Human Environment: Time - Scale

HUMAN- ENVIRONMENT
TIME -SCALE
Below is a time line of all the main events in the history of the Universe. This web site also contains
a geological time scale.
The Stories in date order are:
15 Billion Years ago
Alpha Particles Atom Big Bang Cosmic Background Radiation Cosmos Electric Charge
Electron Expansion of the Universe False Vacuum Field Gas Gravity Higgs Fields Inflation
Interactions Macrocosmos Neutron Nuclear Fusion Particles Positron Proton Radiation Beta
Radioactivity Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking Universe
Clusters of Galaxies Disc of Galaxy Galaxies Globular Star Cluster
Binary Stars Birth of a Star Galaxy Problems How a Star Works Milky Way Galaxy Open Star
Clusters Spiral Arms Stars
Black Holes Cosmic Dust HONC Atoms Hydrogen Bond Ice Molecules Neutron Star Nova
Red Giant Supernova Water White Dwarf Star
4.7 Billion Years ago
Earth Origin Planets Solar Disc Solar System Solar System Model Sun
Earth Magnetic Field Earth Structure Radioactive Dating Radioactivity Alpha Radioactivity
Volcanoes
4 Billion Years ago
Amino Acid Chains Amino Acids Base Pairing Biological Environment Causes of Ice Ages
Climate Continental Drift Dry Joining Early Atmosphere Enzyme breaks target Evolution
Genes Genetic Problems Greenhouse Effect Ice Ages Life Liquid Water Making Protein
Meteorite Era Mutation Nucleic Acid Nucleic Acid Bases Nucleic Acid Message Origin of Life
Process of Life Protein Rain Reproduction Sunlight Weather Weathering of Rock
Cell Membrane Cell Wall Fermentation
Cell Division Chromosomes
Energy Crisis Archaebacteria Bacteria Bacterial Spores Nitrogen Cycle Photosynthesis Viral
Diseases Viruses
3 Billion Years ago
Blue Green Bacteria Oxygen Poisoning
2 Billion Years ago
Ozone Respiration
Algae Eukaryotes Fertilization Mitochondria Protozoa Sex Symbiosis
1 Billion Years ago
Air Colony of Algae Death Ecosystem Fungi Hormones
700 Million Years ago
Continental Drift Movie Earth 700 my ago Sponge
Earth 650 my ago Jellyfish
Earth 600 my ago
HUMAN- ENVIRONMENT

Ancestral Flatworms Animal Groups Arthropods Mollusk
Earth 550 my ago
Bone Earth 500 my ago Fish Immune System Immune System Diseases Jawless Fish
Vertebrates
Moss
Bony fish Earth 450 my ago Lichen
Earth 400 my ago
Lobe Finned Fish Ray Finned Fish Sharks
Insects
Amphibians Earth 350 my ago Ferns Invertebrates onto Land
Earth 300 my ago Gondwanaland Invertebrates Free From Water Reptiles Seed Plants
Dinosaurs Earth 250 My ago
Earth 200 my ago Fruiting Plants Invertebrate Reproduction Mammals
Birds Earth 150 my ago
Earth 100 my ago
Meteorite
Earth 50 my ago Grasses Horse Family Primates Spread of mammals
Cow Family
3 Million Years ago
Homo Erectus Recent Ice Age
700 Thousand Years ago
Fire
Neanderthals
People
Farmers Nomads
Cities
Kings and Peasants
Empires Iron Middle East Migrations
China Greeks India Roman Empire South America
HUMAN- ENVIRONMENT
1.6 Thousand Years ago

Byzantium
1500 Years ago
Dark Ages
1400 Years ago
Islam
1000 Years ago
Middle Ages
550 Years ago
Colonialism Renaissance
450 Years ago
Copernicus
350 Years ago
Science
250 Years ago
Industrial Revolution
225 Years ago
Capitalism Democracy Law
200 Years ago
Industrial Growth
150 Years ago
Communism
100 Years ago
New Industrial Nations
75 Years ago
Industrial Wars Totalitarian Dictatorships
55 Years ago
Fascism Nuclear Weapons
50 Years ago
Other Technology The Past 50 Years
Today
Climate Threats Computers Futures Longer Term Threats Modern Technology National
Governments Opportunities Pollution Poverty Social Strengths SWOT Analysis Threats
Trade War Weaknesses
20 Years in the future
Future of Medicine
200 Years in the future
Future of Energy
2 Thousand Years in the future
Future of Climate Future of Humanity
10 Thousand Years in the future
Future of Computers
10 Million Years in the future
Earth 10 my in future
HUMAN- ENVIRONMENT
Future of Earth
5 Billion Years in the future
Future of the Sun
Future of Galaxy
Future of Universe
HOMO-ERECTUS
Small intelligent apes which could walk on their back legs appeared in Southern Africa about the
time the recent ice age started 3 million years ago. This freed their front feet which could then evolve
into hands. At the same time their brains evolved so they became intelligent and were able to make
and use tools. Although called Homo habilis, meaning "handy man", these creatures were more like
apes than men.
About two million years ago Homo habilis evolved into the first people called Homo Erectus. Their
bodies were like ours but their faces were still ape-like. They ate raw plants and meat, so they
needed strong jaws to chew their food. They made stone hand-axes, wooden spears and containers.
They built huts and helped each other to hunt big game and gather food. Homo Erectus evolved in
Africa and spread as far as China.
HUMAN- ENVIRONMENT
PEOPLE
Some people find it hard to accept that humans have evolved from animals. Yet there are many
facts leading to that idea. Human cells are eukaryotic, the same as animal cells. Our chromosomes
and genes are almost identical to some of the apes. So are our tissues and organs. Fossil bones
have been found, showing how people evolved.
The main difference between people and other animals is their ability to think, which comes from the
large size of their brain, and their use of language.
Modern people (Homo Sapiens) seem to have evolved in Africa about 100 thousand years ago
(although the date is far from clear) and lived there while the Neanderthals were spreading around
the world.
An interglacial (warm period) began 35 thousand years ago. Then modern people came out of Africa
and spread. Within a few thousand years they replaced the Neanderthals in Europe and Asia. Then
about 25 thousand years ago the weather turned cold again and a glacial began. During the glacial,
people improved the tools used by Neanderthals, developing specialized tools for different jobs.
But the thing which really set them apart from Neanderthals was their use of art and decoration.
Cave paintings, beads, clay statuettes, carvings on the handles of tools, all show a more developed
sense of art than Neanderthals ever did.
Many animals were hunted to extinction and people spread around the world.
The weather turned warm 11 thousand years ago and the present interglacial began. Many of the
glaciers melted, it rained heavily, and the oceans rose 100 meters. New animals and plants replaced
the old. People took up different ways of life: Nomads and farmers.
Nomads
Farmers
Cities
Kings and Peasants
India
China
South America
Middle East
Migrations
Empires
Iron
Greeks
Roman Empire
Byzantium
Dark Ages
Islam
Middle Ages
Renaissance
Colonialism
Copernicus
HUMAN- ENVIRONMENT
SCIENCE
Mathematics, ideas and technology together led to the invention of science in about 1650. Science is
a way of understanding the world, but the method can be used to solve almost any problem. The
method is as follows:
 The first thing to do is to realize that there is a problem.

 You then explore the problem, looking at and measuring things, looking for patterns, for
things which stay the same while other things change, or for things which change in a
regular way. Scientists call these patterns laws of science. Usually you need some
mathematics to state the law.
 This exploration will, if you are lucky, lead to an understanding of what is really happening
underneath the things you can see. Often this involves a new idea, which scientists call a
theory. The theory must explain the laws. Inventing theories is a highly creative part of
science. A scientist is every bit as creative as an artist or a composer.
 The theory must now be put to the test. (This is where the Greeks made their mistake--they
did not test their theories.) You test a theory by using it to make a prediction: if your theory is
true, what else will happen? It needs a lot of imagination to find a prediction which can be
tested.
 Now you do an experiment to test the prediction. So you are back to looking and measuring.
If your predicted law proves to be true, then you can be a bit happier with your theory. If your theory
explains every law in that area of science then you can be very happy with it. Notice however that
any theory might be shown to be wrong at any time by somebody finding a law it cannot explain!
Science changes, and old theories are replaced by new ones, all the time. Science does not tell us
the truth, it just tells us the latest theories about things. (The same is true of this book).
Around this time scientific clubs were formed where laws, theories and experiments were discussed.
People started to print scientific books and journals and the findings of science spread round Europe
during the next 100 years.
Around 1750 the little ice age reached its coldest.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Modern civilization started to grow about 250 years ago, in size if not always in maturity. The results
of this growth are shown most clearly in this graph of world population. The graph started to rise 250
years ago and has been getting steeper ever since. Many of today's problems are caused by this
rise in population. So what caused it?
It grew out of advances in science and technology which had grown after the Renaissance. It started
in England when steam engines were used to pump water out of mines and to drive machines in
factories. Steam power began to replace muscle power and let people do a lot more work. An
important use of steam was to drive the cotton mills to manufacture cloth. People in England began
to leave the land and move into cities. The factory owners grew rich, the workers were poor. Jobs
were specialized and so production became more efficient. This is called the Industrial Revolution.
Factories produced more goods than the country could use. So industrial countries needed their
colonies both for raw materials and as a market for these extra goods. The technology gap between
the industrial countries and their colonies increased.
Most of the forests which grew before people arrived had been burnt or used for building. In England
people began to use coal instead of wood to make iron and fuel their steam boilers. Pollution from
coal began to affect industrial areas.
HUMAN- ENVIRONMENT
DEMOCRACY
About 225 years ago a revolution in the American colonies led to the first modern democracy. This is
a system of government which assumes that people have rights, and that one of these is the right to
choose the government by regular, free elections. The purpose of the government is to protect the
rights of the people they govern. This was the birth of the nation state. In the United States of
America a federal system of government began in which power was shared between the central
government and the states.
Revolution spread first to France and then through most of Europe. Nationalism, the feeling that one
nation is better than all others, grew in many of the nation states. Sovereignty was taken from the
king and given to the government, who held it on behalf of the people.
CAPITALISM
At this time the theory of capitalism was invented. This said that free markets, in which anyone could
make, buy and sell freely, would evolve to produce the greatest good for the greatest number of
people. Competition between businesses would bring prices down to the lowest possible level while
keeping employment at its highest possible level, and governments should not try to control markets.
The theory said that monopolies kept prices too high and should not be allowed. Competition always
led to the best conditions, according to capitalist ideas. The industrial countries adopted this system
and it led to the end of mercantilism.
INDUSTRIAL-WAR
Two industrial wars were fought in which the whole economies of giant industrial nations were
concentrated on war and destruction. Like almost all other wars, these were caused by nations trying
to build empires for themselves.
NUCLEAR WEAPONS
Industrial scale war increased the speed of technological development. Nuclear weapons were
made which could destroy whole cities. The first bombs used the power of radioactive decay to give
out huge amounts of energy. They are often called nuclear or atom bombs. Around 50 years ago an
atom bomb was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima, killing 100 thousand people and
spreading pollution around the world. This day of shame and horror should have made scientists
stop and think what they were doing. It did not seem to. Instead they competed with each other to
make even bigger bombs. Later bombs used a nuclear explosion to trigger nuclear fusion, the same
process which powers the Sun and other stars. These bombs are often called hydrogen bombs.
Computers, rockets, poison gases, radar, television, jet engines, antibiotics and many other
technologies were developed during these wars. Computers are machines which can process
information. They follow a series of instructions called a program in order to process information
called data. The invention of the computer allowed vastly more information to be handled than had
ever been possible before.
HUMAN- ENVIRONMENT
PAST 50 YEARS
The horrors done during the wars so frightened and appalled the world that the United Nations
(known as the UN) was started. Its aims are:
 to stop war happening again;

 to establish human rights;
 to build international law (which governs the relations between nations); and to help world-
wide social and economic progress.
The United States of America (USA) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR, later
replaced by Russia), China, France and Britain sit in the Security Council, together with a ten other
nations elected by the General Assembly (see below). Their decisions are international law. But the
nations still had not learnt their lesson. For many years the political struggle between the capitalist
nations (led by the USA) and the communists (led by the USSR) paralyzed the Council.
All nations send representatives to the General Assembly, where they can express their feelings on
any subject. But their decisions are not law, and the representatives are not elected by the people
but chosen by national governments. One of the first acts of the General Assembly was to proclaim
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It is one of the most important documents ever written.
Almost all the old colonial powers were too weary of war to keep their colonies, none of which made
a profit. These became independent countries, but usually supported by one of the two power
blocks. Wars among these small nations supported by the super-powers continued.
Capitalism created great wealth and many new technologies, but it did not work well for everybody. It
led to high unemployment, big differences between rich and poor, and to the growth of monopolies in
which one company could control a market. So governments began to soften the effects of
capitalism by providing unemployment benefit, health care and other services, and to end
monopolies.
Communism failed to create wealth for its people, did not inspire them to work hard, and could not
afford the military technology which capitalist countries invented. After much suffering communism
was finally overthrown in most countries, and America became the sole remaining world power.
MODERN TECHNOLOGY
There seems no end in sight to the discovery of new technologies. The invention of the rocket led to
the conquest of space, and humanity reached the Moon. It seems comparable to the step life took
when leaving the water and starting to live on land, although as yet humanity is far from being able
to live permanently on the Moon.
The climate continued to grow warmer during this period, probably due to the greenhouse effect
COMPUTERS
Computers are machines which process information. At the present time most computers are
electronic, but much faster optical computers are probably just around the corner. Computers have a
number of advantages over animals such as humans, and I predict that in the future computers, not
humans, will colonize the rest of the solar system and spread out into the Galaxy.
HUMAN- ENVIRONMENT
SWOT- ANALYSIS
We have watched the birth, childhood and growth of modern industrial society. Now it is time for us
to take stock of ourselves. Who are we, and where are we going? One way to do this is to carry out
a SWOT analysis of humanity.
SWOT is a method of analyzing a group or organization by looking at its Strengths and Weaknesses
and at the Opportunities and Threats which it faces. After the analysis the managers of the
enterprise have to decide what to do.
What follows is my analysis. Perhaps before you read it you should do your own?
STRENGTH
This is part of a SWOT analysis of the current world situation.
Not too many of these, unfortunately. Humans are good at solving problems, discovering science
and using it in technology. Industrialized societies have highly developed educational, industrial
communications, economic, legal and political systems. Most mothers are good at loving and
nurturing their family.
WEAKNESS
The rich do not share things readily with the poor. Charity and kindness are not strong traits, unlike
excessive consumption and waste among the rich. Love and toleration of other ethnic, racial or
religious groups is poor and fighting and development of war technology is common. Democracy is
far less common among the systems of government of nations than dictatorships, which have a
strong tendency to become totalitarian. International cooperation is rare, with few rich nations
contributing their full share either in aid to poor nations or to the UN.
Industry shows little regard for environmental concerns until forced to by law or consumer pressure.
Industry in developing countries shows signs of repeating this neglect. Farming uses sprays too
often. Too much development is for short term gain and is not sustainable. Long term planning is
rare. Consumerism and idolization of the motor
OPPORTUNITY
Most of the threats in my list are global. I therefore look for global opportunities for change. The
following are opportunities for increasing global economic and political cooperation and for managing
the world more sensibly:
 the development of the internet is opening up new opportunities for the spread of information
and for trade
 the development of computer technology extends human brainpower
 the collapse of communism in most countries has seen the decline in world tensions
 the spread of democracy and capitalism presents opportunities for increased trade and
wealth creation
HUMAN- ENVIRONMENT
 the growing military, economic and political importance of multinational bodies such as the
European Community will probably lead to less chance of war and better governance
 the recognition of the extent of global problems and the realization that individual nations are
powerless to solve them alone has already led to greater international cooperation, and this
trend will continue
 the growing power of green movements and public awareness of the need for conservation
has already helped to reduce problems of pollution, and this will continue
 increasing international effort to control disease, which has already eradicated smallpox
 the growing importance of world markets to many businesses will lead to a more global view
by a greater number of people
 the huge cost of major scientific research such as the development of controlled nuclear
fusion and space exploration will lead to greater international cooperation
 the growing importance of the UN in coordinating action in many fields at a global level will
increase stability in international relations
 of the 193 countries in the world today, 117 have broadly democratic governments, between
them governing 54% of the worlds population. This is encouraging.
THREATS
There are so many threats to the world that we can only deal with some of the major ones. I classify
them as
 National Governments
 War
 Trade
 Poverty
 Social
 Pollution
 Climate
 Longer Term
National Governments are one of the threats facing the world today, as I see it.
 We live in a time of international chaos. The world is divided into about 200 nation states,
each with a government which claims total power (or sovereignty) over its land and people.
 These governments, whether elected or dictators, do what they think is best for themselves,
not what is best for the whole world.
 The borders of ex-colonies have often been arbitrarily drawn across tribal geographical or
migrational boundaries.
 These countries are often small and neither economically viable nor politically stable.
 Dictatorships can take over nations and the UN has no right to do anything about it until the
dictator threatens another nation.
 Often only military dictatorships can enforce discipline on poor people who are getting poorer
due to national debt and falling world prices. Democracy stands little chance of growing in
these countries.
 Islamic fundamentalism is spreading, establishing religious dictatorships which do not
recognize human rights.
HUMAN- ENVIRONMENT
 China has been isolated from the rest of the world for 5000 years. Ruled by communist
dictators and being one of the poorest nations on Earth, she is unlikely to take a full part in
the world in the near future.
WAR
 In all regions of the world, national governments spend far more money on arms than on
development, health or education.
 Military sending takes colossal amounts of money, technical and human resources which
are urgently needed for development.
 Chemical and biological weapons are being made in new varieties and greater quantities.
 Nuclear, chemical and biological weapons continue to spread.

 The movements of people fleeing war is still a huge problem in the world today. In 1999 the
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimated there were 11.5
million refugees and between 20 and 25 million people who have been forced out of their
homes but have stayed within their own country. No national government sees any benefit
to themselves in paying to help them.
This is one of the Threats identified during a SWOT analysis of the current world situation.
It is hard to over-emphasize the extent to which the world today relies for its energy on oil. If the rich
nations (where most of the oil is burnt) were to stop using it, their economies would almost come to
a halt. A huge investment will be needed to switch the world economy to a sustainable form of
energy.
International trade is heavily weighted against the developing countries. Industrial governments
refuse to accept UN proposals for fair terms of trade and reform of the international monetary
system. Debt and falling prices means the poor are getting poorer.
TRADE
nations (where most of the oil is burnt) were to stop using it, their economies would almost come to a
halt. A huge investment will be needed to switch the world economy to a sustainable form of energy.
POVERTY
 The poor countries owe the rich ones more than one million million dollars.
 For every dollar given in aid, three come back to the rich nations in interest on this debt.
 Two in every three people live in poverty.
 Half the children in Africa live in absolute poverty.
 One child under 5 dies every 2.4 seconds in the poor countries. At least half these deaths
could be prevented by a few low-cost health actions.
 Of every four people in the developing world, two have no clean water and three have no
toilets. This is the reason for most common diseases in those countries.
HUMAN- ENVIRONMENT
 The aid which most rich countries give to poor countries is often tied to large engineering
projects or purchases from the donor country which are not always appropriate to the
recipient country.
 The burning down of the forests which began 10,000 years ago continues today. To make
money to pay their debts poor countries are destroying their wealth. Tropical rain forests are
being burnt down to clear land for fields An area equal to a football pitch is being cleared
every two seconds. Much of this turns into desert within a few years.
nations (where most of the oil is burnt) were to stop using it, their economies would almost come to
a halt. A huge investment will be needed to switch the world economy to a sustainable form of
energy.
SOCIAL
Laws and police methods vary by country, making it easy for international crime and terrorism to use
these differences for their own ends.
There are 6 billion people in the world now, and this will probably double in the next 50 years. Half of
these people live on less than US$2 per day. 130 million will never have an opportunity to go to
school. 1.3 billion people have no clean water to drink.
The population explosion, sparked by industrialism, is the cause of many of the world's other
problems. Around the world cities are growing larger, producing slums and poverty for many and
great wealth for a few. Rich countries waste a great deal of money and resources by needless
packaging, by failing to recycle paper, glass and other materials, by producing new fashions rather
than new goods, and by producing goods of poor quality which have short lives
POLLUTION
 Acid rain is created by some nations and affects others.

 Land is being polluted by chemicals.
 The ozone layer is thinning due to pollution of the air. This increases the risk of cancer for
people and animals.
 Toxic waste produced by industry is often dumped on developing countries.
 Accidents involving dangerous chemicals and nuclear materials affect people, land, sea and
air. Most of humanity's waste ends in the oceans, often without any processing.
 Rivers flow through different countries, passing pollution on.
 Humans have been hunting animals to extinction for at least 25 thousand years, but now, as
the forests are burnt and rivers and lakes are polluted, so animals and plants are becoming
extinct by sheer carelessness
HUMAN- ENVIRONMENT
CLIMATE
In the short term the Earth is warming, probably because of the greenhouse effect caused by carbon
dioxide pollution of the atmosphere. Most of the greenhouse gases are made by the rich countries
who will not reduce them much because of the damage that would do to their economies. Instead
they blame the poor countries for burning their forests. Warming will probably change the growth of
plants, leading to more mass movements of people. Sea level will rise, flooding major coastal cities.
In the medium term the Earth is probably heading toward another glacial. This will cause even more
problems than global warming.
LONG TERM EFFECTS
In the medium to long term we can expect a huge meteorite impact, causing mass extinctions. Its not
sure what the effects of the reversal of the Earth's magnetic field will be.
POPULATION
The population growth rate measures how populations change in size over time. The units of
population growth rate are individuals per time. Population size can only be changed by four factors.
Births add new individuals to a population whereas deaths remove individuals from a population.
Similarly, immigration into a population adds new individuals whereas emigration out of a population
removes individuals. Population growth rates are positive when more individuals are added to a
population than are removed, negative when more individuals are removed than are added, and are
equal to zero when an equal number of individuals are added and removed. This population size is
known as the carrying capacity and is the size beyond which no significant increase can occur due
to limitations of some type, e.g., food, water, space, etc.
Effects of birth and death rates on population growth rate
Although immigration and emigration can be important factors influencing patterns of population
growth in some human populations (for example in the United States), for simplicity, most population
growth models focus on how population growth rates are affected by birth and death rates. In
population ecology, the population growth rate (dN/dt, units - individuals/time) is the product of the
population size (N, units - individuals) and the per capita growth rate (r, units - individuals/time
individual). The per capita growth rate, which can be calculated by subtracting the per capita death
rate (d – the number of deaths/time/individual) from the per capita birth rate (b- the number of
births/time/individual), is a variable that integrates the effects of birth and death rates. See
Population growth rate example.
Models of population growth
Population ecologists and wildlife managers have developed models of population growth. Some
models of population growth (e.g., exponential growth and logistic growth) make simple assumptions
and have helped ecologists to .explore the factors that affect population growth. Other models have
been developed to explicitly model population dynamics of particular species in a particular
environment.
HUMAN- ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSAL DECLARATION
The General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed this Universal Declaration of Human Rights
in December 1948, as a common target for all peoples and all nations so that every person and
every part of society would try to promote for these rights and freedoms by teaching and education,
and to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance among the peoples of
Member States themselves and among the peoples of lands under their rule by progressive national
and international measures.
1. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They have reason and
conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brother-hood.
2. Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set out in this Declaration, without distinction
of any kind, such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or
social origin, property, birth or other status.
Also there should be no difference in treatment because of the political, legal or international
status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-
self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.
3. Everyone has the right to life, liberty and the security of person.
4. No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in
all their forms.
5. No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, in-human or degrading treatment or

punishment.
6. Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.
7. All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of
the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this
Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.
8. Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts
violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.
9. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.
10. Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and
impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge
against him.
11.1. Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved
guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his
defense.
11.2. No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did
not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was
committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time
the penalty offence was committed.
HUMAN- ENVIRONMENT
12. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or
correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honor and reputation. Everyone has the right to the
protection of the law against such interference or attacks.
13.1. Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each
State.
13.2. Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.
14.1. Everyone has the and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.
14.2. This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-
political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
15.1. Everyone has the right to a nationality.
15.2. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his
nationality.
16.1. Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have
the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during
marriage and at its dissolution.
16.2. Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses.
16.3. The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection
by society and the State.
17.1. Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others.
17.2. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.
18. Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes
freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others
and in public or private, to manifest his religion of belief in teaching, practice, worship and
observance.
19. Everyone has the right of freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to
hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through
any media and regardless of frontiers.
20.1. Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
20.2. No one may be compelled to belong to an association.
21.1. Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through
freely chosen representatives.
21.2. Everyone has the right of equal access to public services in his country.
HUMAN- ENVIRONMENT
21.3. The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be
expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and
shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.
22. Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization,
through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and
resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural right indispensable for his dignity
and the free development of his personality.
23.1. Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favorable
conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.
23.2. Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work.
23.3. Everyone who works has the right to just and favorable remuneration ensuring for himself
and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other
means of social protection.
23.4. Everyone has the right to form and join trade unions for the protection of his interests.
24. Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours
and periodic holidays with pay.
25.1. Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of
himself and of his family, including food, clothing and housing and medical care and necessary
social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability,
widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.
25.2. Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether
born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection.
26.1. Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and
fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional
education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to
all on the basis of merit.
26.2. Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the
strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental s. It shall promote understanding,
tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the
activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
26.3. Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their
children.
27.1. Everyone has the right to freely participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the
arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.
27.2. Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from
any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author.
HUMAN- ENVIRONMENT
28. Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set
forth in this Declaration can be fully realized.
29.1. Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his
personality is possible.
29.2. In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations
as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the
rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and
the general welfare in a democratic society.
29.3. These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and
principles of the United Nations.
30. Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any
right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights
and freedoms set forth here-in.
Science is an integral part of culture. It's not this foreign thing, done by an arcane
priesthood. It's one of the glories of human intellectual tradition.
Stephen Jay Gould

Human Environment: Time - Scale

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HUMAN- ENVIRONMENT

The Stories in date order are:

570 Million Years ago

1.6 Thousand Years ago

 The first thing to do is to realize that there is a problem.

Around 1750 the little ice age reached its coldest.

 to stop war happening again;

This is part of a SWOT analysis of the current world situation.

This is part of a SWOT analysis of the current world situation.

This is part of a SWOT analysis of the current world situation.

This is part of a SWOT analysis of the current world situation.

 Acid rain is created by some nations and affects others.

LONG TERM EFFECTS

Effects of birth and death rates on population growth rate

Models of population growth

5. No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, in-human or degrading treatment or

9. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.

15.1. Everyone has the right to a nationality.

17.2. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.

20.2. No one may be compelled to belong to an association.

Stephen Jay Gould

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