A NONDESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION METHOD OF

CONCRETE VOIDS: FREQUENCY DIFFERENTIAL

ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE SCANNING
SUNGWHAN KIM , JIN KEUN SEO, AND TEAYOUNG HA
Abstract. This paper proposes a new nondestructive evaluation method for
detecting cracks, voids, and other hidden defects inside the concrete structure,
called frequency dierential electrical impedance scanning (fdEIS). The pri-
mary benet of fdEIS over the conventional nondestructive methods is that
it is possible to determine the thickness of the voids. In fdEIS, we inject a
sequence of electrical currents with various frequencies through the tested con-
crete wall by applying sinusoidal voltage dierence between a surface electrode
and a scan probe, which are placed on surface of the wall. Through the probe,
we measure the derivative
d
d
g

of exit currents (Neumann data) with respect

to the angular frequency variable . We nd the fundamental concept in fdEIS
relating the thickness of the voids to
d
d
g

and derive an approximation formula

for estimating the thickness of the voids. We demonstrate the performance of
our method in numerical simulations.
1. Introduction
A large amount of concrete structures across the world is now approaching
the end of their design service life. With growing concern about their aging
structures, non-destructive evaluation (NDE) has played an increasingly impor-
tant role in maintenance of concrete structures. NDE techniques can be ap-
plied to access conditions of concrete structure such as extent and location of
cracks, voids, delamination, and other hidden defects. A list of NDE techniques
includes: impact-echo, radiographic testing, electric potential drop method, ul-
trasonic testing, infrared thermography, grounded penetrating radar, and so on
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Most of conventional NDE inspections appear qualitative rather
than quantitative and often depend on the subjective judgment of the inspectors.
All existing NDE techniques have inherent limitations in measuring the thick-
ness of the air voids quantitatively. Let us briey explain why the conventional
method such as ultrasonic testing and infrared thermography are unsuitable for
estimating the thickness of the internal crack or voids quantitatively. Ultrasonic
testing makes use of reections at the boundaries of defects within the tested
concrete structures, and hence it is ecient to obtain the depth information of
defects. However, ultrasound cannot pass through air-lled regions, so it is not
capable of evaluating the thickness of an air void. Infrared thermography is an
area testing technique so that it is capable of forming a two dimensional image of
1
2 SUNGWHAN KIM , JIN KEUN SEO, AND TEAYOUNG HA
c
o
n
c
r
e
t
e

w
a
l
l
air void
reference electrode
Scan Probe
Figure 1. fdEIS model (Left) and the sensor conguration of the
scan probe on which the exit current g

= ( + i)u

n is
measured. (left)
the horizontal extent of subsurface anomalies, while the depth from the concrete
surface or thickness of a void cannot be determined.
The purpose of this work is to propose a new quantitative NDE technique for
estimating the thickness of voids within in-situ concrete structures. This new
concrete void detection and monitoring method is called frequency dierential
electrical impedance scanning (fdEIS). In fdEIS, we place a scan probe and a
reference electrode on the opposite sides of the evaluated concrete wall as shown
in Figure 1. A sinusoidal voltage of V
0
sin t with various frequencies f =

2
in
the range of 10Hz to 100kHz is applied through the reference electrode, while
the scan probe is kept at the ground potential. This voltage dierence produces
electric current owing through the tested wall. Then the corresponding time
harmonic electric potential u

at the angular frequency satises

(i) (( + i)u

(x)) = 0 inside the concrete wall

(ii) u

(x) = 0 on the scan probe

(iii) u

(x) = V
0
on the reference electrode
(1.1)
where = (x, ) is the conductivity distribution and = (x, ) is the permit-
tivity distribution of the concrete wall. The scan probe consists of a planar array
of circular electrodes to measure the exit current g

= ( +i)u

n, where
n is the unit normal vector to the probe.
The key idea of fdEIS is to use the frequency dierential Neumann data
d
d
g

g
+
g

on the scan probe

to determine the thickness and the location of the air void inside the concrete
wall. Indeed, we found that the thickness of the void is inversely proportional to
NONDESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION METHOD OF CONCRETE VOIDS 3
the imaginary part of the frequency dierential
d
d
g

in the presence of the void:

the thickness of the air void
_
d
d
g

[
=0
_
1
,
where :=
0
and
0
8.85410
12
[F/m] is the permittivity of the free space.
We demonstrate the performance of our method in numerical simulations.
2. Frequency differential electrical impedance scanning
Let the tested concrete wall occupy a rectangular parallelepiped region with
boundary . Let and be the portions of on which the scan probe and
the reference electrode are placed, respectively, as in Figure 1. Without loss of
generality, we let x
3
be the label of the axis normal to both and , and let
= (x
1
, x
2
, 0) :
_
x
2
1
+ x
2
2
< l and = (x
1
, x
2
, ) :
_
x
2
1
+ x
2
2
< l for some
> 0. We suppose that there is an air void D inside and that and are
constant in

D:
+ i =
_
i
0
in D

c
+ i
c
, in

D.
(2.1)
For a realistic example, we may set
c
= 10
6
[S/m],
0
= 8.8 10
12
[F/m],

c
= 15
0
[F/m].
When we apply a sinusoidal voltage of V
0
sin t with the scan probe kept
zero potential, the resulting time harmonic electric potential u

inside is the
H
1
()-solution to the following mixed boundary problem
_

_
(( + i)u

(x)) = 0 in
u

(x) = 0, x
u

(x) = V
0
, x
( + i)u

(x) n(x) = 0, x ( )
(2.2)
where n is the unit outward normal vector to the boundary . The existence
and uniqueness of the problem (2.2) are obvious [10]. Denoting the real and
imaginary parts of u

by v

= 'u

and h

= u

, the mixed boundary value

problem (2.2) can be expressed as the following coupled system:
_

_
(v

) (h

) = 0 in
(v

) + (h

) = 0 in
v

= 0 and h

= 0 on
v

= V
0
and h

= 0 on
n v

= 0 and n h

= 0 on ( ).
(2.3)
Using the scan probe, we measure the Neumann data g

which can be decomposed

into
g

(x) := n (v

(x) + h

(x))
. .
real part
+i n (h

(x) v

(x))
. .
imaginary part
, x .
4 SUNGWHAN KIM , JIN KEUN SEO, AND TEAYOUNG HA
Figure 2. 1-D fdEIS Model
In fdEIS, we measure the Neumann data g

with various frequencies ranging from

10Hz to 100kHz and get the frequency dierential map
d
d
g

g
+
g

on . (2.4)
Now, we try to relate
d
d
g

with the thickness of D.

2.1. Key observation. To nd an explicit relation between the frequency dif-
ferential
d
d
g

and the thickness of D, we consider a simple model where is

a cylindrical domain := x R
3
:
_
x
2
1
+ x
2
2
< l, < x
3
< 0 and
D = x : a < x
3
< a + d is the transversal slab with the thickness d
and 0 < a < . In this case, the solution u

of (2.2) satises the following 1-D

boundary value problem:
_
d
dx
3
_
( + i)
d
dx
3
u

(x
3
)
_
= 0, x
3
(, 0)
u

() = V
0
and u

(0) = 0.
(2.5)
In this 1-D model, it follows from the transmission condition that
g

(0) = (
c
+ i
c
)
du
+

dx
3
(0)
= (
c
+ i
c
)
du
+

dx
3
(a + d) (2.6)
= i
0
du

dx
3
(a + d)
= i
0
u

(a + d) u

(a)
d
,
NONDESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION METHOD OF CONCRETE VOIDS 5
where u
+

= u

[
\

D
and u

= u

[
D
. When = 0 in (2.3), h
0
= 0 in and v
0
satises
_
_
_
v
0
= 0 in

D
v
0
[

= V
0
& v
0
[

= 0
n v

= 0 on D ( ( )) .
(2.7)
Since v
0
is not dened inside D, we extend v
0
into D in the way that v
0
inside D
is the solution of the Laplace equation in D with the Dirichlet data v
0
[
D
. Let
u
0
= v
0
+ ih
0
in and g
0
=
v
0

on . Then, it is easy to show that u

u
0
in H
1
() as 0. Since u

(a) V
0
and u

(a + d) 0 as 0, we have
d
d
g

(0)[
=0
:= lim
0
g

(0) g
0
(0)

=
i
0
V
0
d
. (2.8)
This explains the key observation providing the explicit formula for the thickness
of D.
Theorem 2.1. [Fundamental principle in fdEIS] Assume g

is the measured
Neumann data corresponding to 1-D model (2.5). Let =
0
. Then
d
d
g

(0)[
=0
=
_
V
0
/d if D ,= .
0 if D = .
(2.9)
Note that if

2
100kHz, then =
0
8.854 10
12
10
4
.
2.2. 3-D model. The fundamental principle in 1-D fdEIS in the previous section
explains how the frequency map g

is related with the thickness of the void

D. This interrelation can be described more clearly by introducing distance
between and dened by
dist

(, ) =
V
0
_

[g

[ds
.
According to Theorem 2.1, we can expect the following properties.
The distance dist

(, ) decreases as the angular frequency increases.

The speed of the decreasing rate of dist

(, ) at the low frequency range

is closely related to the thickness of D.
Imagine that
_

[g

[ds = 1 is xed and V

0
is varying with respect to
. Then dist

(, ) evaluates the corresponding voltage drop at the

frequency .
Figure 3 shows how the distance between and is related with the ow of
the current density ( + i)u

.
Now, we consider a general 3-D model and try to derive a quantitative relation
between
d
d
g

and the thickness of an air void as in Theorem 2.1. It is quite

dicult to investigate rigorously how the interrelation between v

and h

changes
with respect to . As far as we know, the fundamental theory of the maximum
6 SUNGWHAN KIM , JIN KEUN SEO, AND TEAYOUNG HA
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
(a-1) {( + i
1
)u

1
} (b-1) {( + i
2
)u

2
}
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
(a-2) {( + i
1
)u

1
} (b-2) {( + i
2
)u

2
}
Figure 3. The vector elds of real and imaginary parts of (a)
( + i
1
)u

1
with

1
2
= 10Hz and (b) ( + i
2
)u

2
with

2
2
= 10
5
Hz. The curved arrows in (a-1) and (b-1) mean that the
electrical current cannot pass through the void at the frequency
10Hz, while it can pass though the void at the higher frequency 10
5
Hz.
principle for the equation (2.3) is not known although the following maximum
principle should be true:
sup
x
_
[v

(x)[
2
+[h

(x)[
2
V
0
. (conjecture)
The main reason why the above maximum principle is true is that the amplitude
of an internal voltage should be less than the amplitude of the applied voltage.
Moreover, we cannot use the standard minimizing technique using the variational
principle since u

is a kind of a saddle point [8, 11] in the sense that

V
0
_

'(g

)ds = min
vH
re
max
hH
im
_

_
[v[
2
2v h [h[
2

dx (2.10)
and
V
0
_

(g

)ds = min
vH
re
max
hH
im
_

_
[v[
2
+ 2v h [h[
2

dx, (2.11)
where H
re
:= v H
1
() : v[

= 0, v[

= V
0
,
v
n
[
\()
= 0 and H
im
:=
h H
1
() : h[

= 0,
h
n
[
\()
= 0.
We try to nd a 3-D counterpart of (2.6). The following lemma is useful to
understand an interrelation between
d
d
g

and D.
NONDESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION METHOD OF CONCRETE VOIDS 7
Lemma 2.2. The complex potential u

= v

+ ih

satises
V
0
_

n
ds =
1

2
c
+
2

2
c
_

c
+
2

c
_ _
[v

[
2
+[h

[
2
_
and
V
0
_

n
ds =
1

2
c
+
2

2
c
_

(
c

c
)
_
[v

[
2
+[h

[
2
_
.
Proof. Since v

and h

satisfy the equation (2.3), we have

_

[v

[
2
h

dx = V
0
_

c
v

n

c
h

n
_
ds
_

+ [h

[
2
dx = 0
and
_

[h

[
2
dx = 0
_

[v

[
2
+ h

dx = V
0
_

c
v

n
+
c
h

n
_
ds.
The above identities yield the followings
_

_
[v

[
2
+[h

[
2
_
= V
0
_

c
v

n

c
h

n
_
ds
_

_
[v

[
2
+[h

[
2
_
= V
0
_

c
v

n
+
c
h

n
_
ds
which lead to
_

c
+
2

c
_ _
[v

[
2
+[h

[
2
_
=
_

2
c
+
2

2
c
_
V
0
_

n
ds
_

(
c

c
)
_
[v

[
2
+[h

[
2
_
=
_

2
c
+
2

2
c
_
V
0
_

n
ds
This completes the proof.
The following theorem shows the -dierentiability of the solution u

of (2.2)
in and reveals the denite relation between the frequency dierential map
d
d
g

and the air void D.

Theorem 2.3. The complex potential u

is dierentiable with respect to and

the derivative
du

d
is the H
1
()-solution of the following mixed boundary value
problem:
_
_
_

_
( + i)
du

d
_
= i (u

) in
du

d
= 0 on
( + i) n
_
du

d
_
= 0 on ( ).
(2.12)
8 SUNGWHAN KIM , JIN KEUN SEO, AND TEAYOUNG HA
Moreover,
d
d
g

=0
satises
_

d
d
g

=0
ds
_

c
g
0
ds =
1
V
0
_
D
[v
0
[
2
dx. (2.13)
Proof. Suppose u

1
and u

2
are the solutions of (2.2) with =
1
and =
2
,
respectively. Then u

2
u

1
satises
(( + i
2
)(u

2
u

1
)) = i(
2

1
) (u

1
) in
with the boundary conditions
_
u

2
u

1
= 0 on
n (u

2
u

1
) = 0 on ( ).
Hence,
u

2
u

1
can be viewed as the weak solution of the following :
_

_
( + i
2
)
_
u

2
u

1
__
= i (u

1
) in
u

2
u

1
= 0 on
( + i
2
) n
_
u

2
u

1
_
= 0 on ( ).
(2.14)
Hence, (2.12) follows from the standard limiting process using (2.14).
Next, we consider the frequency derivative of g

. Since g

=
c
v

n

c
h

n
on , Lemma 2.2 implies
V
0
_

ds =
_

_
[v

[
2
+[h

[
2
_
dx. (2.15)
Using the boundary condition for v
0
, we have
V
0
_

c
g
0
ds =
_
\

c
[v
0
[
2
dx
From (2.15) and the above identity, we have
V
0
_

ds V
0
_

c
g
0
ds
=
_

_
[v

[
2
+[h

[
2
_
dx
_
\

c
[v
0
[
2
dx
=
_
D

0
[v
0
[
2
dx +
_

_
[v

[
2
[v
0
[
2
_
dx +
_

[h

[
2
dx.
Dividing the above identity by
0
yields
_

ds
_

c
g
0
ds =
1
V
0
_
D
[v
0
[
2
dx + Err

where the error term Err

is
Err

=
1
V
0
_

0
_
[v

[
2
[v
0
[
2
_
dx +
1
V
0
_

0
[h

[
2
dx.
NONDESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION METHOD OF CONCRETE VOIDS 9
2l
a
c
d b D
a
c
d b D
2l
a
b
c
2l
d
D
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4. fdEIS models with three dierent types of voids. (a)
internal rectangular void (b) internal non-rectangular void (c) sur-
face breaking void
The identity (2.13) follows from the fact that Err

0 as 0.

We try to understand the identity (2.13) in terms of the thickness of the air
void D. We consider the special case of and D in Figure 4 (a) in two dimension
and denote the width of D and by c and a, respectively. It is easy to see that
if c = a, then
1
V
0
_
D
[v
0
[
2
dx =
V
0
c
d
and
_

g
0
ds = 0.
In the case where l < c < a, we expect
1
V
0
_
D
[v
0
[
2
dx
V
0
d
since v
0
0 at the
center of the top line of the void D and v
0
V
0
at the center of the bottom line
of D. Hence,
1
V
0
_

d
d
g

[
=0
ds
1
d
. Various numerical simulations in gure 5
in the next section show that
d
d
g

(0)[
=0

V
0
d
(2.16)
The above approximation can be viewed as an extension of the one dimensional
result (2.9) in Theorem 2.1. However, we are not able to provide a rigorous
support for the above approximation due to little knowledge on the equation
(2.3). The proposed new approach is just at the beginning stage and further
studies are needed to develop theoretical underpinnings of this method.
3. Numerical simulations
In this section, we present numerical results to test the feasibility of the method
using (2.16) for three types of voids shown in Figure 4.
3.1. Internal voids. We set a rectangular model := (0.6, 0.6)(0, 0.2) m
2
,
the scan probe region := (x, 0) [ 0.3 < x < 0.3, and the reference electrode
:= (x, 0.2) [ 0.3 < x < 0.3. See Figure 4 (a) and (b). We assumed
that

D is homogeneous and
c
,
c
,
0
are constants. We set
c
= 10
6
[S/m],
10 SUNGWHAN KIM , JIN KEUN SEO, AND TEAYOUNG HA
0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
100
300
500
700


d1=0.01
d3=0.03
d5=0.05
0.2 0.1 0 0.1 0.2
20
25
50
100
33.3


d1=0.01
d2=0.02
d3=0.03
d4=0.04
d5=0.05
1/d1
1/d5
1/d4
1/d3
1/d2
(a) (b)
Figure 5. The graph of the frequency dierential
d
d
g

along the
top line of shown in Figure 4 (a) with a = 1.2, b = 0.2, c = 0.8,
and ve dierent d from 0.01 to 0.05. (a) The graphs of
d
d
g

on (x, 0) [ 0.6 < x < 0.6. (b) The detailed graphs of

d
d
g

on (x, 0) [ 0.3 < x < 0.3 with ve dierent thickness

d = 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, and 0.05. The graphs show that the
quantities
d
d
g

at the center of are very close to

1
d
(horizontal
lines).

0
= 8.8 10
12
[F/m],
c
= 15
0
[F/m]. We used FEM by discretizing the
2D model with 1200 200 rectangular elements to solve the following mixed
boundary value problem:
_

_
(( + i)u

(x)) = 0 in
u

(x) = 0, x
u

(x) = 1, x
( + i)u

(x) n(x) = 0, x ( ).
(3.1)
We computed u

by varying the shape and location of D. Next, we computed

the Neumann data g

= (
c
+ i
c
)
u

x
3
on = (x, 0) [ 0.3 < x < 0.3. We
evaluated the frequency dierential
d
d
g

on in the way that

d
d
g

2
g

1
(
2

1
)
0
(
2
= 2 10
3
,
1
= 2 10)
Figure 5 shows the graphs of
d
d
g

on for the case of rectangular void

D = (0.4, 0.4)(0.1
d
2
, 0.1+
d
2
). In Figure 5, the horizontal axis represents
the line (x, 0) [ 0.6 < x < 0.6 containing and the ve curved graphs
NONDESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION METHOD OF CONCRETE VOIDS 11
a
c
d b D
2l
0.2 0.1 0 0.1 0.2
20
25
33.3
50
100


d1=0.01
d2=0.02
d3=0.03
d4=0.04
d5=0.05
1/d4
1/d1
1/d2
1/d3
1/d5
Figure 6. The graph of the frequency dierential
d
d
g

on
(x, 0) [ 0.2 < x < 0.2 with with ve dierent thick-
ness d = 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, and 0.05. The tested void is
D = (x, y) [ 0.5 < x < 0.3 and 0.05 sin
(x+0.1)
0.4

d
2
< y+0.1 <
0.05 sin
(x+0.1)
0.4
+
d
2
(Left).
correspond to d = 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, and 0.05, respectively. The graphs show
that the quantity
d
d
g

on is inversely proportional to d and remarkably

d
d
g

[
=0
at the center of
1
d
Next, we performed the same numerical simulation by varying the shape and
the location of D. Figure 6 shows the corresponding graphs of the frequency dif-
ferential
d
d
g

to the void D = (x, y) [ 0.5 < x < 0.3 and 0.05 sin
(x+0.1)
0.4

d
2
< y+0.1 < 0.05 sin
(x+0.1)
0.4
+
d
2
. The graphs in Figure 6 also show the similar
behavior as in that in Figure 5.
3.2. Surface-breaking voids. Surface-breaking voids mainly occur in concrete
pavements and bridge decks. They tend to propagate downward so that it is
important to investigate how deep and how wide they grow. We applied the
fdEIS method to surface-breaking voids. In this case, the scan probe and the
reference electrode are located on either side of a surface-breaking void as
Figure 4 (c), and the Neumann data g

is measured on . Whether internal or

surface-breaking voids, g

on is closely related to v

on the void D. So the

fdEIS method is expected to work on detecting the thickness of a surface-breaking
void.
In order to carry out numerical tests for the surface-breaking void case, we
set a rectangular void D = (
d
2
,
d
2
) (0.15, 0), the scan probe region :=
12 SUNGWHAN KIM , JIN KEUN SEO, AND TEAYOUNG HA
0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4
0
0.1
0.2
0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4
0
0.1
0.2
(a-1) {( + i
1
)u

1
} (b-1) {( + i
2
)u

2
}
0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4
0
0.1
0.2
0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4
0
0.1
0.2
(a-2) {( + i
1
)u

1
} (b-2) {( + i
2
)u

2
}
Figure 7. The vector elds of real and imaginary parts of (a)
( + i
1
)u

1
with

1
2
= 10 Hz and (b) ( + i
2
)u

2
with

2
2
= 10
4
Hz. The curved arrows in (a-1) and (b-1) mean that the
electrical current cannot pass through the void at the frequency
10Hz, while it can pass though the void at the higher frequency 10
4
Hz.
(x, 0) [ 0.2 < x < 0.4 and the reference electrode := (x, 0) [ 0.4 < x <
0.2.
Figure 7 shows how the distance between and is related with the ow of
the current density ( +i)u

. Figure 8 shows that the frequency dierential

d
d
g

is inverse proportional to the void thickness d even in the surface-breaking

void :
the thickness of the air void
_
d
d
g

[
=0
_
1
.
Unlike in an internal void, though
d
d
g

is in inverse proportion to d, the values

of
d
d
g

are not close to 1/d. We are not able to explain the reason why this
happens. This work is just at the beginning stage, and further theoretical and
numerical studies are required to understand the fdEIS method.
Key words : concrete void detection, non-destructive evaluation, fdEIS AMS
Subject Classications: 35R30, 65N21
References
[1] Guide book on non-destructive testing of concrete structures, IAEA-TCS-17(2002), pp. 1-
231.
NONDESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION METHOD OF CONCRETE VOIDS 13
0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3
20
25
33.3
50
100


d1=0.01
d2=0.02
d3=0.03
d4=0.04
d5=0.05
1/d1
1/d2
1/d3
1/d4
1/d5
Figure 8. The graph of the frequency dierential
d
d
g

on
(x, 0) [ 0.23 < x < 0.3 with with ve dierent thick-
ness d = 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, and 0.05. The tested void is
D = (
d
2
,
d
2
) (0.15, 0).
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14 SUNGWHAN KIM , JIN KEUN SEO, AND TEAYOUNG HA
Division of Liberal art, Hanbat National University, Korea
Department of Mathematics, Yonsei University, Korea
National Institute for Mathematical Sciences, Korea