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Sensors used in navigation

Dead Reckoning
Encoders
Potentiometer
LVDT
Tachometer
Gyroscopes
Accelerometer
Doppler
External Sensors
Ultrasonic
Laser range sensors
Bearing lasers
Radar
Global Positioning System
Vision
Vehicle
Model
Internal
Sensor
External Sensor
State
Estimate
Navigation Architecture
External sensors. ( Absolute sensors )
Low Frequency sensors.
The Error is bounded.
Ultrasonic
Radar
GPS
Beacon and Range/Bearing/Intensity laser
Vision
These sensors include distance measurements based on different principles:
TOF: measure time-of-flight of a signal after reflecting a surface
Phase shift measurements ( phase difference between direct and
reflecting signal
FM: The signal is frequency modulated to detect range with the return
echo frequency
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Time of flight sensors
The measured pulses typically come form
ultrasonic, RF and optical energy sources.
D = v * t
D = round-trip distance
v = speed of wave propagation
t = elapsed time
Sound = 0.3 meters / msec
RF/light = 0.3 meters / ns (Very difficult to measure
short distances 1-100 meters)
Ultrasonic Sensors. Polaroid
It was developed for an automatic camera focusing system.
The transducer and electronic circuits cost is less than 50 $US
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Hardware operation
The Electronic board supplied has the following I/0
INIT: trigger the sensor, ( 16 pulses are transmitted )
BLANKING: Goes high to avoid detection of own signal
ECHO : Echo was detected.
BLNK : to be generated if multiple echo is required
time
Ultrasonic Information
-5 (dB) 0 -5 -10 -15
0
90
45
Beam Angle
Beam Angle
Sensor Arc of
Uncertainity
Sensor Specification Sensor Model, angle = 15 degrees
Range is very accurate but bearing has a 30 degree uncertainty. The object
can be located anywhere in the arc.
Typical ranges are of the order of cm to 30 meters.
Another problem is the propagation time (340 m/s). The signal will take
200 msec to travel 60 meters. ( 30 meters roundtrip )
Maximum bandwidth with 30 meter range is 5 Hz.
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Pumps
High-speed
fluid flow
Motors
Environmental
ultrasonic noise
Environmental
ultrasonic noise
Ultrasonic
sensors on other
mobile robots
Ultrasonic
sensors on other
mobile robots
Crosstalk
path
Wall
Mobile
robot
Mobile
robot
Crosstalk
path
Wall
Crosstalk
path
Wall
Mobile
robot
Mobile
robot
Crosstalk
path
Wall
Crosstalk from
onboard
ultrasonic
sensors
Crosstalk from
onboard
ultrasonic
sensors
Other problems with Ultrasonic sensors
Other Problem: Specular Reflections
Specular reflection occur when the wave-front from a sensor hits a smooth surface
that is tilted relative to the incoming "beam" at an angle > 20 - 40 deg.
The wave-front is reflected
away from the sensor,
and no echo is received.
Incoming
wave-front
Smooth
walls
Specular
reflection

A Corner will
look farther
away
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Laser Range finder based on TOF
Schwartz Electro-Optics Laser Rangefinders
Maximum of 100 meters (328 ft). The system uses a pulsed
InGaAs laser diode in conjunction with an avalanche
photodiode detector
SEO Scanning Helicopter Interference Envelope Laser Detector
(SHIELD)
This system was developed for the U.S. Army as an onboard pilot
alert to the presence of surrounding obstructions in a 60-meter
radius hemispherical envelope below the helicopter.
Phase Shift measurements
The phase-shift measurement (or phase-detection) ranging technique
involves continuous wave transmission as opposed to the short pulsed
outputs used in TOF systems.
A beam of amplitude-modulated laser, RF, or acoustical energy is directed
towards the target. A small portion of this wave is reflected by the object's
surface back to the detector along a direct path
The returned energy is compared to a simultaneously generated reference
that has been split off from the original signal, and the relative phase shift
between the two is measured
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Infrared Range finder
A low-cost near-infrared range-finder, for use in autonomous robot navigation in
factories and similar environments is manufactured by ESP Technologies using eye-
safe 2 mW, 820-nanometer LED is used
The Optical Ranging System (ORS-1) provides three outputs: range and bearing of
the target, and an automatic gain control (AGC)
Range resolution at 6.1 meters is approximately 6 centimeters, while angular
resolution is about 2.5 centimeters at a range of 1.5 meters.
Sick laser Range Sensor.
Maximum range : 80 meters
Resolution : 10 mm
Field of view : 100 - 180 degrees
Angular resolution : 0.25 degrees
Scan time : 13 - 40 msec.
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Laser Profiles
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
-600
-500
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
HD
Infrastructure
ore /coal car
Back wall
Front wall
Laser
Last Pulse Return
These lasers are more
immune to Dust and
Fog.
Range 2-500 meters
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Bearing Laser
This sensor is commonly used for navigation of industrial autonomous guided
vehicle (AGV) systems.
A pencil laser beam is mechanically scanned in azimuth around the environment.
Passive reflectors, occasionally bar codes, are placed around the environment at
known surveyed locations.
When a scanner mounted on a vehicle moves through the environment it detects the
presence of these reflectors or beacons. An encoder mounted on the scanner is used
to record the azimuth angle which a reflector is detected. In some cases it can also
return the width of the target making range measurements also possible.
As the vehicle moves through the environment, a sequence of bearing measurements,
to a number of fixed and known landmarks are made and its position is updated

z k r ( ) ( , ) =
x k x y ( ) ( , , ) =

0,0
x
y
B3

B2
B1
Denning LaserNav Position Sensor
This is laser-based scanning beacon system that computes
vehicle position and heading
The fan-shaped beam is spread 4 degrees vertically to ensure
target detection at long range while traversing irregular floor
surfaces, with horizontal divergence limited to 0.017 degrees.
Each target can be uniquely coded so that the sensor can
distinguish between up to 32 separate active or passive targets
during a single scan.
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Attenuation
Lasers are much
more affected by
fog than MMWR
This radar operates in the 77 GHZ band frequency.
The device has a rotor which rotates a deflector to obtain 360 degree-azimuth range
information. A control unit maintains a constant rotational velocity of the deflector plate
positioned above the aperture and reads azimuth of each radar sweep.
The beam angle in the horizontal direction is 1 degree and the vertical angle is 6 degrees
to make the radar insensitive with respect to roll and pitch of the vehicle. (Spoiler)
MMWR. ( University of Sydney)
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This radar is designed for beacon detection and for obstacle avoidance tasks. The radar is
designed to enable the beacons to be identified from all other object reflections. This is
achieved though appropriate design of the beacons and polarization of the radar
transmitted signal
MMWR. ( University of Sydney)
Frequency Modulation
This technique involves transmission of a continuous electro-
magnetic wave modulated by a periodic triangular signal that adjusts
the carrier frequency above and below the mean frequency f
The transmitter emits a signal that varies in frequency as a linear
function of time:
f t f at ( ) = +
0
T
d
c
=
2
F f t f T t at
b
= + = ( ) ( )
Signal generated by the sensor
The reflection from the
target arrives at t + T
d=target distance
The frequency difference is proportional
to the target distance
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Imaging results
Signal Power over 360
o
to 50m
Test site
Container stack image
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Detection
Airborne radar image
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Orepass radar
Radar
Level 1
Crusher
Station
Stop Pulling
Level 3
Stop Tipping
Level 2
Orepass and Orepass Echo Profile Obtained using a FMCW Radar 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
Meas ured Echo: 300m Orepas s ; Fins ch Mine
DEPTH m
S
ig
n
a
l
L
e
v
e
l
d
B
Stereo Vision
Disparity between a Stereo Pair
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Stereo Vision
A pair of cameras separated at a
distance baseline produce a
pair of images that can be used to
determine range
Panoramic Vision
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Panoramic Vision
Inclinometers
This are absolute sensors that measure the inclination of a
platform with respect to a plane tangential to the earth.
They are all based on detection of gravity. Any additional
acceleration will perturb the measurement.
A set of perpendicular accelerometers can be used as an
inclinometer.
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Inclinometers
Pendulum gyros
These sensors use the property that a pendulum with a
length of the radios of the earth will always be in vertical
position.
This can be approximated with electronic compensation
achieving good rejection of translational acceleration.
Watson pendulum gyros Rate Gyro
0.02 Hz 0.02 Hz
freq freq
Inclinometers
This sensor consist of a capacitor divided in four
quadrants.
A fluid with a high dielectric constant is sealed inside. If
the sensor is tilted the bubble will change the position
and the capacitance measured in each quadrant.
With appropriate capacitor shapes the output can be
made linear to the orientation of the sensor