain
and Smart are identifying clusters of reasons! DouleCs loo%ing at caracteristic orientations tat motivate
learners and Bosier$ Morstain and Smart so# multiple reasons e'isting #itin te same individual! Te a"ove
from) Merriam$ S! 7 *affarella$ =! +,--,/! Learning in Adulthood! San (rancisco) 0ossey&Bass$ 61&6H!
5roo1field) *areful #it tis one$ tis is actually my interpretation of #at Broo%field is saying! Te typical
adult learner is$ "relatively affluent$ #ell&educated$ #ite$ middle&class individual" +p! 5/! I ta%e tis to mean
tat people participate in learning events "ecause tey are oriented to#ards learning&&attaining more education
is someting tey value+and someting teyCve "een sociali>ed to value/&&and tey ave te financial resources
to do tis! 2en #e tin% a"out participation #e need to as% ourselves #at counts as a learning event and o#
#e define participants&&tose #o are already involved in learning or tose #o could potentially "e involved<
If te middle&class organi>es most of te learning events tat go on$ #o do you tin% te most li%ely
participants #ill "e< (rom) Broo%field$ S! +,-6H/! Understanding and "acilitating Adult Learning! San
(rancisco) 0ossey&Bass$ .&-!
Wh& don(t )e participate in learning?
Many ave done studies on non&participation! Te follo#ing researcers ave #or%ed out #ays of grouping
specific "arriers into categories
7ohnstone and 4ivera:
(ound t#o categories: *2ternal or situation "arriers and Internal or dispositional "arriers!
Cross: Tree categories: Situational barriers +depending personCs situation at a given time/$
Institutional barriers +all practices and procedures tat discourage adults from participation&&li%e
filling out tose application forms for graduate scool/$ Dispositional barriers +personCs attitude a"out
self and learning/!
Dar1en)ald and +erriam:
Add anoter category to *rossC list: Informational barriers +person is not a#are of educational activities
availa"le/! A"ove ta%en from) Merriam$ S! 7 *affarella$ =! +,--,/! Learning in Adulthood! San
(rancisco) 0ossey&Bass$ 6H&-9!
Bote) All of te a"ove&mentioned studies loo% at participation from a psycological perspective$ "If one loo%s at
te social structure rater tan individual needs and interests$ one discovers some very different e'planations as
to #y adults do or do not participate in adult learning activities" +,--,$ p! -./!
=ecent studies ave ta%en a more critical loo% at non&participation! Merriam and *affarella cite several ne#er
studies in teir ,--- edition of Learning in Adulthood$ one e'ample is a study "y Dall and Donaldson +,--8/
#o loo%ed at #omen #itout ig scool educations! Early pregnancies$ economic status$ and te amount of
education of te #omenCs parents all played a role in coosing not to participate! Eter factors included not
aving a support system and lac% of time$ information$ and cild care! Dall and Donaldson also noted "lac% of
voice$" meaning o# a #oman feels a"out erself and o# se can e'press erself +p!56/!
Most of us can come up #it many reasons for not participating in educational activities$ "ut as educators$ #e
may "e so used to participating in learning ourselves tat it "ecomes difficult to "tin% outside te "o'"
sometimes! Merriam and Broc%ett +,--8/ devote a #ole capter +te info "elo# is from pp!,68&F99/ to te
issue of access to adult education and list four ma4or conditions tat limit access)
Geographic Conditions) Tere is a great divide "et#een ur"an$ su"ur"an$ and rural settings! =ural
areas tend to ave fe#er resources for education! In many industriali>ed countries$ o#ever$ inner
cities may "e #orse off tan some rural areas! Migrant and omeless people are also at a great
disadvantage for receiving access to education!
Demographic 0actors) Age and se' influence #o participates and #o doesnCt! Ioung and middle&
aged adults participate more tan older adults&&of course$ younger adults often continue learning for
teir 4o"s! But older adults tend to ave less education in general tan younger people$ and level of
education is a good predictor of #o #ill continue to participate in educational activities! Te role of
age could cange significantly in te future$ o#ever$ in countries suc as te K!S!$ #ere life
e'pectancy continues to rise!
EneCs se' can also determine if and o# muc one #ill participate in education! 2omen tend to participate less
tan men and teir participation is ;ualitatively different from menCs! But$ tis also overlaps #it geograpic
conditions&&#omen in developed nations may participate as muc as men! In less developed countries$ #omen
often receive very little opportunity to participate! Even in #ealtier nations$ men are still more li%ely to old
iger and "etter paid positions tan #omen$ and are tus more li%ely to receive furter +and "etter/ training!
Socioeconomic Conditions and *ducation) Tose #o ave relatively affluent "ac%grounds$ tend to
remain tat #ay and also tend to participate more in education! Tose from less #ealty families
participate less partly "ecause tey ave less money to do so$ "ut also "ecause tey donCt fit into te
system of education +i!e! tey donCt spea% te same language$ sare te same norms$ etc!/ #ic is "uilt
and maintained "y #ealtier people! (ormal education is also te %ind of education tat "counts te
most$" "ut it also costs te most and as te most prere;uisites&&less #ell&off people may "e engaging
in a variety of learning activities$ "ut tese activities donCt count since tey donCt earn te learners an
"official" piece of paper!
Cultural Determinants) Minority groups all over te #orld tend to participate less tan ma4ority
groups! Tis can "e due to ma4ority groups e'plicitly proi"iting te participation of minority people!
It can also "e tat "elonging to certain non&ma4ority groups can impact oneCs attitudes to#ards
education! As a mem"er of a particular social group$ you may not feel tat you can trust certain forms
of education and may feel uncomforta"le participating in tem! Additionally$ immigrant populations
tend not to participate in educational activities as muc as native&"orn populations!
@ellaCs ,F Principles for Effective Adult Learning
11 8eeds Assessment) Participation of te learner in naming #at is to "e learned!
11 Safet& in te environment "et#een teacer and learner for learning and development!
11 A sound relationship "et#een teacer and learner for learning and development!
11 *areful attention to se9uence of content and reinforcement!
11 $ra2is) Action #it reflection or learning "y doing!
11 4espect for learners as su"4ects of teir o#n learning!
11 *ognitive$ affective$ and psycomotor aspects) ideas6 feelings6 actions!
11 Immediac& of te learning!
11 Clear roles and role development!
111 Team)or1) Ksing small groups!
111 *ngagement of te learners in #at tey are learning!
111 Accountabilit&) Do# do tey %no# tey %no#<
(rom) @ella$ 0! +,--./! Learning to Listen, Learning to Teach! San (rancisco) 0ossey&Bass$ 1&FF!
'o) We Can 5ecome
+ore Intelligent Learners and Teachers
T#elve *aracteristics of Intelligent Beavior)
Bote) Tis is not a complete list3
111 Persistence) Persevering #en te solution to a pro"lem is not readily apparent!
111 Decrease Impulsivity) Tin% "efore spea%ing or doing!
111 Listen) Listen to oters #it empaty and understanding!
111 (le'i"ility in Tin%ing) *onsider oter options&&tereCs never one rigt #ay to do everyting!
111 Metacognition) Try to "e a#are of your o#n tin%ing!
111 *ec% for Accuracy and Precision) =evise$ revise$ revise!
111 Guestioning and Pro"lem Posing) Be critical in your ;uestioning!
111 Kse Past Kno#ledge) Dra# on #at you %no# and apply it to ne# situations!
111 Precise Language and Tougt) Kse more descriptive language to communicate more precisely!
111 Kse All te Senses) Ktili>e as many sensory pat#ays as possi"le&&visual$ tactile$ %inestetic$ auditory$
olfactory$ and gustatory!
111 *reativity) Kse your ingenuity$ originality$ and insigtful&&#e are all creative "eings!
111 Be *urious) 2or% on your sense of #onderment and in;uisitiveness&&learn to en4oy pro"lem solving
and develop a sense of efficacy as a tin%er!

What We Can Do as Teachers to $romote Intelligent 5ehavior:
Dave fait tat all learners can tin%
Delp learners see tin%ing as a goal
Present callenging pro"lem solving opportunities
*reate a safe$ ris%&ta%ing environment
?ive learners time to learn
Provide a ric responsive environment for learning
Pay attention to learnersC developmental readiness and se;uence
Be te %ind of learner you #ould ave tem "e
(rom) *osta$ A! "2at Duman Beings Do 2en Tey Beave Intelligently and Do# Tey *an Become More
So!"