17-1

17.1 Principles of Inertial Navigation

T e origi nal meani ng of the word navigation is ship drivi ng. In ancient ti mes when sai li ng boats were
used, navigation was a process of steeri ng the ship i n accordance with some means of di rectional i nfor-
mation, and adjusti ng the sai ls to control the speed of the boat. T e objective was to bri ng the vessel
from location A to location B safely. At present, navigation is a combi nation of science and technology.
No longer is the term li mited to the control of a ship on the sea surface; it is applied to land, ai r, sea
surface, underwater, and space.
T e concept of i nertial-navigator mechani zation was f rst suggested by Schuler i n Germany i n 1923.
His suggested navigation system was based on an Earth-radius pendulum. However, the f rst i nertial
guidance system based on acceleration was suggested by Boykow i n 1938. T e German A-4 rocket,
toward the end of World War II, used an i nertial guidance system based on f ight i nstrument type gyro-
scopes for attitude control and stabi li zation. In this system, body-mounted gyro-pendulum-i ntegrati ng
accelerometers were used to determi ne the velocity along the trajectory. T e f rst fully operational i ner-
tial autonavigator system i n the United States was the XN-1 developed i n 1950 to guide C-47 rocket.
Presently, i nertial navigation systems (I NSs) are well developed theoretically and technologically. T ey
f nd diverse applications, allowi ng the choice of appropriate navigation devices, dependi ng on cost,
accuracy, human i nterface, global coverage, ti me delay, and autonomy.
Inertial navigation is a technique usi ng a self-contai ned system to measure a vehicles movement
and determi ne how far it has moved from its starti ng poi nt. Acceleration is a vector quantity i nvolvi ng
magnitude and di rection. A si ngle accelerometer measures magnitude but not di rection. Typically, it
measures the component of acceleration along a predetermi ned li ne or di rection. T e di rection i nfor-
mation is usually supplied by gyroscopes that provide a reference frame for the accelerometers. Unli ke
other positional methods that rely on external references, an I NSis compact and self-contai ned, as it is
not requi red to communicate to any other stations or other references. T is property enables the craf to
navigate i n an unknown territory.
17
Inertial Navigation
17.1 Pri nciples of Inertial Navigation .................................................. 17-1
17.2 Gyroscopes ....................................................................................... 17-4
Mechanical Gyroscopes Flywheel Gyroscopes Optical
Gyroscopes
17.3 Accelerometers ................................................................................ 17-8
17.4 Errors and Stabi li zation i n Inertial Navigation Systems .......... 17-9
Errors Stabi li zation
17.5 Vehicular Inertial Navigation ......................................................17-10
17.6 Applications of Inertial Navigation ............................................17-11
Ai rcraf Underwater Robotics
Bibliography .............................................................................................. 17-13
Partial List of Manufacturers/Suppliers ................................................. 17-13
Halit Eren
Curtin University
2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
17-2 Spatial Variables
Inertial navigation can also be described as a process of di recti ng the movement of a vehicle, rocket,
ship, ai rcraf , robot, and so on, from one poi nt to another with respect to a reference axis. T e vehicles
current position can be determi ned from dead reckoni ng with respect to a known i nitial starti ng ref-
erence position. On the Earths surface, the conventional reference wi ll be north, east, and down. T is
is referred to as the Earths fxed axes. A vehicle such as an ai rcraf or a mari ne vessel wi ll have its own
local axes: roll, pitch, and yaw, as shown i n Figure 17.1.
T e i nertial sensors of the I NScan be mounted i n such a way that they stay leveled and poi nti ng i n
a f xed di rection. T is system relies on a set of gi mbals and sensors attached on three axes to monitor
the angles at all ti mes. T is type of I NSis based on a navigational platform. A sketch of a three-axis
platform is shown i n Figure 17.2. Another type of I NSis the strapdown system that eli mi nates the use
of gi mbals. In this case, the gyros and accelerometers are mounted to the structure of the vehicle. T e
measurements received are made i n reference to the local axes of roll, pitch, and yaw. T e gyros measure
the movement of angles i n the three axes i n a short ti me i nterval of few mi lliseconds. T e computer then
uses this i nformation to resolve the accelerometer outputs i nto the navigation axes. A schematic block
diagram of the strapdown system is shown i n Figure 17.3.
T e controlli ng action is based on the sensi ng components of acceleration of the vehicle i n known
spatial di rections, by i nstruments that mechani ze Newtonian laws of motion. T e f rst and second
i ntegrations of the sensed acceleration determi ne velocity and position, respectively. A typical I NS
i ncludes a set of gyros, a set of accelerometers, and appropriate signal processi ng units. Although the
pri nciple of the systems may be si mple, the fabrication of a practical system demands a sophisticated
technological base. T e system accuracy is i ndependent of altitude, terrai n, and other physical variables
but is li mited almost purely by the accuracy of its own components. Traditional I NSs mai nly rely on
mechanical gyros and accelerometers, but today there are many di f erent types avai lable, such as opti-
cal gyroscopes, piezoelectric vibrati ng gyroscopes, and active and passive resonati ng gyroscopes. Also,
micromachi ned gyroscopes and accelerometers are maki ng an i mportant i mpact on modern I NSs.
A brief description and operational pri nciples of gyroscopes and accelerometers suitable for i nertial
navigation are as follows.
Major advances i n I NS over the years i nclude the development of the electrostatic gyro (ESG)
and the laser gyro. I n ESG, the rotor spi ns at a speed above 200,000 rpm i n a near-vacuum envi-
ronment. The rotor i s suspended by an electrostatic field; thus, it i s free from beari ng friction and
O
Y
X
U
V
W
P
R
Roll
Yaw
Pitch
Q
Z
FIGURE 17.1 Inertial navigation is for monitori ng the movement of an object such as a vehicle, rocket, ship, ai r-
craf , and robot with respect to a reference axis. Vehicles such as ai rcraf s and mari ne vessels have thei r own local
axes, known as the roll, the pitch, and the yaw.
2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
I
n
s
t
i
t
u
t
o

T
e
c
n
o
l
o
g
i
c
o

d
e

A
e
r
o
n
a
u
t
i
c
a

(
I
T
A
)
]

a
t

0
5
:
5
8

0
1

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
4

17-3 Inertial Navigation
other random torques due to mechanical supports. Hence, its operation results i n a superior per-
formance compared to others, closely resembl i ng the performance of a theoretical gyro. Although
no system can clai m to reach perfection, an ESG requi res less frequent updates compared to other
mechanical gyros. Gyroscopes are an i mportant element of i nerti al navi gation; therefore, they wi l l
be descri bed further.
Gyro X
Gyro Y
Gyro Z
Accel X
Accel Y
Accel Z
Null loops
Navigation
computer
Integrations
Corrections
(Coriolis)
(Gravity)
Accelerations
Gimbal
angles
(Synchros)
Gyro
torquing
Position, speed, attitude
Gimbals
Fixed axes
FIGURE 17.2 Some I NSs are based on a navigational platform. T e sensors are mounted i n such a way to stay
leveled at all ti mes and poi nti ng i n a f xed di rection. T is system uses a set of gi mbals and sensors attached on three
axes i n the x, y, and z di rections to conti nuously monitor the angles and accelerations. T e navigation computer
makes corrections for coriolis forces, gravity, and other adverse ef ects.
Computer and signal
processing
Gyro Y Accelerometer Y
Accelerometer X
Gyro Z
Accelerometer Z
Gyro X
FIGURE 17.3 Strapdown gyros and accelerometers are mounted rigidly on the structure of the vehicle, and the
measurements are referenced to the local axes of roll, pitch, and yaw. T e gyros measure the movement of angles i n
the three axes i n short ti me i ntervals to be processed by the computer. T is i nformation is used, together with the
accelerometer outputs, for predicti ng navigation axes, thus eli mi nati ng the need for gi mbals.
2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
I
n
s
t
i
t
u
t
o

T
e
c
n
o
l
o
g
i
c
o

d
e

A
e
r
o
n
a
u
t
i
c
a

(
I
T
A
)
]

a
t

0
5
:
5
8

0
1

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
4

17-4 Spatial Variables
17.2 Gyroscopes
T ere are two broad categories: (1) mechanical gyroscopes and (2) optical gyroscopes. Withi n both of
these categories, there are many di f erent types avai lable. Only the few basic types wi ll be described to
i llustrate the operati ng pri nciples; detai led i nformation may be found i n the references listed at the end
of this chapter.
17.2.1 Mechanical Gyroscopes
T e f rst mechanical gyroscope was bui lt by Foucault i n 1852, as a gi mbaled wheel that stayed f xed i n
space due to angular momentum whi le the platform rotated around it. T ey operate on the basis of con-
servation of angular momentum by sensi ng the change i n di rection of an angular momentum. T ere are
many di f erent types, which are the followi ng:
1. Single-degree-of-freedom gyroscopes i nclude the rate, rate i ntegrati ng, a spi nni ng rotor f ywheel,
electron, and particle gyros.
2. Two-degree-of-freedom gyroscopes i ncorporate the external gi mbal types, two-axis-f oated, spher-
ical free-rotor and electrically suspended, gas-beari ng free-rotor gyros.
3. Vibrating gyroscopes i nclude the tuni ng fork, vibrati ng stri ng, vibrati ng shell, hemispherical reso-
nati ng, and vibrati ng cyli nder gyros.
4. Continuous-linear-momentum gyroscopes i ncorporate a steady stream of f uid, plasma, or elec-
trons, which tends to mai ntai n its established velocity vector as the platform turns. One typical
example is based on a di f erential pai r of hot-wi re anemometers to detect the apparent lateral
displacement of the f owi ng air column.
T e operati ng pri nciple of all mechanical gyroscopes is based on the conservation of angular momen-
tum, as shown i n Figure 17.4. T e angular momentum is i mportant si nce it provides an axis of reference.
From Newtons second law, the angular momentum of a body remai ns unchanged unless it is acted upon
by a torque. T e rate of change of angular momentum is equal to the magnitude of the torque. It can be
expressed, i n vectorial form, as

T
H
t
=
d
d

(17.1)
where H is the angular momentum (=i nertia angular velocity, I).
T
H
Wheel rotation
Output axis (precession)
Spin axis
dH
H=I

Input axis (torque)

FIGURE 17.4 T e operational pri nciple of gyroscopes is based on the angular momentum of a carefully con-
structed rotati ng body. T e angular momentum stabi li zes the system and it remai ns unchanged unless acted upon
by a torque. If the torque is orthogonal to the spi n axis, it cannot change the velocity, but it can change the di rection
i n the same di rection as the torque. T e spi n axis always tries to align with the external torque.
2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
I
n
s
t
i
t
u
t
o

T
e
c
n
o
l
o
g
i
c
o

d
e

A
e
r
o
n
a
u
t
i
c
a

(
I
T
A
)
]

a
t

0
5
:
5
8

0
1

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
4

17-5 Inertial Navigation
If a torque acts about the axis of rotation, it changes the angular velocity by

T
I
t
I = =
d
d
w
a

(17.2)
where
I is the i nertia about the spi n axis
is the angular acceleration
If the torque is orthogonal to the spi nni ng axis, it cannot change the magnitude of the angular velocity
vector, but it can change di rection i n the same di rection as torque T; then

d d H H = q

(17.3)
where is the angle of rotation.
T erefore, from Equations 17.1 and 17.4,

T
H
t
H
t
H = = =
d
d
d
d
q
W

(17.4)
where is the precession rate or the angular velocity of the spi nni ng wheel about the axis normal
to the plane of the spi n and the i nput torque. General ly, the spi n axis tries to align with the external
i nput torque.
T ese equations can be elaborated to describe the operati ng pri nciples of mechanical gyros by taki ng
i nto account the angular momentum i n x, y, and z di rections, nutation, coriolis accelerations, di rections
of other i nf uenci ng torques, and li near forces. Here, the operation of the well-known fywheel gyroscope
wi ll be described as the basis for further discussions on I NSs.
17.2.2 Flywheel Gyroscopes
Flywheel gyroscopes are based on an electrical ly driven rotor suspended i n a pai r of preci sion low-
friction beari ngs at both ends of the rotor axle. An example of a double-axi s f ywheel gyro i s shown
i n Figure 17.5. T e rotor beari ngs are supported by a ci rcular ri ng known as an inner gimbal ring,
which i n turn pivots on a second set of beari ngs that i s attached to the outer gimbal ring. T e pivoti ng
action of the i nner gi mbal def nes the hori zontal axi s of the gyro, which i s perpendicular to the spi n
axi s of the rotor. T e outer gi mbal ri ng i s attached to the i nstrument frame by a thi rd set of beari ngs
that def nes the vertical axi s of the gyro that i s perpendicular to both the hori zontal axi s and the
spi n axi s. T i s type of suspension has the property of always preservi ng the predetermi ned spi n-axi s
di rection i n i nertial space. Equations governi ng the two-degree-of-freedom gyroscope can be writ-
ten usi ng Equations 17.1 through 17.4. T e torque with respect to an i nertial reference frame can be
expressed as

T H =

t

(17.5)
If the Earth is taken as a movi ng reference frame, then


H H H
t IE
= +
E
w

(17.6)
2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
I
n
s
t
i
t
u
t
o

T
e
c
n
o
l
o
g
i
c
o

d
e

A
e
r
o
n
a
u
t
i
c
a

(
I
T
A
)
]

a
t

0
5
:
5
8

0
1

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
4

17-6 Spatial Variables
If the gyroscope itself is mounted on a vehicle (e.g., ai rcraf ) that is movi ng with respect to the Earth,
then


H H H
E B EB
= +w

(17.7)
T e case of the gyroscope can be mounted on a platform so that it can rotate relative to the platform;
then


H H H
B C BC
= +w

(17.8)
Fi nally, the i nner gi mbal can rotate relative to the case; hence,


H H H
C G GC
= +w

(17.9)
Substituti ng Equations 17.7 and 17.9 i nto Equation 17.4 yields

T H H =

G GC BC EB IE
+ + + ( ) w w w w

(17.10)
But

( ) w w w w w
GC BC EB IE IG
+ + + =

(17.11)
T erefore,

T H H = +

G IG
w

(17.12)
By carefully constructi ng the gyroscope and mai ntai ni ng the spi n velocity of the rotor constant, H
G
can
be made to be zero. T us, the law of gyroscopes can be written as

T H = w
IG

(17.13)
Inner gimbal
Outer gimbal
Rotational axis
Rotating mass
Outer pivot
FIGURE 17.5 In a double-axis f ywheel gyro, an electrically driven rotor is suspended by a pai r of precision
low-friction beari ngs at the rotor axle. T e rotor beari ngs are supported by a ci rcular i nner gi mbal ri ng. T e i nner
gi mbal ri ng i n turn pivots on a second set of beari ngs attached to an outer gi mbal ri ng. T e pivoti ng action of the
i nner gi mbal def nes the hori zontal axis of the gyro, which is perpendicular to the spi n axis of the rotor. T e outer
gi mbal ri ng is attached to the i nstrument frame by a thi rd set of beari ngs.
2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
I
n
s
t
i
t
u
t
o

T
e
c
n
o
l
o
g
i
c
o

d
e

A
e
r
o
n
a
u
t
i
c
a

(
I
T
A
)
]

a
t

0
5
:
5
8

0
1

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
4

17-7 Inertial Navigation
T is means that i f an external torque T is applied to the gyroscope, the i nner gi mbal wi ll precess with
respect to the i nertial frame with a velocity such that Equation 17.13 is satisf ed.
In most designs (e.g., rate gyros), the gi mbal is hermetically sealed i n a liquid and liquid is f oated
i n the case, to unload the gi mbal beari ngs and to provide viscous dampi ng. A pick-of senses gi mbal
def ection by means of position transducers, and it controls a servo system, with a servomotor drivi ng
the case to mai ntai n pick-of null.
17.2.3 Optical Gyroscopes
Optical gyroscopes are based on the i nertial properties of light i nstead of Newtons law of motion. T ey
operate on the Sagnac ef ect, which produces i nterferometer fri nge shi f agai nst the rotation rate. In this
case, two light waves ci rculate i n opposite di rections around a path of radius R, begi nni ng at sourceS.
A typical arrangement for the i llustration of operation pri nciples is shown i n Figure 17.6. When the
gyro is stationary, the two beams arrive at the detector at the same ti me, and no phase di f erence wi ll be
recorded. Assume that the source is rotati ng with a velocity CO so that light traveli ng i n the opposite
di rection to rotation returns to the source sooner than that traveli ng i n the same di rection. T us, any
rotation of the system about the spi n axis causes the distance covered by the beam traveli ng i n the di rec-
tion of rotation to lengthen and the distance traveled by the beam i n the opposite di rection to shorten.
T e two beams i nterfere to form a fri nge pattern and the fri nge position may be recorded, or the phase
di f erences of the two beams may be sensed. T is phase di f erence is di rectional and proportional to the
angular velocity. Usually, photodetectors are used to measure the phase shi f .
Optical gyros can be categori zed to be either passive or active and resonant or nonresonant. I n
passive gyrosensors, the Sagnac phase is measured by some external means, whereas i n active gyros,
the Sagnac phase causes a frequency change i nternal to the gyro that is di rectly proportional to the
rotation rate.
Diode source
Lock-in
amplifer
Analog rate
output
Detector
Fiber coil
1001000 m
Polarization controller
Polarizer
Couplers
Bias coil

PC
R
t

t
+
Oscillator
FIGURE 17.6 A typical f ber-optic gyroscope is based on the i nertial properties of light, maki ng use of the Sagnac
ef ect. T e Sagnac ef ect describes i nterferometer fri nge shi f agai nst rotation rate. Two light waves ci rculate i n
opposite di rections around a path of radius R, begi nni ng at source S. When the gyro is stationary, the two beams
arrive at the detector at the same ti me, and no phase di f erence is recorded. If the optical path is rotati ng with a
velocity, the light traveli ng i n the opposite di rection to rotation returns to the source sooner than that traveli ng i n
the same di rection. T e two beams i nterfere to form a fri nge pattern and the fri nge position may be recorded, or the
phase di f erences of the two beams may be sensed by photodetectors.
2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
I
n
s
t
i
t
u
t
o

T
e
c
n
o
l
o
g
i
c
o

d
e

A
e
r
o
n
a
u
t
i
c
a

(
I
T
A
)
]

a
t

0
5
:
5
8

0
1

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
4

17-8 Spatial Variables
T e Sagnac i nterferometer is the basis of the interferometric fber-optic gyro (IFOG). A typical f ber-
optic gyroscope is shown i n Figure 17.6. However, the most widely used gyro is the active resonant
ring-laser gyro (RLG), which is applied extensively i n ai rcraf navigation. Two di f erent types of resonant
passive gyros, the resonant fber-optic gyro (RFOG) and the micro-optic gyro (MOG), are lower-cost
devices commonly used and comparable to RLGs.
17.3 Accelerometers
In i nertial navigation, the absolute acceleration is measured i n terms of three mutually perpendicu-
lar components of the total acceleration vector. Integrati ng these acceleration signals twice gives the
displacement from an i nitial known starti ng location. Detai ls of the acceleration and accelerometers
are given elsewhere i n this book (e.g., acceleration, vibration, and shock); therefore, accelerometers as
applied to i nertial navigations wi ll be discussed here.
Accelerometers are made from three basic elements: proof mass, suspension mechanism, and pick-
of mechanism. Some accelerometers requi re electric or magnetic force generators and appropriate
servo loops. Accelerometers measure not only real vehicular acceleration but also respond to gravita-
tional reaction forces. Acceleration due to gravity is a function of positioni n particular, latitude and
altitudeand is compensated by computers.
T e most commonly used accelerometer i n navigation systems is based on the pendulous types. T ey
can be classi f ed as
1. Generic pendulous accelerometer
2. Q-f ex-type accelerometers
3. Micromachi ned accelerometers (A typical example of a modern micromachi ned accelerometer is
given i n Figure 17.7.)
Accelerations i n the three axes are measured by suitably positioned accelerometers. Si nce acceler-
ometers contai n errors, the readi ngs must be compensated by removi ng f xed bi ases or by apply-
i ng scali ng factors. T e errors may be functions of operati ng temperature, vibration, or shock.
Measurement of ti me must be preci se as it i s squared withi n the i ntegration process for position
determi nation. T e Earths rotation must also be considered, and gravitational ef ects must be com-
pensated appropri ately.
Silicon wafer
Individual accelerometer
Sawing lines
FIGURE 17.7 In modern micromachi ned accelerometers, multiple accelerometers can be mounted on a si ngle
chip to sense accelerations i n x, y, and z di rections. T e pri mary signal conditioni ng is also provided i n the same
chip. T e output from the chip is usually read i n the digital form.
2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
I
n
s
t
i
t
u
t
o

T
e
c
n
o
l
o
g
i
c
o

d
e

A
e
r
o
n
a
u
t
i
c
a

(
I
T
A
)
]

a
t

0
5
:
5
8

0
1

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
4

17-9 Inertial Navigation
17.4 Errors and Stabilization in Inertial Navigation Systems
17.4.1 Errors
In general, i nertial navigation is an i nitial value process i n which the location of the navigati ng object
is determi ned by addi ng distances moved i n known di rections. Any errors i n the system cause misrep-
resentation of the desi red location by bei ng of target. T e major disadvantage of an i nertial guidance
system is that its errors tend to grow with ti me. T ese errors i n the deduced location are due to a number
of reasons, i ncludi ng i mperfect knowledge of the starti ng conditions, errors i n computation, and mai nly
errors generated by gyros and accelerometers.
If the error bui ldup with ti me becomes too large, external aids (e.g., the global positioni ng system
[GPS]) may be used to reset or update the system. Opti mal use of the data from external aids must
account for the geometry of the update and also for the accuracy of the update relative to the accuracy
of the i nertial system. T e Kalman f lter, for example, is one of the computational procedures frequently
applied for opti mally combi ni ng data from di f erent sources.
Errors can broadly be classi f ed as
1. System heading error: A misalignment angle i n the headi ng of an object traveli ng with a velocity
can cause serious errors. For example, a vehicle traveli ng with a velocity of 500 km h
1
i n the same
di rection with 0.1i nitial headi ng error wi ll be of the target by approxi mately 873 m at the end of
1 h travel.
2. Scale error: Error i n scali ng can accumulate. In order to mi ni mi ze scale errors, a scale factor is
used. T e scale factor is the ratio between changes i n the i nput and output signals. It si mply trans-
lates the gyro output (counts per second i n the case of RLG) i nto a correspondi ng angle rotation.
Some i nstruments may have di f erent scale factors for positive and negative i nputs, known as scale
factor asymmetry. (Scale factors are measured i n h
1
, mA
1
, h
1
Hz
1
, or g Hz
1
.)
3. Nonlinearity and composite errors: In most cases, scale factors are not constant, but they can have
second- or higher-order terms relati ng the output signals to the i nput. Statistical techniques can
be employed to mi ni mi ze these errors.
4. Bias errors: Zero of set or bias error is due to existence of some level of output signal for a zero
i nput. Bias errors exist i n accelerometers, gyros, and ti lt misalignments.
5. Random drif and random walk errors: In some cases, the outputs of the devices can change due
to disturbances i nside the sensors, such as ball beari ng noise i n mechanical gyros. T ese distur-
bances may be related to temperature changes, agi ng, etc. White noise i n optical gyros can cause
a long-term accumulation i n angle error known as the random walk.
6. Dead band, threshold, resolution, and hysteresis errors: T ese errors can be related to i nherent
operation of accelerometers and gyros. T ey can be due to stiction, mi ni mum i nput requi red for
an output, mi ni mum measurable outputs, and nonrepeatabi lity of variations i n the output versus
variations i n the i nput.
Note that this list is by no means exhaustive. For those readers with further i nterest, the detai led error
analysis can be found i n the bibliography.
17.4.2 Stabilization
T e i nertial navigation sensors must mai ntai n angles withi n speci f ed li mits i n spite of the disturbances
i mposed by the movi ng object. Accuracy requirements demand that the system must provide reliable
and stable i nformation i n spite of vibrations and other disturbi ng factors. One way of achievi ng sta-
bi li zation is by usi ng a stabi li zed platform. T ese platforms are designed to mai ntai n accelerometers
and gyros accurately leveled and oriented i n the azi muth di rection. In some cases, the platform is
driven around its axis by servo ampli f ers and electric motors. Usually, outputs of doubly i ntegrati ng
2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
I
n
s
t
i
t
u
t
o

T
e
c
n
o
l
o
g
i
c
o

d
e

A
e
r
o
n
a
u
t
i
c
a

(
I
T
A
)
]

a
t

0
5
:
5
8

0
1

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
4

17-10 Spatial Variables
accelerometers are used di rectly to control the level-axis gyroscope precession rates. Sensitive pick-of s
on the gyroscopes that fed error signals are used to mai ntai n a desi red stable platform i n the face of
disturbi ng torques. T e operation of a typical system, i n block diagram form, is shown i n Figure 17.8.
Unli ke platform models, i n a strapdown system, gyroscopes and accelerometers are rigidly mounted
to the vehicle structure so that they move with the vehicle. T e accelerometers and gyroscopes are man-
ufactured to measure accelerations and angles up to the maxi mum expected values. As the vehicle trav-
els, the measured values are frequently transmitted to a computer. T e computer uses these values to
resolve the readi ngs i nto the navigation axis sets and make deductions on the body axis sets.
17.5 Vehicular Inertial Navigation
In modern vehicular navigation, computeri zed maps and mobi le communication equipment are i nte-
grated together with i nertial and/or other electronic navigation systems. In recent years, i n the wake
of low-cost GPSsystems, the vehicular navigation system has found a wide range of applications from
consumer product to self-navigati ng systems.
Automobi le navigation systems are based on dead-reckoni ng, map-matchi ng, satellite-positioni ng,
and other navigational technologies. Map i ntelligent systems achieve high relative accuracy by match-
i ng dead-reckoned paths with road geometry encoded i n a computeri zed map. T is is also used to per-
form other functions such as vehicle routi ng and geocodi ng. Satellite-based navigation systems achieve
high absolute accuracy with the support of dead-reckoni ng augmentation. T e capabi lities and func-
tions of automobi le navigation systems depend on
Choosi ng the necessary technology
Integrati ng the overall system
Resolvi ng driver i nterface
Providi ng map data basis
Coordi nati ng mobi le communications
Digital maps and mobi le data communications combi ne together for full usefulness and ef ectiveness.
T e navigation systems are greatly enhanced i n conjunction with stored digital maps combi ned with
ef ective communications.
T e usefulness of a navigation system is related to the accuracy i n position determi nation. T ere are
a number of methods avai lable with varyi ng accuracy; these i nclude the followi ng:
Dead reckoning: Dead reckoning is the process of determining vehicle location relative to an initial position
by integrating measured increments and directions of travel. T e devices include the odometer, the dif er-
ential odometer, and a magnetic compass. Gyros and inertial systems prove to have limited applications
in harsh automotive environments. Although dead-reckoning systems suf er from error accumulation,
Platform
Modulator power
amplifier, torquer
motor, gear train
Equalizer
Amplifier
and
demodulator
Single-axis
undamped
gyro
Platform
dip angle
Platform
distributing
torque
+

FIGURE 17.8 Stabi li zation is obtai ned usi ng platforms designed to mai ntai n accelerometers and gyros leveled
accurately and properly oriented i n the azi muth di rection. In some cases, the platform is driven around its axis by
servo ampli f ers and electric motors. Sensitive pick-of s on the gyroscopes that fed error signals are used to mai n-
tai n the desi red stabi lity of the platform i n the presence of disturbances.
2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
I
n
s
t
i
t
u
t
o

T
e
c
n
o
l
o
g
i
c
o

d
e

A
e
r
o
n
a
u
t
i
c
a

(
I
T
A
)
]

a
t

0
5
:
5
8

0
1

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
4

17-11 Inertial Navigation
they are sti ll used in INSs, particularly in robotics and vehicular applications. Even the most precise navi-
gation system requires periodic re-initialization and continuous calibrations by computers.
Most of the dead-reckoni ng equipment commercially avai lable is suf ciently robust to support map
matchi ng when operati ng i n a def ned road network. However, a good dead-reckoni ng accuracy is
requi red to achieve re-i nitiali zation through map matchi ng upon returni ng to the road network af er
of -road operations.
Radiolocation: In radiolocation, the GPSis used extensively.
Map matching: Arti f ci al i ntel l i gence concepts are appl ied to match dead-reckoned vehicle paths,
which are stored i n computers. I n map matchi ng, sensed mathematical features of the vehicle
paths are conti nuously associ ated with those encoded i n a map database. T us, a vehicles dead-
reckoned location can be i niti al i zed automatical ly at every turn to prevent accumulation of
dead-reckoni ngerrors.
T e f rst application of map-matchi ng technology was i n the automatic route control system (ARCS),
which used a di f erential odometer for dead reckoni ng. In another system, the Etak map-matchi ng sys-
tem, a solid-state f ux gate compass, is used as well as a di f erential odometer to dead-reckon paths for
matchi ng with digiti zed maps and aerial photographs.
In a map-matchi ng system, as long as the streets and road connectivities are accurately def ned, the
process identi f es position relative to the road network as visually perceived by the automatic system or
by the driver of the vehicle.
Proximity beacon: T is uses strategically located short-range transmitters, and reception of thei r loca-
tion-coded signal i nfers the receivi ng vehicles i nstantaneous location. T ere are several variations of
the proxi mity approach; some versions i nvolve two-way communications with the equipped vehicle.
Typically, the driver enters the desti nation code on the vehicle panel, for automatic transmission to the
roadside unit, as the vehicle approaches an i nstrumented i ntersection. T e roadside unit, which can
be networked with a traf c management system, analyzes the desti nation code and transmits route
i nstructions to the display on the vehicle panel.
T e approach to the i nterface between an onboard navigation system and a vehicle operator must
take i nto account ergonomics and safety considerations as well as functional requi rements. As a result
of i ntensive research, especially i n the aerospace i ndustry, display of i nformation for the operator is a
well-developed area. In a well-known European system, Phi lips CARi N, a color CRT map display, is
used to show vehicle location relative to the surroundi ngs. Many other systems use short visual mes-
sages, symbolic graphics, and voice.
Data communications i n modern navigation systems provide current updates (road additions, clo-
sures, detours, etc.) for onboard map databases. It also provides real-ti me i nformation on traf c condi-
tions for onboard route generation.
17.6 Applications of Inertial Navigation
17.6.1 Aircraft
T e pri mary navigation aid for civi l ai rcraf f yi ng i n the ai rspace of most of the developed countries is
the very-high-frequency omni range (VOR)/distance-measuri ng equipment (DME) system. T e VOR
and the DME enable onboard determi nation of an ai rcraf s beari ng relative to north at the f xed ground
station and slant range from the station, respectively.
Many commercial ai rcraf are sti ll equipped with precision I NSs not only for navigation purposes
but also for stabi li zation of the ai rcraf at all ti mes. Suitably located gyroscopes and accelerometers give
signals to control the stabi lity of the ai rcraf , as i llustrated i n Figure 17.9.
Many ai rcraf I NSs uti li ze a gyro-stabi li zed platform on which the accelerometers are mounted. T e
platform is aligned before take-of to the desi red orientation. Due to alignment errors and i n-f ight
2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
I
n
s
t
i
t
u
t
o

T
e
c
n
o
l
o
g
i
c
o

d
e

A
e
r
o
n
a
u
t
i
c
a

(
I
T
A
)
]

a
t

0
5
:
5
8

0
1

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
4

17-12 Spatial Variables
random disturbances such as gyro dri f , scale factor errors, and accelerometer bias errors, the errors i n
the desi red orientation i ncrease with ti me. T e errors need to be compensated periodically by external
i nformation such as radar and GPSnavigation systems.
GPSsystems give all vehicles on or near the Earth unprecedented navigation accuracy. Most of
the ai rli nes are equipped with conf ned GPSreceivers. Ai rborne receivers are designed that combi ne
navaids operati ng i n a common radio bands.
17.6.2 Underwater
T e Ships Inertial Navigational System (SI NS) was origi nally developed for precision position f ndi ng
requi red by ballistic missi le submari nes i n the late 1950s and the early 1960s. T e f rst deployment was
onboard U.S. George Washi ngton i n 1960, and SI NSare used today i n submari nes, ai rcraf carriers, and
other surface warships. As the cost and si ze are conti nually decreasi ng, the system is also deployed i n
naval as well as merchant vessels. Another development of I NSfor underwater application is i n the area
of the autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV). In this section, a number of such products are described.
AUVs are used extensively for mi litary and civi lian purposes. Application examples are mappi ng,
survei llance, ocean exploration, survey, and mi ni ng, all of which requi re precise position determi na-
tion. T e desi red features of such systems are low power, high accuracy, small volume, light weight, and
low cost. Two typical examples were given as follows:
KN-6050 underwater navigators are based on Kearfotts Monolithic RLG I NSsystem. It is assisted by
a Doppler Velocity Log (DVL) and GPSposition i nputs. T ey f nd applications i n AUVs as well as sur-
face unmanned vehicles (SUV) and remotely operated vehicles (RUV). It requi res a multitude of i nputs,
such as depth sensor, position i nputs, and speed and sound sensors. Navigation outputs are position,
altitude and depth, ground speed, and headi ng. T ese devices provide vehicle stabi li zation and control
by monitori ng angular rates, li near accelerations, roll, and pitch.
T e second example is the HUGI N 1000 AUV, developed by Konsberg, Norway, suitable for mi litary
applications as well as ocean research and envi ronmental monitori ng. HUGI N 1000 uses hydroacous-
tic-aided I NS, which combi nes acoustic and i nertial positioni ng pri nciples. It also uses various types
of transponders.
Primary
fying
controls
Control
actuators
Aircraft
dynamics
Sensors
Flight
controller
Guidance
systems
Motion variables
Direction
command
input
Defections

+
+
+
+
+
+
Disturbances
Noise
FIGURE 17.9 In many commercial ai rcraf , suitably located gyroscopes and accelerometers give signals for con-
trolli ng the stabi lity of the ai rcraf . Due to various i nstrumental errors and i n-f ight random disturbances such as
gyro dri f , scale factor errors, and accelerometer bias errors, the errors i n the desi red orientation i ncrease with ti me.
T ese accumulated errors need to be compensated periodically by i nformation from the GPSsystems.
2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
I
n
s
t
i
t
u
t
o

T
e
c
n
o
l
o
g
i
c
o

d
e

A
e
r
o
n
a
u
t
i
c
a

(
I
T
A
)
]

a
t

0
5
:
5
8

0
1

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
4

17-13 Inertial Navigation
17.6.3 Robotics
Autonomous mobi le robots also use I NSextensively as a self-contai ned, i ndependent navigation sys-
tem. Typical applications are mi ni ng, unknown terrai n exploration, and of -li ne path planni ng. T ere
are many commercially avai lable I NSs suitable for cost-ef ective uti li zation i n the navigation of robots.
Some of these are gyrocompasses, rate gyros, gyrochip, piezoelectric vibrati ng gyros, RLGs, i nterfero-
metric, and other types of f ber-optic gyros.
Te Honeywell Modular Azimuth Position System (MAPS): T e MAP-H is a typical example of an I NSfor
land-based vehicles. It consists of a dynamic reference unit (DRU) that provides processed i nformation
from the i nertial sensor assembly, a control display unit (CDU) that is used for humanmachi ne i nter-
face, and a vehicle motion sensor (VMS) that monitors the vehicles di rectional and distance i nforma-
tion. T e i nertial sensor assembly comprises three Honeywell ri ng-laser gyros and three accelerometers
mounted to measure movements i n three local axes. T e i nertial processor translates the i nformation
to the navigation processor that resolves the vehicle movement i nformation from the VMS. T e CDU
provides mode selection, data display, waypoi nt i nformation, and general operator i nterface.
Bibliography
Aggarwall, P., Syed, Z., Noureldin, A., El-Sheimy, N., MEMS-Based Integrated Navigation, Artech House,
Norwood, MA, 2010.
Bijker, J., Kalman f lter conf gurations for a low-cost loosely, integrated inertial navigation system on an
airship, Control Engineering Practice, 16(12), 15091518, 2008.
Bird, J., Arden, D., Indoor navigation with foot mounted strapdown inertial navigation and magnetic sen-
sors, IEEE Wireless Communications, 18(2), 3542, 2011.
Hablani, H. B., Autonomous inertial relative navigation with sight-line stabilized integrated sensors for
spacecraf randevous, Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, 32(1), 172183, 2009.
Lawrence, A., Modern Inertial Navigation Technology: Navigation, Guidance, and Control, 2nd edn.,
Springer, London, U.K., 1998.
Qin, F. J., Xu, J. N., Jiang, S., A new scheme of gyroscope free inertial navigation system using 9 accelerometers,
2009 International Workshop on Intelligent Systems and Applications, ISA 2009, Wuhan, China, May 2009.
Sonmez, T., Bingol, H. H., Modelling and simulation of a terrain aided inertial navigation algorithm, for
land vehicles, IEEE Position, Location and Navigation Symposium, Monterey, Canada, pp. 1046
1052, 2008.
Titterton, D. H., Weston, J. L., Strapdown Inertial Navigation Technology, 2nd edn., T e Institution of
Electrical Engineering, Stevenage, U.K., 2004.
Woodman, O. J., An introduction to inertial navigation, Technical Report No. 696, University of
Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K., 2007. Available at http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/techreports/UCAM-
CL-TR-696.pdf (accessed on March 3, 2012).
Partial List of Manufacturers/Suppliers
ACUTRONICUSA, Inc., 700 Waterfront Dr., Pittsburgh, PA 15222-4742, Phone: 412-926-1200, Fax: 412-
697-8111, www.acutronic.com
Astronautics Corp. of America, 4115 N. Teutonia Ave., Milwaukee, WI 53209-6731, Phone: 414-449-4000,
Fax: 414-447-8231, www.astronautics.com
Automatic Equipment Mfg. Co./BlueOx, 1 Mill Rd, P.O. Box P, Pender, NE 68047, Phone: 402-385-3051,
Fax: 402-385-3360, www.aemfg.com
Boeing Co., 1215 N. 2200 W., Salt Lake City, UT 84116-4128, Phone: 801-537-6400, www.boeing.com
Condor Pacif c Industries, Inc., 31829 La Tienda Dr., Westlake Village, CA 91362-4011, Phone: 818-865-
3000, Fax: 818-865-3010, www.condorpacif c.com
2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
I
n
s
t
i
t
u
t
o

T
e
c
n
o
l
o
g
i
c
o

d
e

A
e
r
o
n
a
u
t
i
c
a

(
I
T
A
)
]

a
t

0
5
:
5
8

0
1

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
4

17-14 Spatial Variables
Crossbow Technology, Inc., 4145 N. 1st St., San Jose, CA 95134-1504, Phone: 408-965-3300, Fax: 408-324-
4840, www.xbow.com
Davis Instruments Corp., 3465 Diablo Ave., Hayward, CA 94545, Phone: 510-732-9229, 800-678-3669
(toll free), Fax: 510-670-0589, www.davisnet.com
Electron Energy Corp., 924 Links Ave., Landisville, PA 17538-1615, Phone: 717-898-2294, 800-824-2735
(toll free), Fax: 717-898-0660, www.electronenergy.com
Frog Navigation Systems, 691 N. Squirrel Rd Ste 115, Auburn Hills, MI 48326, Phone: 248-373-7200, Fax:
248-373-7400, www.frogusa.com
Garmin Corporation, 1200 E. 151st St., Olathe, KS66062-3426, Phone: 913-397-8200, 800-525-6726 (toll
free), Fax: 913-397-8282, www.garmin.com/garmin/cms/site/us
Hitachi Cable America, Inc., Optical Div., 3031 Tisch Way, Ste. 150, San Jose, CA 95128, Phone: 408-260-
2630, Fax: 408-260-2756, www.hitachi-cable.com
Honeywell International, Inc., 101 Columbia Rd., Morristown, NJ 07962-1057, Phone: 973-455-2000,
800-707-4555 (toll free), Fax: 973-455-4807, honeywell.com/Pages/Home.aspx
Inertial Labs, 13800 Coppermine Rd., Suite 300, Herndon, VA 20171, Phone: 703-880-4222, Fax: 703-991-
5378, www.inertiallabs.com
Jae Electronics, Inc., 142 Technology Dr. W. # 100, Irvine, CA 92618-2430, Phone: 949-753-2600, Fax:
949-753-2699, www.jae.com
Kearfott Guidance & Navigation Corp., 1150 McBride Ave., Little Falls, NJ 07424, Phone: 973-785-6000,
Fax: 973-785-5400, www.kearfott.com/
Litton Guidance & Control Systems, 5500 Canoga Ave., Woodland Hills, CA 91367, Phone: 818-715-4040,
Fax: 818-715-4467, http://www.littoncorp.com/
Lockheed Martin, 6417 Deere Rd., Syracuse, NY 13206, Phone: 315-456-3660, www.lockheedmartin.com/
Mi-Tech Metals, Inc., 4701 Massachusetts Ave., Indianapolis, IN 46218-3144, Phone: 317-549-4290, 800-
624-1895 (toll free), Fax: 317-549-4295, www.mi-techmetals.com
Mil-Spec Industries Corp., 10 Mineola Ave., Roslyn Heights, NY 11577, Phone: 516-625-5787, Fax: 516-
625-0988, www.mil-spec-industries.com
Navhouse Co., 10 Loring Drive, Bolton, ON L7E1J9, Phone: 905-857-8102, Fax: 905-857-8104, www.
navhouse.com
Navico, Inc., 1010 S.E. Everett Mall Way Ste. 101, Everett, WA 98208, Phone: 603-324-2042, Fax: 603-324-
2043, http://www.navico.com/en/
Northrop Grumman Corporation, 755 Dedham St., Canton, MA 02021, Phone: 866-646-2879 (toll free),
http://www.northropgrumman.com/
Northstar, 30 Sudbury Rd., Acton, MA 01720, Phone: 978-897-6600, 800-628-4487 (toll free), Fax: 978-
897-8264, www.northstarnav.com/
Precision Navigation, Inc., 5464-T Skylane Blvd., Santa Rosa, CA 95403-1084, Phone: 707-566-2260, Fax:
707-566-2260, www.pnicorp.com/
Rockwell International Corp., Aerospace & Defense, Autonetics & Missile Systems Div., 3370-T Miraloma Ave.,
Anaheim, CA 92803, Phone: 714-762-8111, Fax: 714-762-1243, http://www.rockwellautomation.com/
Select Controls, Inc., 45 Knickerbocker Ave., Bohemia, NY 11716-3110, Phone: 866-929-5312 (toll free),
Fax: 631-567-9013, www.select-controls.com
Southern Avionics Company, P.O. Box 5345, Beaumont, TX 77726-5345, Phone: 409-842-1717, 800-648-
6158 (toll free), Fax: 409-842-2987, www.southernavionics.com
Systron Donner Inertial, 2700 Systron Dr., Concord, CA 94518, Phone: 925-671-6400, Fax: 925-671-6647,
www.systron.com
Trimble Navigation, Ltd., 936 Stewart Dr., Sunnyvale, CA 94088, Phone: 408-481-8000, www.trimble.com
Warren-Knight Instrument Co., 2045 Bennett Dr., Philadelphia, PA 19116-3019, Phone: 215-464-9300,
Fax: 215-464-9303, www.warrenknight.com
2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

[
I
n
s
t
i
t
u
t
o

T
e
c
n
o
l
o
g
i
c
o

d
e

A
e
r
o
n
a
u
t
i
c
a

(
I
T
A
)
]

a
t

0
5
:
5
8

0
1

A
p
r
i
l

2
0
1
4