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Air Separation Units PDF
Air Separation Units PDF
The work was realized in co‐operation with
Air Separation
Diploma project
This diploma work was realized
In the frame work of the project
No. SAMRS 2009/09/02
“Development of human resource capacity of Kabul polytechnic university”
Funded by
Bratislava 2010 Sher shah Amarkhail
Acknowledgement:
The author would like to express his appreciation for the Scientific Training Program to
Institute of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Food
Technology of the Slovak University of Technology and Slovak Aid program
(SMARS/2009/09/02) for financial support of this project. I would like to say my hearth
thank to Doc. Ing. Juma Haydary, PhD. for his guidance and assistance during the all time of
my training visit in Slovakia. My thank belongs also to Prof. Dr. Noor Mohammad Zamani
and Prof Ahmad Ali Farhat my supervisors at the Kabul Polytechnic University for their kind
guidance and support.
Content
Introduction 1
1.2 Air properties 3
2.2.2 Air clearing 15
2.2.3 Air compression 17
2.2.4 Cooling of Air 20
2.2.5 Air distillation 23
2.3 Products of Air separation and their applications 24
3. Practical parts 30
3.1 Thermodynamic of air separation 30
3.2 Calculation of air distillation by McCabe‐Thiele method 34
3.3 Aspen simulation of air separation process 42
3.3.1 Technical specifications of KT – 1000 M plant 43
3.3.2 Results of ASPEN simulation 47
4. Mechanical aspects of air distillation tower 61
4.1 Basic parameters of calculations 61
4.1.1 Calculated pressures 61
4.1.2Calculated Temperature 63
4.1.3 Reactionary longitudinal model 63
4.1.4Coefficient Suture Stability Weld 64
4.2 Specified structural surpluses 65
4.2.1 Selection of the Virtual Injections 66
4.3 Mechanical Calculation of distillation tower 68
4.3.1 Calculation Cylindrical Body of the tower 69
5. Safety aspects of air distillation process 73
5.1 Major hazards of chemical Production 73
5.2Material properties in plant (separation of air) was planning 73
5.3Major risks in the production system (air separation) 74
5.4 Safe Conditions from operation of compressor 75
5.5 Facility for Defense employees individual 75
5.6 Sources of fire ignition materials 76
5.7 Way of making off fire 76
5.8 Electrical safety 77
5.9 Rules of the technical Repair of Compressor when its be not danger 78
5.10 Ventilation products and its kinds 79
6. Control of air distillation columns 80
6.1 Capital investment costs 80
6.2 Controlling Pressure in Distillation 81
6.2.1Vent to Atmosphere 82
6.2.2 Cooling Water 82
6.2.3Flooded Condenser – 1 83
6.2.4Flooded Condenser – 2 84
6.3 Controlling Tops Composition in Distillation 85
6.3.1 Reflux Rate 85
6.3.2 Reflux Ratio 86
6.3.3 Distillate Rate 86
6.4 Distillation Column Control Examples 87
6. Economic evaluation of air distillation 92
Summary 97
Conclusion 98
Symbols 98
References 101
1. Introduction
The components presented in air (Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon etc.) are very often applied
components in chemical technology. Large quantities of high‐purity air products are used in
several industries, including the steel, chemical, semiconductor, aeronautical, refining, food
processing, and medical industries.
Air at lower temperatures (‐196oC) becomes in liquid and so we can do the distillation of the
air to its components. Distillation of air is currently the most commonly used technique for
production of pure oxygen, nitrogen and Argon on an industrial scale. An example of an
industrial process that requires pure oxygen and nitrogen is an IGCC (integrated gasification
combined cycle), where the oxygen is fed to a gasified and the nitrogen to a gas turbine. The
History of air separation has long time, in 1895 World´s first air liquefaction plant on a pilot
plant scale, commercial scale, production scale, 1904 ‐World's first air separation plant for
the recovery of nitrogen, 1910 World's first air separation plant using the double column
rectification process, 1950 First Linde‐Frankl oxygen plant without pressure recycle and
stone filled reactors, 1954 World's first air separation plant with air purification by means of
absorbers, 1978 Internal compression of oxygen is applied to tonnage air separation plants,
1984 World's largest VAROX air separation plant with variable oxygen demand adjustment,
1990 World's first tale‐controlled air separation plant with unmanned operation. Pure argon
production by rectification. 1991 World's largest air separation plant with packed columns,
1992 Air separation plants produce mega pure gases, and 1997 Lined sets a new milestone
in air separation history. Four nitrogen generation trains are being provided, each in itself
constituting the largest air separation plant ever built. Nitrogen capacity 1,200 MMSCFD
(40,000 t/d). 2000 Development of the advanced multi‐stage bath type condenser. In
chemical technology we need to allot of oxygen, nitrogen and argon. Air separation has
become a process integral to many manufacturing processes.
The largest markets for oxygen are in primary metals production, chemicals and gasification,
clay, glass and concrete products, petroleum refineries, and welding. The use of medical
oxygen is an increasing market. Gaseous nitrogen is used in the chemical and petroleum
industries and it is also used extensively by the electronics and metals industries for its inert
properties. Liquid nitrogen is used in applications ranging from cryogenic grinding of plastics
1
to food freezing. Argon, the third major component of air, finds uses as an inert material
primarily in welding, steelmaking, heat treating, and in the manufacturing processes for
electronics.
The separation of air into its components is an energy intensive process. The companies
designing air separation processes have aggressively reduced the required energy to the
point that it is possible to sell a truckload of liquid nitrogen for is less than many common
consumer products. This surprising result has been accomplished by advances in process
design, process operation, manufacturing approaches and techniques, and improvements in
supply chain management. Process designs have increasingly utilized mass and energy
integration. Substituted process operations have increased the ability to operate efficiently
at a wider range of product on requirements, significantly improved productivity through
pervasive Automation and advanced control developed the capability to efficiently handle
rapid production rate and product split changes, and leveraged advances in remote
communications. Supply chain improvements have ranged from improved purchasing
practices to optimized scheduling of product delivery to coordinated operation of separate
facilities.
Much has been written concerning the design of air separation processes and certainly the
worldwide patent activity for flow sheet and equipment innovation continues. Advanced
control has been practiced in the air separation business for decades. The first application of
computer control for an air separation plant was completed in the early 1970s. Since that
time, most advanced control technologies have been applied in an attempt to improve the
efficiency and productivity of air separation facilities.
The current work aims to describe the air separation process including heat exchange and
cryogenic distillation. An ASPEN Plus simulation of cryogenic air separation into Nitrogen,
Oxygen and Argon is created. The influence of different process parameters on distillation
efficiency is analyzed.
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2. THEORETICAL PART
2.1 Air properties
Air is a mixture of gases, consisting primarily of nitrogen (78 %), oxygen (21 %) and
the inert gas argon (0.9 %). The remaining 0.1 % is made up mostly of carbon dioxide and the
inert gases neon, helium, krypton and xenon. Air can be separated into its components by
means of distillation in special units. Air is usually modeled as a uniform (no variation or
fluctuation) gas with properties averaged from the individual components.
Figure 1: Air composition
Dry Air: Dry Air is relatively uniform in composition, with primary constituents as shown
below. Ambient air, may have up to about 5% (by c volume) water content and may contain
a number of other gases (usually in trace amounts) that are removed at one or more points
in the air separation and product purification system.
Table 1: Some properties of air components
Other components in air:
Sulfur dioxide ‐ SO2 ‐ 1.0 parts/million (ppm)
• Methane ‐ CH4 ‐ 2.0 parts/million (ppm)
• Nitrous oxide ‐ N2O ‐ 0.5 parts/million (ppm)
• Ozone ‐ O3 ‐ 0 to 0.07 parts/million (ppm)
4
• Nitrogen dioxide ‐ NO2 ‐ 0.02 parts/million (ppm)
• Iodine ‐ I2 ‐ 0.01 parts/million (ppm)
• Carbon monoxide ‐ CO ‐ 0 to trace (ppm)
• Ammonia ‐ NH3 ‐ 0 to trace (ppm)
Dry air properties at temperatures ranging 175 ‐ 500 K are indicated in the table 2.
Table 2: Some properties of air at temperatures ranging 175 ‐ 500 K
5
400 1.0135 0.7264 1.395 2.286 3.365 0.688 2.591 0.8824
Common Pressure Units frequently used as alternative to "one Atmosphere"
76 Centimeters (760 mm) of Mercury
• 29.921 Inches of Mercury
• 10.332 Meters of Water
• 406.78 Inches of Water
• 33.899 Feet of Water
• 14.696 Pound‐Force per Square Inch
• 2116.2 Pounds‐Force per Square Foot
• 1.033 Kilograms‐Force per Square Centimeter
• 101.33 Kilopascal
Table 3: Some other physical properties of air components:
Nitrogen Oxygen
Oxygen has the highest boiling point of the three main components and is taken from the
bottom of the LP column. Nitrogen is taken from the top of the LP or HP columns. An argon
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rich stream can be product in other distillation columns withdrawn from the middle of the LP
column. Figure 2 (Source: reference [9] www.engineeringtoolbox.com/dry‐air‐properties‐
d_973.html) shows the air density versus temperature and pressure.
Figure 2: Air density versus temperature and pressure
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2.2 Air s e pa r a t i on te c h nol o g i e s
Air separation plants are designed to generate oxygen, and argon from air through the
process of compression, cooling, liquefaction and distillation of air. Air is separated for
production of oxygen, nitrogen, argon and ‐ in some special cases ‐ other rare gases
(krypton, xenon, helium, neon) through cryogenic rectification of air. The products can be
produced in gaseous form for pipeline supply or as cryogenic liquid for storage and
distribution by truck. One of the largest producers of air separation plants is Lined Company.
It has built approx. 2,800 cryogenic air separation plants in more than 80 countries (Source:
http://tn‐sanso‐plant.com/en/air.html [4]) and has the leading market position for air
separation plants.
Figure 3: air separation scheme
Air can be separated into its components by means of distillation in special units. So‐called
air fractionating plants employ a thermal process known as cryogenic rectification to
separate the individual components from one another in order to produce high‐purity
nitrogen, oxygen and argon in liquid and gaseous form.
Different type of air separation technologies was developed:
8
• Cryogenic Air separation
• Membrane Air separation
• Separation by adsorption
• Other
Different technologies are applicable for different requirement on amount and purity of the
products. Figure (4) shows the Oxygen production process selection grid. A similar graph
describing the ranges for which the different nitrogen processes are applicable can be seen
in Fig. (4)
Figure 4: Oxygen production process selection grid
Methods such as membrane separation are also available but they are currently used far less
pervasively than the other two approaches.
9
Figure 5: Nitrogen production process selection grid.
2.2.1 Cryogenic Air Separation
Cryogenic air separation process is one of the most popular air separation process, used
frequently in medium to large scale plants. It is the most preferred technology for producing
nitrogen, oxygen, and argon as gases and/ or liquid products and supposed to be the most
cost effective technology for high production rate plants. In today's market scenario, all
liquefied industrial gas production plants make use of cryogenic technology to produce
liquid products.
There are different variations arising from differences in user requirements in the cryogenic
air separation cycles to produce industrial gas products. The cycle of processing depends on:
• How many products are required (whether simply oxygen or nitrogen, both oxygen
and nitrogen, or nitrogen, oxygen and argon).
• Required purities of the products.
• Gaseous product delivery pressures.
• Lastly whether the products need to be stored in Liquid form.
10
In the cryogenic gas processing, various equipment is used like the distillation columns, heat
exchangers, cold interconnecting piping etc. which operate at very low temperatures and
hence must be well insulated. These items are located inside sealed "cold boxes". Cold boxes
are tall structures with either round or rectangular cross section. Depending on plant type,
size and capacity, cold boxes may have a height of 15 to 60 meters and 2 to 4 meters on a
side.
Basic steps of cryogenic air separation:
First Step: The first step in any cryogenic air separation plant is filtering and compressing air.
After filtration the compressed air is cooled to reach approximately ambient temperature by
passing through air‐cooled or water‐cooled heat exchangers. In some cases it is cooled in a
mechanical refrigeration system to a much lower temperature. This leads to a better
impurity removal, and also minimizing power consumption, causing less variation in plant
performance due to changes in atmospheric temperature seasonally. After each stage of
cooling and compression, condensed water is removed from the air.
Second Step: The second step is removing the remaining carbon dioxide and water vapor,
which must always be removed to satisfy product quality specifications. They are to be
removed before the air enters the distillation portion of the plant. The portion is that where
the very low temperature can make the water and carbon dioxide to freeze which can be
deposited on the surfaces within the process equipment. There are two basic methods to get
rid of water vapor and carbon dioxide ‐ molecular sieve units and reversing exchangers.
Third Step: The third step in the cryogenic air separation is the transfer of additional heat
against product and waste gas so as to bring the air feed to cryogenic temperature. The
cooling is usually done in brazed aluminum heat exchangers. They let the heat exchange
between the incoming air feed and cold product and waste gas streams leave the air
separation process. The very cold temperatures required for distillation of cryogenic
Products are formed by a refrigeration process comprising expansion of one or more
elevated pressure process streams.
Fourth Step: This step involves the use of distillation columns to separate the air into desired
products. For example, the distillation system for oxygen has both "high" and "low" pressure
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columns. Nitrogen plants can have one or two column. While oxygen leaves from the bottom
of the distillation column, nitrogen leaves from the top. Argon has a boiling point similar to
that of oxygen and it stays with oxygen. If however high purity oxygen is needed, it is
necessary that at an intermediate point argon must be removed from the distillation system.
Impure oxygen produced in the higher pressure distillation column is further purified in the
lower pressure column. Plants which produce high purity oxygen, nitrogen or other
cryogenic gases require more distillation stages.
Figure 4 shows the basic steps of cryogenic air separation provided by MESSER. The basic
steps of this technology are described as:
Compression of air: Ambient air is drawn in, filtered and compressed to approx 6 bar
by a compressor.
Precooking of air: To separate air into its components, it must first be liquefied at an
extremely low temperature. As a first step, the compressed air is precooled with chilled
water.
Purification of air: Impurities such as water vapor and carbon dioxide are then
removed from the air in a so‐called molecular sieve.
Cooling of air: Because the gases which make up air only liquefy at very low
temperatures, the purified air in the main heat exchanger is cooled to approx. ‐175°C. The
cooling is achieved by means of internal heat exchange, in which the flows of cold gas
generated during the process cool the compressed air. Rapid reduction of the pressure then
causes the compressed air to cool further, whereby it undergoes partial liquefaction. Now
the air is ready for the separating column, where the actual separation takes place.
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Figure 6 : Basic steps of air separation
Separation of air: Separation of air into pure oxygen and pure nitrogen is performed in
two columns, the medium‐pressure and the low‐pressure Columns. The difference in boiling
point of the constituents is exploited for the separation process. Oxygen becomes a liquidate
‐183°C and nitrogen at ‐196°C. The continuous evaporation and condensation brought about
by the intense exchange of matter and heat between the rising steam and the descending
liquid produces pure nitrogen at the top of the low‐pressure column and pure oxygen at the
bottom. Argon is separated in additional columns and involves some extra steps in the
process.
Withdrawal and storage: Gaseous oxygen and nitrogen are fed into pipelines for
transport to users, e.g. steelworks. In liquid form, oxygen, nitrogen and argon are stored in
tanks and transported to customers by tanker Lorries.
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Cryogenic air separation flow diagram:
The cryogenic air separation flow diagram given below does not represent any particular
plant and shows in a general way many of the important steps involved in producing oxygen,
nitrogen, and argon as both gas and liquid products.
Figure 7: Cryogenic air separation flow diagram
LIN assist plants: are special kinds of cryogenic plant that can cost‐effectively produce
gaseous nitrogen at relatively low production rates. They differ from "normal" cryogenic
plants in that they do not have their own mechanical refrigeration system. They effectively
"import" the refrigeration required for on‐site nitrogen production from a remote high‐
volume, high efficiency merchant liquid plant. They accomplish this by continuously injecting
a small amount of liquid nitrogen into the distillation process. The "imported" LIN provides
reflux for distillation, then vaporizes and mixes with the locally‐produced gaseous nitrogen,
becoming part of the final product stream. This arrangement simplifies the plant, reduces
capital cost (versus a "normal" cryogenic plant with its own refrigeration cycle) and can,
14
under the right conditions, provide better overall economics than either an all‐bulk‐liquid
supply or a new cryogenic nitrogen plant with a standard internal refrigeration cycle.
2.2.2 Air clearing
Before distillation the air should be cleared from different impurities and components. The
exits of impurity like compass ,wet ,carbon dioxide, and another impurity in air make the
problems in air distillation so we have to clear the air before the that process.
Clearing the air from compass and Dry it:
The content of compass in air is about 0.002 – 0.02 g/m3 so for clearing the air from this
impure we use the oil filters. Air passes these filters and clears from compass. In a big plant
with large capacity of products we use the several sections of automatic filters with a patch
or section of locomotive. Wet in air belongs to the status of the weathers. Value of the wet
in air when air bee 100% saturate by it in the below table.
Table 4: correlation of air with wet from t °C
Co wet g/m3 t °C Co wet g/m3 t °C
2.31 ‐10 50.91 40
1.01 ‐20 30.21 30
0.44 ‐30 17.22 20
0.117 ‐40 9.93 10
0.038 ‐50 4.89 0
Drying of the air can be realized with one of these forms:
1‐ Adsorption with SiO2.H2O : We can get the SiO2.H2O by sluice hydrate of aced of
SiO2.H2O and its bait size is 3 – 7mm. after drying by SiO2.H2O contain of the wet is 0.03
g/m3 decrease and its dew dot is ‐52.
15
2 – Adsorption by Active Al2O3.H2O: Active Al2O3.H2O and another oxidant is SiO, Na2O, and
OF product via sluice tray hydroid oxidant Almonium.
Active Al2O3.H2O possessor of very better mechanical substance then SiO2.H2O and it better
suction the wet. After the drying with Al2O3.H2O the content of wet in air 0.005g/m3 be in
decrease. And it mach with the ‐64 dot of dew. Redaction of the adsorbent by Hate nitrogen
up to 170 – 180°C for SiO2.H2O for Al2O3.H2O 245 – 270°C.
For adsorption of air from wet also we use the almonium silicates, sodium, and etc.
3 – Making ice: In same of the air separation plant that work with two pressure cycle and
frizzing with NH3. Drying the air in heat exchanger at first cooling by the gutter oxygen and
nitrogen up to 5°C after that with ebullient NH3 up to ‐40 – 45 °C bee cooled. Usually we use
two ammonic heat exchanger that work automatic when one of them hates the other one
be cooled.
Air clearing from carbon dioxide:
In beg plant that has beg capacity clearing the air from CO2 in the scrubber of alkali that
washed by SOLUTION of the sodium hydro oxide or potassium hydroxide. Same time in
regenerators of oxygen and nitrogen do that. During the passage of air from regenerators
the CO2 become freeze on the absorbent of the O2, N2. The freeze CO2 then clears from air
and the CO2 on absorbent clearing by the predicted O2and N2. There also use two
regenerators that work on periodic system and after a few mints change they are places.
Content of CO2 after scrubber of alkali and regenerator 15 – 20 cm3/m3 and it will be in the
liquid form the air or same times it is like a ingredient suspension so it can make same
problems in valves and shut the hole of plates in separation tower.
Clearing air from acetylene:
Air clearing from acetylene because it’s very dangerous for the air separation plant so it’s
important to clear air from it because if acetylene aggregation it will be explosion. Acetylene
has low part pressure in the air so it can’t distant in heat exchanger and in regenerator and
it’s aggregation in liquid. Acetylene has low solubility in air, oxygen and nitrogen so it can be
very easy clean in SiO2.H2O filters. Use the different mark of the SiO2.H2O.
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2.2.3 Air compression
The air compression refrigeration cycle was studied long ago. Several disadvantages
prevented air from being used as a working fluid in refrigeration. These included low
volumetric refrigerating effect, which may result in a large compressor, and low COP
(compression) due to low efficiencies of the compressor and expander. After CFC’s
(chlorofluorocarbons) invention in the1930s, people paid little attention to air compression
refrigeration System:
Representation on enthalpy–entropy coordinates and a circuit diagram of an open air‐
compression refrigeration system for air conditioning and hot water cooled by cool water
are shown in Fig 8. The outdoor air at 2 is drawn into the atomizing chamber, cooled to
saturated air at 3 with some fine water droplets and then compressed by an axial
compressor. A flow of compressed air at 4 with higher temperature, T4, and high pressure,
P4, is obtained. Then, the compressed air at 4 is cooled to saturated air at 7 with a
temperature T7 by cool water/underground water in a surface heat exchanger after the axial
compressor outlet.
Figure 8: enthalpy–entropy coordinates
Figure 8 Representation on enthalpy–entropy coordinates and circuit diagram of an open
air‐compression refrigeration system for air conditioning and hot water cooled by cool
water.
17
Some vapor is condensed, and the latent heat of the vapor is discharged from 4 to7. Then,
the saturated air at 7 is expanded and cooled to the cool air at 8 in the turbine. The cool air
at 8 is then ducted to the air conditioned rooms. The cool water is heated in the surface heat
exchanger. Water injection before the axial compressor aims to decrease both the
temperature of the working fluid and the polytrophic exponent in the compression process.
Thus, we can save some compression work. This method has been used in a jet engine when
a fighter plane increases its speed. However, the difference is that what is injected in a jet
engine is water, alcohol, etc. The water vapor in the compressed air can easily be extracted
by a surface heat exchanger. With the same temperature, the humidity ratio of the
saturated wet air at high Pressure P4 is only about P3/P4 of that at pressure P3. The method
of using compressed air to acquire dry air has been used in some workshops the system
above differs from a conventional air cycle system. There are many characteristics in this air–
vapor refrigeration circle.
Firstly, an axial compressor and a turbine are used in the above system.
The characteristics of turbo‐machines are large mass flow rate and high efficiency. The other
types of compressor and expander have none of the above advantages. Secondly, these
refrigeration system intakes precooled wet air with fine water droplets, and some vapor is
condensed during the air cooling from 4 to 7.
The amount of water extracted from the high pressure wet air can reach 18–30 g/kg (d.a.),
and the amount of latent heat discharged from the vapor condensed, about 45–75 kJ/kg
(d.a.), exceeds the sensible heat from the air, 30–50 kJ/kg (d.a.). For this reason, the
refrigeration load in this air–vapor refrigeration system depends on a combination of the
sensible
The humidity ratio of wet air, D, is obtained from
(2.1)
The enthalpy of wet air, H, is calculated from
H = 1.006t + 0.001D (2501 + 1.805t) (2.2)
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The adopted relation for water vapor between saturation
Pressure and saturation temperature, Ps = f (ts), is selected from Ref [2]
To calculate the saturated temperature of the wet air from the saturated enthalpy, Esq. (1)
and (2) and Ps = f(ts) are used.
Axial compressor
During the compression process of the wet air, the fine water droplets in the air may
evaporate. Because the evaporation of water takes in heat, we can regard the ideal
compression process of the wet air in the compressor as a polytrophic process. Therefore,
we can obtain the ideal work of the compressor per kilogram dry air, WC, from
W c = (Rair + 0.001DRvapor) T3 [1 – ( p4/p3 )n ‐1/n] (2.3)
in which n is the polytrophic exponent for the compression process.
The practical work consumed by the axial compressor is Wc/gc in which gc is the thermal
efficiency of the compressor.
Turbine
The saturated air with a pressure of P7 and a temperature of T7 before the turbine has been
dehumidified in the surface heat exchanger by cooling water. At point 7, the amount of
vapor included in the saturated air is very small, about P3/P7 of the amount included in
saturated air at P3. Thus, the water condensed in the air is in fog. Nevertheless, expansion of
the saturated air in the turbine cannot be regarded as an adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas.
With the decrease of the wet air pressure in the turbine, the temperature of the wet air
decreases, and some heat is discharged during the condensation of some water vapor. The
heat discharged may cause increases in both the temperature of the turbine outlet and the
work done in the expansion. For this problem, we can imagine that no phase change exists
and that there is some heat added to the wet air during the expansion process when we
calculate the work done by the expansion process. According to the above assumption, this
problem can be simplified to a problem of the polytrophic expansion of an ideal gas.
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Consequently, we can obtain the ideal work done by the expansion, Wt, through iteration
and then obtain the real work generated by the turbine and the temperature of the turbine
outlet. The following are the steps to calculate Wt and T8.
1. Determine Ps7 from T7, D7 from Ps7 and P7, and H7 from D7 and T7.
2. Get gas constant R for the saturated air at 7 by using
The formula:
R = 0.001(287 + 0.461D7+0461D7)
3. Calculate the initial Wt to iterate according to an adiabatic
Expansion of an ideal gas.
4. Calculate the enthalpy of the saturated air at 8 by using
H8 = H7 – Wt+
5. Determine T8, Ps8 D8 using H8 and P8
Heat of air and the latent heat of vapor.
Lastly, the cool from the cooling water was used. Usually,
it cannot be used.
2.2.4 Cooling of air
Air cooling is a method of dissipating heat. It works by making the object to be cooled have a
larger surface area or have an increased flow of air over its surface, or both. The air will be
cooled by the counter‐flowing gaseous oxygen, gaseous nitrogen and waste nitrogen in the
main heat exchanger of the rectification column until liquefying temperature of the air.
The area of low temperature are divided in two parts
1. Medium cool ‐ 70 ÷ ‐ 100 °C
2. Recondite cool > ‐ 100 °C
The average cool is created by vaporization of liquid phase. These liquids are called
ingredient of cool. For example when NH3, SO2, CO2, C3H8, C4H10 etc. Are vaporized the heat
of ambient is used for evaporation and the ambient temperature decreases. Then the
vaporized gases are compressed and cooled in compressor and heat exchangers so it
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becomes liquid again. For creation of liquid nitrogen, O2, H2 , air etc. the recondite cool is
used.
In general for overtake of recondite cool we use three systems as below:
1. Cascade vaporization
2. Fast pressure drop by transmission of gas
3. Adiabatically expansion of gas with external work
The first one creates medium cool, the second and third are creating recondite cool. Two
kind of transmission effect we have:
1. Differential effect
2. Integral effect
The change of temperature caused by a very small change of pressure is called differential
effect of transmission. And it is shown by this formula
αi = [ ]i=cont ( 2.4)
The change of temperature caused by a large change of pressure is called integral effect of
transmission. And it is shown by this formula
ΔTi = T1‐ T2 = (2.5)
T1,T2 are gas temperature before and after the transmission. The transmission effect of
every gas can be positive, negative or zero. The temperature that equals zero by the effect of
transmission is called “change point”.
Adiabatically expansion of gas with external work
One of another way to create low temperature is adiabatically expansion of gas with
external work that occurs in turbo machine or in compressors. The adiabatically expansion
effect of transmission of gas is equal to the:
αs = s cont (2.6)
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By adiabatic expansion the decrease of temperature is more significant than the
transmission of gas.
The work done by adiabatic expansion is equal to the difference of air enthalpies in the enter
and exit of machine.
L = i1 – i2 kj/kg
When ds =0 the final temperature can be find from this formula
T2, T1 ‐ are temperatures of gas before and after the expansion.
P1, P2 ‐ first and second pressure of gas.
K ‐ Adiabatically characteristic.
By increase of the pressure and reduction of temperature the quantity of αs reduces and it
become near or close to the αi quantity. And near to the climacteric temperature area both
affect of adiabatically expansion and effect of Transmission of gas are the same and they
create identical cool.
Recondite cool cycles:
1‐ Cycles that using effect of Transmission of gas:
a) Cycle of one stage Transmission of gas
b) Cycle with tow pressure of air
c) Cycle with rotation of low pressure
2‐ Cycle by using Adiabatically expansion:
a) Clod cycle
b) Kapisa cycle
c) Liroza cycle
d) Composite cycle
For more details of air cooling cycles see (Reference: lessen chapter [3])
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2.2.5 Air distillation
In an air separation unit for separating air by cryogenic process, thereby recovering oxygen,
nitrogen and Argon, column of duplex type rectification tower is used. The air is fed into the
lower column with higher pressure. Liquid nitrogen is introduced into the upper column as a
reflux from lower column and a oxygen reached stream from the bottom of the lower
column is fed to the bottom of the higher column. Distillate from the upper column is
practically pure Nitrogen, bottom of this column in Oxygen and Argon reached stream is
removed from the middle part of the upper column.
Air distillation column
Distillation column combined from bottom
column (2), condenser and reboiler (3) and
upper column (4). Bottom column work
under 5.5‐ 6.5 at pressure and its
allocation for preliminary distillation of air
in to nitrogen and mixed of oxygen and air
that has 60 – 65% nitrogen and 35 – 40 %
oxygen. In upper column that works at 1.3
– 1.4 at for finally distillation of mixed
oxygen and air in to nitrogen and oxygen.
1‐ Liquid oxygen and air
2‐ Bottom column 3‐ condenser – reboiler 4 –
upper column 5 – stages
6‐ Liquid nitrogen packet 7‐ valve
8‐ pipes
Figure 9: air distillation column
In the medal of bottom and upper column condenser and reboiler located that condensing
of nitrogen for bottom column and vaporizing oxygen for upper column. Condensation
temperature of nitrogen in bottom column is 96 – 97 °K and oxygen vaporization
temperature in upper column is 92 – 93 °K.
23
Compressed air in 120 ‐200 at in siding at the lower parts of column 2 by temperature of 145
– 155 °K after that other process accomplishment on it. At the end gases nitrogen products
from top of column 4, oxygen products from the top of condenser 3 and Argon from the
medal of column 4 .number of theoretical stage in upper column are about 36 up to 56
stages and in bottom column 24 up to 36 stages.
The produced Nitrogen, Oxygen and Argon purity is:
Mol fraction of oxygen 98.7%, mol fraction of nitrogen 99.0%, mol fraction of Argon99.5 %.
2.3 Products of air separation and their applications
These are the Air products:
Oxygen: Oxygen makes up 21 percent of the air we breathe. Our bodies need oxygen to
support life, so oxygen has many medical and healthcare uses.
Oxygen is also used in many industries, in clouding metal and glass manufacturing, chemicals
and petroleum processing, pharmaceuticals, pulp and paper, aerospace, wastewater
treatment and even fish farming.
Chemical formula: O2‐ other names: oxygen gas, gaseous Oxygen (GOX), liquid oxygen (LOX)
Physical and Chemical Properties
Oxygen has no color or smell. Oxygen is slightly heavier than air and slightly water soluble.
Oxygen combines readily with many elements to form compounds called “oxides.” One
example is iron oxide, or rust, that forms on iron in the presence of oxygen and moisture.
Although oxygen itself is nonflammable, combustible materials burn more strongly in
oxygen. Even though most applications use oxygen in the gas form, it can be cooled to a pale
Blue liquid at extremely low temperatures (‐297°F/‐183°C). To put that temperature into
perspective, water freezes at 32°F/0°C.
Uses and Benefits
Our bloodstream absorbs oxygen from the air in our lungs to fuel the cells in our bodies.
Healthcare providers use medical oxygen for patients in surgery and for those who have
difficulty breathing. For home use, lightweight Portable oxygen cylinders give patients
freedom to gout in to the community.
24
Oxygen promotes combustion, so it help manufacturers save upland energy and reduce the
emission of green house gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide or sulfur oxide.
Using oxygen‐enriched air increases production efficiency in steel, rocket fuel, glass,
chemical and metallurgical processing applications.
Manufacturers of aluminum, copper, gold and lead use oxygen to remove metals from ore
more efficiently. As a result, they can often use lower‐grade ores and raw materials, which
helps conserve and extend our natural resources. For metal fabrication, oxygen is often used
with acetylene, propane, and other gases to cut and weld metals.
The chemical and petroleum industries combine oxygen with hydrocarbon building blocks to
make products such as antifreeze, plastic and nylon.
The pulp and paper industry uses oxygen to increase paper whiteness while reducing the
need for other bleaching chemicals. They also use it to reduce odors and other emissions.
Municipal and industrial wastewater plants use oxygen to make the treatment process more
efficient and increase basin capacity during plant expansions or plant upsets. Municipal
Water plants use oxygen as feed gas to their ozone systems to remove taste, odor and color
from drinking water. Oxygenated water also improves the health and size of the fish for fish
farming operations so farmers around the world can supply high‐quality food.
Industrial Use: We ship oxygen as a high‐pressure gas or a cold liquid. We often ship and
store larger quantities of oxygen in liquid form, because it occupies much less space that
way. Depending on how much oxygen gas our customer uses, we store and ship it in high‐
pressure cylinders and tubes. Industry guidelines cover the storage and handling of
compressed gas cylinders. Workers should use sturdy work gloves, safety glasses with side
shields and safety shoes when handling compressed gas cylinders. We store and ship liquid
oxygen in three different types of containers‐dowers, cryogenic liquid cylinder sand
cryogenic liquid tanks. The second trainers are similar to heavy‐duty vacuum bottles used to
keep your coffee hot or your water cold. Because of its low temperature, liquid oxygen
should not come in contact with skin. If workers handle containers of liquid oxygen, it is
important to wear a full face‐shield over safety glasses to protect the eyes and face. Workers
should also wear clean, loose fitting, thermal‐insulated gloves; a long‐sleeved shirt and pants
without cuffs; and safety shoes.
The risk of fire increases when oxygen levels in the air are higher than normal. Clothing and
hair readily trap oxygen and are highly combustible. It is important to have good ventilation
25
when working with oxygen and to periodically test the atmospheres in confined areas to
ensure that oxygen levels do not increase and create an increased fire hazard. Personnel
should know the risk, keep the area clear of combustible materials and post “No Smoking”
signs. Equipment used in oxygen service must be cleaned according to strict industry
guidelines to avoid contamination.
Nitrogen:
Nitrogen makes up 78 percent of the air we breathe. Nitrogen has many commercial uses.
In fact, more nitrogen is sold by volume than any other inorganic chemical.
Nitrogen is used in oil and gas industries, metalworking, electronics, food processing and
many manufacturing processes.
Chemical Formula: N2 other names: nitrogen gas, gaseous Nitrogen (GAN), liquid nitrogen
(LIN)
Physical and Chemical Properties:
Nitrogen has no color or smell. It does not burn. It’s slightly lighter than air and slightly
water soluble. Nitrogen is inert, which means that it does not react with many materials.
However, it can form compounds under certain conditions. For example, at high
temperatures, nitrogen reacts with oxygen to form various oxides of nitrogen. It can also
form other compounds in the presence of catalysts. When cooled to extremely low
temperatures (‐321°F/‐196°C), nitrogen exists in liquid form. To put that temperature into
perspective, water freezes at 32°F/0°C.
Uses and Benefits:
Industries use both liquid nitrogen and nitrogen gas. Nitrogen helps make many industrial
processes safer for workers and the public.
Refineries, petrochemical plants and marine tankers use gaseous nitrogen to clean out
vapors and gases from the equipment they use. Industries also use gaseous nitrogen to
“blanket,” or maintain an inert protective atmosphere over chemicals in process and storage
equipment. Metal fabricators use liquid nitrogen to help control process temperatures in
thermal spray coating, making the process more efficient. Machine shops use liquid nitrogen
instead of cutting fluids in machining operations, which eliminates the need for oil‐based
products. Manufacturers use liquid nitrogen to cool soft or heat‐sensitive materials so they
can grind them. They use cryogenic grinding to produce medicines, spices, plastics and
pigments. Recyclers use liquid nitrogen to cool polymers including plastic and rubber so they
26
can grind them and recover key raw materials used to manufacture new products. For
example, they use nitrogen to turn rubber scrap tires into Useable products, such as
synthetic running tracks, instead of discarding the rubber in a landfill. Many of the foods we
eat are frozen in nitrogen‐cooled freezers. Because the nitrogen is so cold, it often improves
the quality of the frozen food products. The liquid nitrogen replaces traditional refrigerants,
such as fluorocarbons and ammonia, which may cause environmental or health concerns
when they leak from processing equipment. After the nitrogen cools the food, the nitrogen
goes safely back into the air.
Industrial Use:
We ship nitrogen as a high‐pressure gas or a cold liquid. We often ship and store gases in
liquid form, because they occupy much less space that way. We store and ship nitrogen gas
in two different container sizes. Depending on how much our customer uses, we provide the
gas in high‐pressure cylinders and tubes. Industry guidelines cover the storage and handling
of compressed gas cylinders. Workers should use sturdy work gloves, safety glasses with side
shields and safety shoes when handling compressed gas cylinders. We also store and ship
liquid nitrogen in three different types of containers—Dewar’s, cryogenic liquid cylinders
and cryogenic liquid tanks. These containers are similar to heavy duty vacuum bottles used
to keep your coffee hot or your water cold. Because of its low temperature, liquid nitrogen
should not come in contact with skin. For workers who handle containers of liquid nitrogen,
it is important to wear a full face‐shield to protect the eyes and face. Workers should also
wear clean, loose‐fitting, thermal‐insulated gloves; a long‐sleeved shirt and pants without
cuffs; and safety shoes. To prevent suffocation, it is important to have good ventilation when
working with nitrogen. Confined workspaces must be tested for oxygen levels prior to entry.
If the oxygen level is lower than 19.5 percent, personnel, including rescue workers, should
not enter the area without special breathing equipment that provides an independent
source of clean breathing air.
Argon:
Argon is a gas that occurs naturally. It makes up slightly less than 1 percent of the air we
breathe. Argon is used in metals production, processing and fabrication and electronics
manufacturing.
Chemical formula: Ar ‐ other names: argon gas, gaseous argon (GAR), liquid argon (LAR)
27
Physical and Chemical Properties
Argon has no color or smell. It does not burn. It’s heavier than air and will tend to settle in
low‐lying areas. Argon is slightly water soluble.
Argon is a member of a special group of gases known as the “noble” or “inert” gases. Other
gases in this group are helium, neon and krypton. The term “inert” means that they will not
readily combine chemically with other material When cooled to extremely low temperatures
(‐303°F/‐186°C), argon exists in liquid form, known as a cryogenic liquid. To put that
temperature into perspective, water freezes at32°F/0°C.
Uses and Benefits
The metals and semiconductor manufacturing industries use argon to purge or clean out
vapors and gases from the equipment they use.
Metal producers and semiconductor manufacturers also use argon to “blanket,” or maintain
an inert protective atmosphere over metals and silicon crystals to prevent unwanted
chemical reactions from occurring. In metal fabrication processes like welding, argon shields
the weld against the metal oxide impurities that would form if the molten weld bead came
in contact with oxygen. Argon gas is also used in heat treating furnaces to cool parts when
other cooling gases might negatively affect the parts.
The lighting industry uses argon for filling incandescent bulbs, because it will not react with
the filament. In combination with other rare gases, argon creates special color effects, which
are often called “neon lights.” Argon is also used to fill the space in insulated glass windows
to improve the thermal efficiency of our homes.
Industrial Use
We ship argon as a gas or a cryogenic liquid. We often ship and store gases in liquid form,
because they occupy much less space that way.
Depending on how much argon gas our customer uses, we store and ship it in high‐pressure
cylinders and tubes. Industry guidelines cover the storage and handling of compressed gas
cylinders. Workers should use sturdy work gloves, safety glasses with side shields and safety
shoes when handling compressed gas cylinders. We also store and ship liquid argon in three
different types of containers—Dewar’s, cryogenic liquid cylinders and cryogenic liquid tanks.
These containers are similar to heavy‐duty vacuum bottles used to keep your coffee hot or
your water cold. Because of its low temperature liquid argon should not come in contact
with skin. If workers handle containers of liquid argon, it is important to wear a full face‐
28
shield over safety glasses to protect the eyes and face. Workers should also wear clean,
closefitting, thermal‐insulated gloves; a long‐sleeved shirt and pants without cuffs; and
safety shoes. To prevent suffocation, it is important to have good ventilation when working
with argon. Confined workspaces must be tested for oxygen levels prior to entry. If the
oxygen level is lower than 19.5 percent, personnel, including rescue workers, should not
enter the area without special breathing equipment.
29
3. PRACTICAL PART
3.1 Thermodynamic of air separation
The general phase equilibrium equation that describes distribution of a component into
vapor and liquid phase is given by:
yi=ki xi (3.1)
For nitrogen and oxygen system the Peng‐Robinson state equation is usually used for
calculation of equilibrium coefficient kij.
The Standard Peng‐Robinson equation‐of‐state is the original formulation of the Peng‐
Robinson equation of state with the standard alpha function. It is recommended for
hydrocarbon processing applications such as gas processing, refinery, and petrochemical
processes. Its results are comparable to those of the standard Redlich‐Kwong‐Soave
equation of state.
The equation for this model is:
RT a (3.2 )
P= −
v m − b vm ( vm + b ) + b ( vm − b )
Where:
b = ∑ xi bi
i
a = ∑ i ∑ i xi x j ( ai a j ) 0.5 (1 − kij )
ai = fcn(T, Tci,Pci,wi)
bi= fcn (Tci,Pci)
Kij= kij (1) +kij (2) T+kij (3)/T
30
The model has option codes which can be used to customize the model, by selecting a
different alpha function and other model options. For best results, the binary parameter kij
must be determined from regression of phase equilibrium data such as VLE data. The Aspen
Physical Property System also has built‐in kij for a large number of component pairs in the
EOS‐LIT databank. These parameters are used automatically with the PENG‐ROB property
method. Values in the databank can be different than those used with other models such as
Soave‐Redlich‐Kwong or Redlich‐Kwong‐Soave, and this can produce different results.
Using the Peng‐ Robinson equation of state the isobaric t, xy and x,y diagrams of N2‐O2 and
Ar‐O2 binary systems at different pressures were calculated:
a) P = 1.4 at
Figure 10 :T,X,Y‐ diagram,N2 – O2
31
Figure 11 :X,Y diagram,N2‐ O2
b) P = 5 at
Figure 12: T,X,Y‐ diagram,N2‐O2
32
Figure 13: X,Y diagram,N2 – O2
b – Oxygen, Argon, P=1.4 at
‐183
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
‐183.5
‐184
‐184.5
t(°C)
‐185
‐185.5
‐186
‐186.5
X
33
Figure 14: T,X,Y‐ diagram, Ar‐ O2
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Y
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
X
Figure 15: X,Y‐ diagram, Ar – O2
As it results from the isobaric phase equilibrium diagrams the relative volatility of N2 to O2 is quite
high it means that separation of N2 from O2 is not very difficult. But the relative volatility of Ar to O2 is
very low. For this reason for separation of these components we will need large number of
theoretical stages and large reflux ratios.
3.2 Calculation of air distillation by McCabe‐Thiele method
Material balance system:
The quantity of oxygen and nitrogen that interior with air in plant is equal to the quantity of
those gases that outside with the product of the plant. If we know the product oxygen and
nitrogen Concentration we can know the quantity of theme by Material balance equation.
We consider that 191.94 kmol/h of a bubble liquid air consisting of 79mol% N2 and 21 mol%
O2 is distillated continuously in a distillation tower at a pressure of 1.4 atmospheres.
Distillate contains 98 mol% of light component and Bottoms 98 mol% of heavy component.
34
The reflux ratio is 1.45 times of minimum reflux ratio. Following is described the calculation
of:
a‐ Number of theoretical stages and optimum feed stage location.
b‐ Steam requirement in reboiler and requirement of cooling Air in total condenser if
the steam pressure is 0.14 Map and cooling Air is preheated by 20 oC, only
condensation heat of the steam is used and reflux is returned to the column at
boiling point.
Data:
Equilibrium data of Air in 1.4 at (mol frictions)
x 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.95 1
y 0 0.1732 0.3078 0.4146 0.501 0.5722 0.6318 0.7259 0.7972 0.8534 0.8993 0.9378 0.9709 0.9859 1
XfN2 = 0.79 t = tfBP
XfO2 = 0.21 q = 1
XDN2 = 0.98
XwN2 = 0.02
Nf = 6048.9 kmolh‐1
Heat of evaporation at average column temperature: t = ‐190 °C
ΔvhN2=6661.1 kJ/kmol ΔvhO=5487 kJ/kmol
35
1. Scheme and mass balance:
DESTILAT
F EED
BOTTOMS
Figure 16
n F = n D + nW ( 3.3 )
n F x F = n D x D + nW xW
nF x F = nD x D + (nF − nD ) xW = nD x D + nF xW − nD xW
x F − xW
nD = nF
x D − xW
nW = nF − nD (3.4)
nD=
nw= 6048.9– 4652.612= 1396.288 kmol/h
2. Prepare x‐y diagram using equilibrium data:
36
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
Y
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
X
Figure 17: X‐Y diagram, vapor and liquid N2
3‐ Select on diagram point F, D and W
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
Y
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
X
Figure 18: Selection of xF and xD
37
4‐ Draw q‐line
q‐line is graphical interpretation of material balance of the feed stage; q represents the
amount of liquid that accumulates at the feed stage by feeding of 1 kmol of the feed.
q‐line equation:
nv = nL + nD ( 3.5)
nv yi = nL xL + nD xD
nL n
yi = xi + D xD (3.6)
nv nv
Rn D nD
yi = xi + xD
( R + 1) ( R + 1)
q x
yi = xi − F
q −1 q −1
q
For bubble liquid Air, q=1, the slop of q‐line equation is tgα = = ∞ ⇒ α = 90 o
q −1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
Y
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
X
Figure 19: X‐Y drawing of q‐line
38
5‐ Calculation of minimum reflux ration
For calculation minimum reflux ration Rmin the operating line in the rectifying section of the
column for at Rmin should be drawn.
Rmin xD
y = x+ (3.7)
Rmin + 1 Rmin + 1
We have two points of this line one is the intersection of q‐line and equilibrium curve and
another in the intersection of 45o line and xD line.
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
Y
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
X
Figure 20: X‐Y minimum reflux ratio
The minimum reflux ratio can be calculated from the slope of this line
x D − y'
Rmin =
y '− x' (3.8)
xD
Or from the section on the y axis for x=0
Rmin + 1
39
6‐ Calculate reflux ratio (R) as R=2 Rmin.
R = 2 Rmin (3.9)
xD − y'
Rmin =
y '− x'
Rmin=
R = 2 *0.727 = 1.45
xD
7‐ Calculate the section on the y axis for x=0
R +1
xD 0.98
yi = = = 0.40
R + 1 1.45 + 1
8‐ Draw the operating line of the rectifying section of the column by connecting points (0,
xD
) and (xD, yD)
R +1
9‐ Draw the operating line of the striping section of the column, by connecting intersection
point of q‐line and operating line of rectifying section with point (xw, yw)
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
Y
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
X
Figure 21: X‐Y Drawing of operating lines
40
10‐ Draw steps between equilibrium curve and operating lines
Number of theoretical stages= number of steps – 1 (reboiler)
Optimal feed stage = intersection of q‐line and operating lines
Enthalpy balance of reboiler:
QRe = [nD(R+1) + nF (q ‐ 1)] ∆vhw (3.10)
∆vhw = ∆vhwO2 XwO2 + ∆vhwN2 XwN2 (3.11)
Δvhw = 5487×0.98 + 6661.1×0.02 = 5510.5kJ/kmol
QRe = [4652.612(1.4 +1) +6048.9(1 – 1)] 5510.5 = 61531724 kJ/hr=17.092 MW
Figure 22: X‐Y diagram, vapor and liquid N2
41
Enthalpy balance of total condenser:
Qcon = nD(R+1) ∆vhD (3.12)
∆vhD = ∆vhN XDN + ∆vhO XDO (3.13)
ΔvhD = 6661.1×0.98 +5487×0.02 = 6637.62 kJ/kmol
Qcon = 4652.612(1.4 + 1) 6637.62 = 74117449kJ/hr = 20.59 MW
3.3 Aspen simulation of air separation process
For calculation and design of air separation process we have used the ASPEN Plus air
separation program. It’s a new science technology for doing the calculation of engineering
process.
In this project we have designed the air separation process and distillation of air to its
components. A special attention was devoted to separation of Argon. However, the
simulation of all process including air cooling was done.
Following are described the basic steps of simulation by ASPEN Plus
1. Using Aspen property analysis and Peng‐Robinson equation of state, thermodynamic
analysis of air separation was done. The results are presented in the section 3.1.
2. Design and drawing of the process flow sheet
Description of the air separation process flow sheet:
This scheme is generally using for producing Argon that has different use.
The basic form of the air (3500 m3/hr at operational conditions (t =20°C, P= 5at) or (727.5
kmol/hr) that cleared from dust and compressed in a compressor up to 5at pressure after
crossing refrigerator and separator of wet goes to inside of oxygen and nitrogen
refrigerators. Air is cooled here up to (‐ 160, ‐ 170 °C). The refrigerators work automatically.
Airs crossing one the refrigerator so in this time the reversed proceeding gas of O2 and N2
are crossing another refrigerator and after a few minutes changing them are replaced. After
that cleared and cooled air goes to the lower parts of the air separation column (C1). Second
parts of the air (800 m3/hr at operational conditions (t=20°C, P= 160at)) or (5321.4 kmol/hr)
42
that compressed up to (150 – 200 at ) at first and up to( 120 ‐160at) pressure during normal
work in several stage compressor. The high pressure air divided in to two proceeding or
parts, one parts of the air (550m3/hr) is crossing heat exchanger (EH1) and cooling up to (‐
130°C) there by reversing gas of nitrogen and after that expand ring up to 5 at and enters to
lower parts of column C1. The another parts of high pressure air (250m3/hr) is goes to the
expander and expands up to 5at pressure so this parts of air also enters to the lower parts
of air separation column C1. in the result of expand ration the temperature become ( ‐
130°C).
From the top of C3 Argon with same nitrogen goes to column C4. From the top of this
column products nitrogen and from the bottom of this column Argon is received. The Mol
fraction of produced Argon is 99.5%. Nitrogen produced in C4 is mixed with Nitrogen
produced in C2.
3:3:1 Technical specifications of KT – 1000 M plant:
Volume flow of the air m3/hr:
High pressure air 800 m3/hr at pressure 160at 5321.4 kmol/hr
Low pressure air 3500 m3/hr at pressure 5at 727.5 kmol/hr
Volume of producted oxygen 1243.877 kmol/hr
43
Volume of producted nitrogen 4760.309 kmol/hr
Volume of producted Argon 44.714 kmol/hr
Mol fraction of oxygen 98.7%
Mol fraction of nitrogen 99.0%
Mol fraction of Argon 99.5 %
3. Selecting components and property method
Figure 23: components and property method for air separation
44
4. Specifying entering air
High pressure air
Pressure: 160 at
Temperature: 20 °C
Molar flow: 5321.4kmol/hr
Composition: N2= 0781,O2= 0.209,Ar= 0.0093
Low pressure air
Pressure: 5 ‐ 6 at
Temperature: 20 °C
Molar flow: 727.5kmol/hr
Composition: N2= 78.1,O2=20.9,Ar = 1
Figure 24: stream specification in ASPEN Plus
45
5. Specifying of equipments
HEO2: Hot stream outlet temperature: ‐130 °C
HEN2:Hot stream outlet temperature : ‐130 °C
HE1 : Hot stream outlet temperature : ‐130 °C
HE2 : Hot stream outlet temperature: ‐185 °C
HE3: Hot stream outlet temperature: ‐190 °C
HE4: Hot stream outlet temperature: ‐176°C
Column C1: Number of theoretical stages: 26, Air feed stage:26, Condenser pressure: 6at
column pressure drop: 0.5at
Distillate rate: 3500 kmol/hr
Column C2: Number of theoretical stages: 40, feed stage:40, Condenser pressure: 1.4 at
column pressure drop: 0.05at
Distillate rate: 4751.99 kmol/hr, N2 purity: 0.99 , N2 recovery0.997
Column C3: Number of theoretical stages: 100, feed stage:50, Condenser pressure: 1at
column pressure drop: 0.0at
Distillate rate: 53.03 kmol/hr, O2 purity: 0.999 in bottom , O2 recovery0.999 in bottom
Column C4: Number of theoretical stages: 15, feed stage: 11, Condenser pressure: 1at
column pressure drop: 0.0at
Distillate rate: 44.71kmol/hr, Ar purity: 0.995, Ar recovery0.998
46
Figure 25: example of block specification in ASPEN Plus
3.3.2 Results of ASPEN simulation
Figure (26) shows the simulation scheme of air separation based on the above described
input data. The results of material and enthalpy balance for all blocks and streams are
shown in Table(5 ).
Other results of distillation columns are shown in Table (6)
47
Air separation technology scheme
Figure 26: scheme of the air separation
1‐ C1,C2,C3 are column 2 – S1,S2,S3,S4,S5,B8,B10 are mixers 3 – HEO2,HEM2,HE1,HE2,HE3,HE4 are heat exchangers 4 – Expander
48
Tabel 5:results of stady state simulation of air distillation process
49
50
51
Table6: Results of distillation columns
T (°C) Head duty Distill rate Refluxe rate Reflu ratio T (°C) Heat duty Bottoms rate Boilup rate Boilup ratio
(Watt) (kmol/hr) (kmol/hr) (Wat) (kmol/hr) (kmol/hr)
C1 ‐175.35 ‐6472347.3 3500 1910.764 0.5459 ‐171.48 0 2548.9 2620.192 1.0279
C2 ‐192.74 ‐91411835 4751.9924 58422.27 12.29 ‐180.297 91000347.4 1196.907 49392.546 41.266
C3 ‐188.872 ‐1715098.2 53.03 923.076 17.4066 ‐183.313 1710731.19 46.9698 910.8199 19.391
C4 ‐195.71 ‐106960.11 8.316 68.6828 8.2588 ‐186.123 120270.311 44.7138 67.5344 1.5103
Temperature profile of C1
This diagram shows the tempereture in different stage of column C1.
It shows the teperature will be higher up from lower to the bottom of column1
‐171
‐171.5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
‐172
‐172.5
‐173
t( C)
‐173.5
‐174
‐174.5
‐175
‐175.5
‐176
N
Figure 27:Temperature profile of column C1
52
Composition profile of C1
This diagram shows the composition of oxygen , nitrogen and Argon in different stage
number of column 1.
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
X
N2
0.4
O2
0.3
AR
0.2
0.1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
N
Figure 28: Composition profile of column C1
Temperature profile of C2
This diagram shows the tempereture in different stage of column C2.
It shows the teperature will be higher up from lower to the bottom of column2
53
‐178
0 10 20 30 40 50
‐180
‐182
‐184
t( C)
‐186
‐188
‐190
‐192
‐194
N
Figure 29: Temperature profile of column C2
Composition profile of C2
This diagram shows the composition of oxygen , nitrogen and Argon in different stage
number of column 2.
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
X
N2
0.4 O2
0.3 AR
0.2
0.1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
N
Figure 30: Composition profile oc folumn C2
54
Temperature profile C3
This diagram shows the tempereture in different stage of column C3.
It shows the teperature will be higher up from lower to the bottom of column3
‐183
1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 101 111
‐184
‐185
‐186
t ( C )
‐187
‐188
‐189
‐190
N
Figure 31:Temperature profile of column C3
Composition profile C3
This diagram shows the composition of oxygen , nitrogen and Argon in different stage
number of column 3.
55
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
X
N2
0.4 O2
0.3 AR
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
N
Figure 32: Composition profile of column C3
Temperature profile C4
This diagram shows the tempereture in different stage of column C4.
It shows the teperature will be higher up from lower to the bottom of column4
‐184
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
‐186
‐188
‐190
t( C )
‐192
‐194
‐196
‐198
N
Figure 33: Diagram of Temperature profile C3
56
Composition profile C4
This diagram shows the composition of oxygen , nitrogen and Argon in different stage
number of column 4.
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
X
N2
0.4 O2
0.3 AR
0.2
0.1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
N
Figure 34: Diagram of Composition profile C4
Influence of distillate flow rate in the Column C1 on Argon composition in Argon side
stream in column C2:
Figure (35) shows the distillate flow rate in column C1 versus composition of Argon in side
Argon stream in the column C2. We see in this diagram that how much distillate we bring
from C1 to have optimal Argon composition in side stream in column C2. Maximum Argon
mol fraction was calculated for distillate rate of around 3500 kmol/hr in column C1.
57
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
XAr C2
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
1100 1600 2100 2600 3100 3600 4100 4600 5100
nD C1
Figure 35: Distillate flow rate in column C1 versus composition of Argon in the side Argon stream in Column C2
Influence of distillate flow rate in the Column C1 on reflux ratio in column C2:
This diagram shows the distillate flow rate in column C1 versus reflux ratio in column
C2.Where the purity and recovery of products were hold at constant values. The distillate
flow rate in column C1 effects the reflux ratio in the column C2. As we can see on Figure
(36) a distillate flor rate of around 3400 kmol/hr shows a minimum for reflux ration in
column C2.
25
23
21
19
17
15
R C2
13
11
9
7
5
1100 1600 2100 2600 3100 3600 4100 4600 5100
nD C1
Figure 36: Distillate flow rate in column C1 versus reflux ratio in the column C2
58
Relation between number of theoretical stages and reflux ration in Argon recovery column:
Figure (37) shows the relation between number of theoretical stages versus reflux ration in
column C3 when Argon has 0.99 purity and 0.999 recovery.
Diagram shows when the column has 65 stages reflux ration is 50 . if we select more stages
reflux ration will be lasse. when column has 80 stages reflux ration is 18 . so it’s a reflux ration
near the minimum reflux ratio. In the case of using larger number of theoretical stages the the
chang of reflux ratio is not significant.
100
90
80
70
60
50
R
40
30
20
10
0
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
N
Figure 37: Number of theoretical stages versus Reflux ration in column C3 for Argon purity: 0.99, Argon recovery:0.999
Relation between number of theoretical stages and Argon mol fraction at a constant reflux
ratio in Argon recovery column:
Figure (38) shows the relation between number of theoretical stages versus mol fraction of
Argon in the distillate of C3 when reflux ration is (R=22) and nD = 45 kmol/hr.
59
Diagram shows when (R=const ,nD =const) stage number form first up to 40 stages has greet
effects on XAr in column C3 after that excess of stage in column is not significant effect on Ar
percentage. As an optimum number of theoretical stages 50 was selected.
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.75
XAr
0.7
0.65
0.6
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
N
Figure 38: Number of theoretical stages versus mol fraction of Argon in the bottom of C3, R=22, nD=45 kmol/hr
60
4. Mechanical aspects of air distillation tower
Target of mechanic calculations set size and parts of Herbs device was planned that should
provide strength and durability to the machine. Calculate, including basic part station mechanic
and parts of the following devices are chemical valence. Bodies (cylinders E.) depth ring
strength by separate ducts, fittings Flange, by relying on strength and Herbs parts devices.
Devices in the capacity pressures (less and additional) under vacuum or outside pressure works
and should also they are in the fields against wind load effects and be tested in earthquake
force’.
If you need to calculate the effect of simultaneous multiple adverse conditions when the other
operation can be performed. When computing the device elements mechanic with stainless
defense wall ML ‐ plastic ‐ the creatures lining etc. It will not be considered.
To determine cast devices that consist of several segments of the same formula that can be
used to determine the wall thickness of two Rind devices are used. If the difference in thermal
expansion coefficient of metal segments (3cm + X18H10T) there is In this case, the thickness of
cortical thickness saturate devices the basic forms (thick carbon steel) but also in such
conditions, so calculated against surpluses rusty are not looking. When planning units of plants
in selected case of buildings and using normal Standard numbers that are needed to test the
calculations and can be performed. The purpose of computing tentative is defining the
authorized pressure Injections virtual machines that can be harvested. For Calculations stability
and strength of the machines this norms OH26‐01‐13‐65/H1039‐65 are applied.
4.1 Basic parameters of calculations
4.1.1 Calculated pressures
Pressure in the formula calculating machines and container wall thickness and stability,
including in Stability has been named and supposedly learned saturate pressure term is the
working pressure. As the working pressure, the large excess pressure in case of normal flow of
Practical technology arise, is considered. If the fluid filled device is set in Meanwhile Saturate
61
pressure is needed to make that push hydrostatic also is considered, although in that case the
quantity of 2.5% of the excess gas pressure is high. In some cases, very sensitive to the possible
increase in working pressure as 10% of the time delay in opening the valve is considered
discretionary. For devices that the existence of explosive, toxic or potent substances are quickly
Activity Saturate pressure than the pressure of working long enough to accept 0.1‐0.2MPa.
Saturate pressure on devices that maintain and filtration combustion and explosive
environments and Gases liquid used in the table (7 ) has been inserted.
Table 7: Saturate pressures in devices
calculation pressure P MPa
effective pressure PC MPa
0.01 liquid Gas without pressure
0.1 0.05‐0.07
1.2PC up to 0.3 >0.07
0.06 <0.05
0.8 anhydride of sulfur
1.6 Ammoniac
7.6 Carbon dioxide
For element spaces with different pressures for the formation of separate (for example in the
machine with warm shirt or cover) as the Saturate pressure is necessary to separate any
pressure or pressure greater wall thickness calculation takes the elements to be accepted. If the
effect of simultaneous pressure comes, run calculations in this case the pressure differences are
allowed. Test under pressure in containers or devices should be considered under the pressure
to control test Assured, safety and functionality Karan occurs.
62
4.1.2Calculated Temperature
Temperature directly not included in calculated formula, but knowing where to get profile
material is necessary. Wall material calculated temperature of the device is equal to the
ambient temperature that wall is contact it, is taken. If the existence of thermal insulation in
the device equal to the temperature level with the wall insulation to make contact with plus 20
˚ C is taken. If the machine is heated by opened flames or electric heaters and open up still hot
by Gases temperature 250 ˚ C and the more heated, the temperature equal to ambient
calculated temperature the lining is to be, adding 50 ˚ C but not less than 250 ˚ C is taken.
4.1.3 Reactionary longitudinal model Shows the ability of Materials and its stand tough
against deformation. Reactionary longitudinal model Prices for high carbon steels and much
Lager in communicate with temperatures have insert in the table ( 8)
Table 8: Reactionary longitudinal model
E.10‐5MPa Under the following temperature °C
steel
350 300 250 200 150 100 20
much been
1.86 1.91 1.94 1.97 1.99 2.00 2.00
laager
E.10‐5MPa Under the following temperature °C
steel
63
4.1.4 Coefficient Suture Stability Weld
In the calculation of containers and devices that has Suture Stability welding, must be
included the Stability of constant φ factor in the formula . This coefficient shows connection
between Stability of weld and construction of basic materials (paper supplement). Price of the
Coefficient Suture Stability Weld is belongs to the Building of weld (connection) and how
something will be Weld. Automatic and Manual Weld and bilateral than unilateral better.
Table 9: Weld coefficient Stability Suture weld of containers and devices
If φ stitch length welding
Suture shapeof weld
10‐50% 100%
Tip to tip, or head to head two‐way approach to, bare
0.90 1.0
Automatic or semi‐automatic
Head‐on stitches from the butt or head to head bare
0.90 1.0
hand a two‐way
64
Table 10: Titan coefficient Suture Stability Weld of containers and devices from
φ Suture shape of weld
Automatic two‐sided head‐on along the cassia and welding work
0.95
hand in argon environment
0.90 Head to head two‐way automatic and manual argon environment
0.80 Head to head thing, not a bare welding
0.70 Tip of the tiny stitches in a way argon environment
4.2 Specified structural surpluses
In the calculation of dishes and devices must be also surpluses thick C the construction
elements to be considered. Complementary wall thickness of container elements and devices is
determined by the following formula:
( 4.1 )
S ≥ SP + C
Here: SP ‐ calculate wall thickness of the container elements and devices.
Surplus of calculate thickness receives from the following relationship:
C = C1 + C2 + C3 (4.2)
Here: C1 ‐ Surplus for metal corrosion, C2 ‐ the negative difference of the thickness of sheet
metal, C3 ‐ is technologically Surplus
65
Surplus for metal corrosion rate equal to the metal corrosion (mm / year) v beat up during the
system t (typically 12‐10 years) are: C = v t Corrosion of metal speed manual or book of
laboratory test set. Surplus for metal corrosion usually 1‐2mm, which is as fast 0.1‐0.2mm/year,
must accept.
If two‐way contact with the metal corrosion surplus environment for metal corrosion should be
increased to compensate. Compensation technologically Surplus wall thinning or elements
within the device in operation technology: cake, bend pipes, etc. are anticipated. C1 and C2
Surplus of the modes consider the price of 5% of their total thickness exceeds normal sheet
metal.
4.2.1Selection of the Virtual Injections
Injections in which certain work (safety) device without providing substance is called Building
Virtual Injections be remembered. Virtual Injections related to mechanic properties materials,
properties Barr and its working conditions. Virtual Injections determined by the follows
formula:
бDop=бη ( 4.3 )
Here: б‐seizure authorized under heat normal Saturate MPa wall of the opinion that the
construction materials devices calculated under the tables are taken, η‐correction factor of the
device in which working conditions are considered. Systems for construction materials have
negative thermal lining them; agree that their seizures are the same as norm f permitted to 20 ˚
C is.
If you use Normative Materials presented in Table seizures are not permitted or in the absence
of heat saturate prices in this table, the seizures Normative permitted to be received as follows:
1 ‐ If the temperature of carbon steels saturate wall to 380 ˚ C for steels 3 of 420 ˚ C for steel
and many of Laager not exceed 525 ˚ C, in this case as the seizure of the two prices Normative
permitted under the following is selected:
66
б= бB/nB , б= бT/nT ( 4.4 )
Here: бB and бT ‐ Least limit order price Stability fluidity under temperature limit Saturate,
nB = 2.6 and nT = 1.5 ‐ the coefficient of storage, respectively, to the extent Stability comment
and is much fluidity.
Table 11: coefficients amendments authorized seizure
Spontaneous
Permissible
ignition Manner
concentration limit
temperature to Much lower risk of
Correction factor η of the health
inflammation ˚ C ability to blast% chemical
Considering the
substances
Norm mg/m3
2‐ If the wall normative temperature of Saturate prices paragraph (a) exceeds the seizure as
permitted under the following Normative two prices that are acceptable:
б= бD/nD , б= бT/nT (4.5 )
Here: бD ‐ Stability long‐term average price level of 100 thousand hours under temperatures
Saturate and nD = 1.5 ‐ saving factor Stability comment is too long Stability.
For testing conditions Hydrolyte dishes and devices of large steel Laager been authorized
seizure of the following formula to determine:
67
20
0.2 [б]np= б /nT (4.6)
Here: б‐quantity price level flow conditions (under which the seizure remaining elongation
makes up 0.2%) and is nT = 1.1.
4.3 Mechanical Calculation of distillation tower
Initial figures:
1 ‐ Internal diameter of the lower tower: Dб.н = 1200mm
2 ‐ Lower Tower Height: Hн= 1.1M
3 ‐ Temperature: tn= ‐185˚C
4 ‐ Pressure: Pн= 6 кg
см 2
5 ‐ Much Stability δб= 3000 кg
см 2
6 ‐ Save the limit of strength Stability: nб= 2.6
7 ‐ Internal diameter of the upper tower: Dб.б= 1040mm
8 ‐ Upper Tower Height: Hб= 3240mm
9 ‐ Temperature: tб= ‐192˚C
11 ‐ In addition to asking for compensation of metal corrosion: C= 2mm
12 ‐ Construction Material: L62
68
4.3.1 Calculation Cylindrical Body of the tower
A Cylinder wall thickness (bottom) determine with help of this relationship as follows:
P × D б .н
S = + C ( 4.7 )
2 [ δ ]ϕ − p
3000
[δ ] = = 1153 . 8 кг
2 .6 см 2
6 × 120.0 720.0
S = + 0.2 = + 0.2 = 0.312 + 0.2 = 0.512cm = 5.12mm
2 × 1153.8 × 1 − 6 2301.6
The S = 6mm wall thickness are acceptable.
Permissible pressure in the selected wall thickness [P] and seizure against the top wall are
calculated as
[ P ] = 2ϕ [ δ ]( S − C ) (4.8)
( D + S − C )
B ‐ Cylindrical body wall thickness (upper) determined with help of follows relationship:
P × Dб .б
S= + C (4.9)
2[ δ ]ϕ − P
69
The S = 6mm wall thickness are acceptable
Permissible pressure in the selected wall thickness [P] and seizure against the top wall δ by
formula (4.8) are calculated as:
2 ϕ [ δ ]( S − C )
[ P ] =
(D + S − C )
P ( D + S − C ) 1.6(104 .0 + 0.6 − 0.2) 167 .04
δ = = = = 181 .5 кг 2
2 .3 × ϕ ( S − C ) 2.3 × 1(0.6 − 0.2) 0.92 см
4.3.2Calculation of elliptical cap and bottom
A ‐ Elliptical bottom wall thickness determined by the help of following formula:
P×R
S= + C (4.10)
2[ δ ]ϕ − P
6 × 120.0 720.0
S= + 0.2 = + 0.2 = 0.512cm = 5.12mm
2 × 1153.8 − 6 2301.6
The bottom wall thickness equal to 6mm is accepted.
Authorized Pressure and seizure on the top wall δ are calculated as:
70
2( S − C )ϕ[ δ ]
[ P] = (4.11)
R + (S − C )
2(0.6 − 0.2)1 × 1153.8 923.04
[ P] = = = 7.67 кг 2
120.0 + (0.6 − 0.2) 120.4 см
B ‐ Wall thickness of the Elliptic cop cover up the formula (4.10) will be set:
Wall thickness equal to the cap to accept 6mm.
Permitted pressure [P] and seizure against the wall above δ by formula ( 4.11) are calculated as:
B ‐ Wall thickness of the Elliptic al cap determined with this formula (4.10):
Wall thickness of the cap is equal to the 6mm.
71
Permitted pressure [P] and seizure against the wall above δ by formula (4.11) are calculated as:
72
5. Safety aspects of air distillation process
5.1 Major hazards of chemical Production
Key risks and chemical risks follow:
1 ‐ Level entity warm, sharp steam flow, if that makes combustion acid thermal burns and
chemical represented. Opinion because 37% occur in unfortunate situations.
2 ‐ Mechanic injuries that cause hazards and represented mechanic injuries adverse scenarios.
Is 14% constituted?
3 ‐ Level entity harmful gases, toxic substances, toxic that are uniquely poisoning make up 13%
of these events scenarios horrible.
4 ‐ The existence is of electric currents because electrical damage and events represented. This
happened of 11% form all adverse scenarios.
5 ‐ Other hazards such as falls from high way, traffic occurs inside the factory and others make
up 25% of events.
5.2Material properties in plant (separation of air) was planning
Nitrogen: ‐ Nitrogen look from Phonology Tl, the concentration of large In the air than 82%
(low ratio Oxygen) consists of the repression.
Nitrogen pure form of industrial pressure balloon 150at the steel is sold green. In the chemical
industry, gas transmission pipe lines Nitrogen, are denoted in green.
Oxygen: is the most abundant chemical element. In addition to its presence as Molecule
diatomic O2 in the air, as combined with the Hydrogen H2O, with metals and other elements,
can be found. In addition, many members also contain citrus Oxygen atoms are. Oxygen O2 gas
is colorless and odorless. Oxygen not burned, but burning of other materials is necessary.
Oxygen pure liquid form in tanks as a cold or has gas high pressure, up to about 150at, in steel
blue balloon is transportation. In the chemical industry, transport Nell Oxygen marked with
73
blue are.
Carbon dioxide: odorless gas is. Than two times heavier than air, and caused shortages in
Oxygen air.
5.3Major risks in the production system (air separation)
a ‐ liquid decomposition products exist that have the air temperature is low, allowing a portion
of the ice frost such as on the human body, hands, etc. foots has places.
b ‐ Nitrogen existence and the possibility of creating carbon Tetra collared are choking and
poisoning.
c ‐ Sodium Hydroxide possible solutions exist to create chemical burns in the eye, zinc, etc. are
available.
d ‐ Attribute possible cause explosions apart pressure, the transition and the injury is Nell.
e ‐ Attribute flow may be caused electrical fires Lane.
f ‐ Attribute Useful moving parts and open Mechanical vector may be causing injury mechanic.
g ‐ The existence of steam, hot parts Condensate and equipment may be causing the burning
part Body humans.
h‐ Cotton Glass attributes (cotton candy) may cause eye irritation and illness is the respiratory
tract.
i ‐ The existence of ammonia in the neighboring branches may be causing toxicity.
j ‐ Oxygen entity mixed Oxygen ‐ Air Fireless materials may cause fire and explode Fireless
materials are clothing and hair.
74
5.4 Safe Conditions from operation of compressor
Practical contraction in Gases dangers with increasing pressure, temperature and chemical
operations can lead to explosions and injure, Update drawn. If the temperature Compressor
contracting a severe form of increased gas and it will be calculated by the following formula.
T 2 = T1 ( P2 / P1 ) m −1 / m
(5.1)
Here:
T2‐ Absolute temperature of gas after contracting the Calvin ˚ K
T1‐ Absolute temperature of the gas prior to contracting Calvin ˚ K
P1‐ Absolute pressure gas prior to contraction
P2 ‐ Absolute pressure of gas to Contraction
m ‐ Indicators Monetary Trope
If the contraction of air or any other gas without making cold (Practical adiabatic) temperature
will increase strongly. If temperatures increase energy consumption for contraction was too
much gas, metal Tightly Compressor been low, extremely fast decomposition Oils Greasy and
the possibility explosion were caused.
5.5 Facility for Defense employees individual
Individual means of protection for employees include gas mask, glasses defense, special
clothing is and shoe. All employees from materials noxious and dinger organism means that
intoxication And from Power loss or loss of sight caused volumes of burns is maintained picks.
For the members of substances harmful to the respiratory gas masks to protect I would use the
should be. Gas masks to the members of the human organism breathing noxious fumes of the
impact it will protect. In separators provides protection from dust. Comment gas masks to
protect the filter Principe visitors are divided into and visitors. Aided gas mask filter breathing
vapours visitors drop by as preliminary filter and clear and will breathe through it. Insulator gas
75
mask filter with a difference of visitors from all members of the human respiratory effects of
harmful substances shall protect.
5.6 Sources of fire ignition materials
Fire ignition source materials include:
1. Heat sources, spark ignition, hot surfaces and open fire.
Sparks shot or a result of friction with each other metallic materials or a result of electric
charge ‐ arise. To avoid producing sparks in hazardous environments and explosive combustion
by the application of copper covered steel and devises secondly by the application of fatty oil in
their neighborhoods and third carpet material not be matched stones. Fire and then in factory
do so Welding, D. R. Dash around in smoking effects stop smoking comes and for grow on
smoking should consider pulling be special place to be. Not working at Welding Gases and
combustible vapors’ penetrate, the Dash should be so that the tower is round and reactors In
effect of Flame Wind It should be close to dangerous gear. The Dash then separated by the
walls of the gear is. Dash and continues to turn off the fire by fire‐fighters Lane is available.
2. Electronic resources (Statics electronic resources)
Power In effect of Statics usually will fill and empty gas tank, open the flow of gasoline with
air power creates Charge Statics is the result we can connect to the earth destroyed.
If Charge engenders negative and positive air cleaner in case lightning comes the result can also
connect to the earth destroyed to prevent ignition sources said and from. Explosive device
when production comes from about the explosives concentrations in the air exceeds its
allowed. Prevent the need for room and is explosive places Gases wind is available and is
equipped with fire equipment.
5.7 Way of making off fire
Making off through fire include:
1) Come through Pine temperature materials fire place.
76
2) Stop making Oxygen reach the fire position.
How inclusion of water words are making off fire. Fire still different by some soluble salt, soda
and drawn off.
And solution blue water should be used is the following:
1. Gases fire for making off.
2. For making off under voltage electrical plants are working.
For making low concentration or to cut off the flow Oxygen position Palm the fire is used. For
example, in a fire takes place this device into the device when Palm make all the material level,
tissues and organs will occupy fire prevention Oxygen reach the surface material is fire. Palm as
to non‐interrupted while fire is off takes place. However actually making off ink used to fire if
the fuel tanks which will fire simultaneously into the tanks are Palm out by the cold water
make. In addition to being some Gases, Moblaile, ammonia, electrical wire fire risk V equipment
and marks carbon monoxide visitors counter fire Palm DP‐3 and DP‐5 is used. F. Anti‐fire carbon
dioxide consists of conventional steel balloon filled with carbon dioxide is. Valve balloon neck
closed with visitors Nell sailfony length is 1‐3 meters above the valve opened anti fire over
source of fire is to push the balloon Pashas palm producing a batch is to open the valve and the
balloon and the acid solution Alkali there. In case of opening valves Alkali mixed with acid,
resulting in palm interaction is produced. In addition to fire off the sand and other building
materials are also used.
5.8 Electrical safety
High electrical current the human organism to severe damaged Gay won the Remy and
sometimes lead to death. Thus all staff and personnel regulations and a series of factories to
security Polytechnic Total benefit know. Electrical equipment in factories because the pumps
and high‐voltage compressor (watt380) provides that in terms of technical work is dangerous.
The factory workers must take the following rules shall observe good and accurate.
1. All electrical appliances must be specified under Norm used to be thrown.
77
2. All parts of the electrical equipment of the power passes must be insulated cover.
3. Cross section of non‐conducive to any form of electricity should not Transit electricity.
4. Electric machine gun must Signal servers and automatically turn off electrical current donors
in dangerous situations.
5. Electrical devices must connect to protective earth or by wire failure is protective.
6. While repairing electrical devices should be discontinued.
7. With machinery and electrical devices must be the only one Do work.
5.9 Rules of the technical Repair of Compressor when its be not danger
While compressor restored following the rules and regulations be in attention
1. Compressor of conformity instructions given area to stop working.
2. Compressor will be empty from pressure
3. Pressure Rest absence de in the compressor is given by Mono meter.
4. Compressor is empty from gas.
5. Electricity is cutting from compressor.
6. Compressor by Nitrogen that amount until the ventilation in the neither combustion Gases
ventilation nor more then% 5 / 0 is.
7. Compressor connection of other equipment to be disconnected.
8. Compressor is drawing until the amount of air Oxygen less than 21 percent in volume and
value Gases harmful and toxic not exceed the limits.
9. During repair operations must be restored Compressor employees Technical recipes safe to
observe joins seriously.
78
5.10 Ventilation products and its kinds
Ventilation Products Air Dirty to make out of work and into neighborhoods where fresh air and
to continue to avoid creating an explosive concentration is considered. Because otherwise it
might work, there comes to explosive concentrations. Practical in manufacturing, especially in
the pump house, house and CPO Compressor composed of artificial ventilation are used. It is
still room air field is also considered. Air Products must meet the following demands.
1. Concentration in the combustion mixture should drop is less than explosive.
2. Ventilation should be the ultimate limit of concentration to hold the rooms.
3. For Starting Fan Electronic motors with Starting visitors must secure point with explosive
was used.
4. To prevent the formation of friction or impact sparks, if the router Fan body is made of
colored metals.
5. Ventilated rooms means a room in which he is Fan should be placed with non‐combustion
materials and the production of the rooms are completely separate.
79
6. Control of air distillation columns
We start by analyzing the degrees of freedom to establish how many and which control
parameters it is possible to control and/or manipulate. Then we move on to discuss different
ways to control many variables. Generally, the variables in table ( ) need to be controlled.
Table 12: Typical variables that have to be maintained in a distillation column.
The two most important parameters: composition at the top of the column and the pressure of
the column. Different control structures.
6.1 Degrees of Freedom Analysis
To determine the number of control degrees of freedom in a distillation column. There are two
equivalent procedures based on the equation ‐ C.D.F. = Total No. of Streams ‐ No. of Phases
Present + 1 All we have to do is count all the streams in the process. Separately count the total
number of extra phases i.e. add up all occurrences of phases greater than one in all units. The
number of control degrees of freedom is the difference between these two numbers. Figure (39
) below shows this method.
80
Figure 39: ‐ Degrees of Freedom Analysis of Distillation Column
• Total Streams = 8
• Extra Phases = ‐3
• Degrees of Freedom = 5
So the number of degrees of freedom is 5. However, a typical control strategy for such a
process would use only 4 of these ‐ federate, column pressure, top and bottom composition.
This is because the column and condenser are normally maintained at the same pressure.
However, a valve could be placed in the line between. This would actually be undesirable as
reducing the condenser pressure will decrease the temperature driving force available from the
cooling medium.
6.2 Controlling Pressure in Distillation In a distillation column it is usually necessary to regulate
the pressure in some way. Below there are five different methods described for doing this.
• Vent to Atmosphere
• Cooling Water
• Flooded Condenser ‐ 1
• Flooded Condenser ‐ 2
81
• Partial Condenser
One thing to note is that in none of them is a valve simply placed on the vapour line. This
would lead to the use of a large expensive control valve. Instead the pressure is controlled
indirectly involving the use of the condenser and/or reflux drum.
6.2.1Vent to Atmosphere Figure (40 ) below shows the easiest way to control the pressure in a
column operating at atmospheric pressure.
Figure 40: Vent to Atmosphere
In this case the cooling water flow stays constant and the reflux drum is vented to atmosphere.
Thus the reflux drums and hence the top of the column are at atmospheric pressure. The
advantage of this scheme is that it requires one less control valve. The disadvantage is that the
tops have to be sub cooled so that a minimal amount of vapour is lost through the vent. Hence
more energy is required from the reboiler when the reflux is added to the top of the column.
6.2.2 Cooling Water: Figure (41) shows the most common method for controlling the pressure ‐
adjustment of the cooling water flow.
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Figure 41: Cooling Water
In this case if the cooling water flow is increased then more vapour is condensed and the
vapour pressure is reduced (and vice versa).
6.2.3Flooded Condenser ‐ 1: Figure ( 42) shows the classic flooded condenser approach.
Figure 42 Flooded Condensers ‐ 1
Again in this setup, as with the first example, there is no valve on the cooling water. Instead the
valve is in the liquid line between the condenser and reflux drum. If this valve is closed then the
condensed vapor i.e. liquid will build up and flood the condenser. This has the effect of reducing
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the heat exchange area, thus reducing the amount of vapour being condensed and hence
increasing the pressure. The valve can then be opened, the liquid level will fall, increasing the
heat exchange area and hence decreasing the pressure.
6.2.4Flooded Condenser – 2: Figure (43) shows an alternative arrangement for a flooded
condenser.
Figure 43: Flooded Condenser 2
The first thing to notice about this setup is that the reflux drum and condenser are at the same
level. The second important point is that the vapor line, on which there is the control valve, is
very small in comparison with the overhead line. If the valve is opened there is a small escape
of gas into the reflux drum. This pushes the liquid level down in the drum and up in the
condenser, flooding it and reducing the heat exchange area as in the last example. Therefore to
increase the pressure the valve is opened and to decrease the pressure the valve is closed.
6.2.5Partial Condenser The final example is the control of a partial condenser.
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Figure 44: Partial Condenser
The above scheme is used if the overhead product is required as a vapour.
6.3 Controlling Tops Composition in Distillation: As well as pressure, the other parameter most
likely to be controlled is the composition of the tops product. The reason is that the final
product will most probably come from the top of the column and it is important to know its
composition. Again, as with pressure, there are many different ways of controlling the tops
composition. Three methods are described below.
• Reflux Rate
• Reflux Ratio
• Distillate Rate
6.3.1 Reflux Rate In this first example the reflux rate is adjusted to control the composition of
the tops product. As the amount of reflux is changed so the temperature profile in the column
changes and hence the composition.
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Figure 45: Reflux Rate
6.3.2 Reflux Ratio The second example uses the reflux ratio as the control parameter
Figure 46: Reflux Ratio
When designing a distillation column it is usually the reflux ratio that is determined. This can be
kept constant throughout operation by using two flow indicators and a ratio controller.
6.3.3 Distillate Rate The third example is for high purity tops. It uses the distillate flow rate to
control the distillate composition.
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Figure 47: Distillate Rate
It can be shown that for a high purity column i.e. one with a large reflux, that the composition
of the distillate is sensitive to the distillate flow but insensitive to the reflux rate. Therefore for
a high purity column the control scheme outlined above is used. It should be noted that tight
control on the level in the reflux drum is required using the reflux rate.
6.4 Distillation Column Control Examples
The following examples describe alternative control strategies of fairly standard form.
• Pressure, Overheads Rate and Composition
• Pressure, Bottoms Rate and Composition
• Pressure, Bottoms Rate and Overhead Composition, With Partial Condenser
• Pressure, Overhead Rate and Bottoms Composition
• Pressure, Bottoms Rate, Overhead Rate and Composition
In all cases actual composition controllers are shown. These could of course be replaced by
inferential measurement from temperature, with or without cascade of a slower analyzer.
Unless otherwise stated, it has been assumed that the feed rate to the system is not available
as a manipulated variable.
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1.Pressure, Overheads Rate and Composition This is a fairly standard configuration for a single
product column, i.e. when the bottoms streams is a by‐product, recycle or goes to further
processing. Although the overheads composition is regulated by adjusting the steam rate at the
base of the column, the response of the column to heat input changes is quite rapid, and so this
strategy is acceptable. Pressure control on condenser cooling water is shown; of course any
other pressure control scheme would be acceptable.
Figure 48: Overheads Rate and Composition
2. Pressure, Bottoms Rate and Composition This is the analogous situation to the previous
case, in the rather less usual circumstances where a main product is withdrawn from the
bottom of the column. This does not work well, since either the bottom level, as here, or
composition, has to be regulated by adjusting the reflux rate. In either case the loop involves a
long delay due to the hydraulic lags on each tray. It is probably marginally better to regulate
composition by steam rate since this is a more important quantity than level, although the two
loops could be interchanged with the steam adjusting the level, which is quite a good scheme,
and the reflux manipulating the bottoms composition, which is very poor. Fortunately this is an
unusual requirement, as main products normally come from the top of columns for other
reasons. A standard flooded condenser pressure control system is shown.
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Figure 49: Bottoms Rate and Composition
3. Pressure, Bottoms Rate and Overhead Composition, With Partial Condenser
This is not a particularly common strategy, but the arrangements for a column with partial
condenser are typical. The pressure in such a system is almost always manipulated by a valve
on the vapor product line. There is no reflux drum, and reflux rate is often set implicitly by
adjusting the cooling load on the condenser.
Figure 50: Bottoms Rate and Overhead Composition, With Partial Condenser
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4. Pressure, Overhead Rate and Bottoms Composition This scheme should work satisfactorily
as all adjustments are made at the same end of the column as the related measurements. The
pressure control scheme is the so‐called hot gas bypass. Note that the layout of condenser and
reflux drum shown is critical to the operation of this method, which is actually a variation on
the flooded condenser approach. The bypass is a very small pipe which bleeds vapor into the
reflux drum where it does not immediately condense. The pressure in the system rises as the
bypass valve is opened.
Figure 51: Overhead Rate and Bottoms Composition
5. Pressure, Bottoms Rate, Overhead Rate and Composition: Since three regulated quantities
are specified, the feed to the unit must be available as an adjustment. Apart from this, the
arrangements are similar to those of the first example. Level control on the column base is not
very satisfactory due to the lags between the feed and the bottom of the column, but any other
arrangement would be worse.
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Figure 52: Bottoms Rate, Overhead Rate and Composition
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6. Economic evaluation of air distillation
In this chapter the economics of the air distillation process is evaluated. For building an air
distillation plant the initial cost of equipments and operational costs are important.
6.1 Capital investment costs
In an air distillation plant there are used a number of expensive devices. Most important of
them are compressors, distillation columns, and heat exchangers. Using Aspen Economic
Evaluation we have calculated the cost of equipment used in the simulation scheme (Figure26)
and also feed air compressors. The results of these calculations are shown in Table 13. The total
Investment costs were calculated as 29720000 USD. Considering a 15 year period of plant
operation the annually investment costs are: 1981333 USD.
Table13: calculation of investment costs
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6.2 Operational costs
The operational cost includes mainly the following:
a‐ Cost of raw materials, basic materials and semi‐manufacturing products and auxiliary
materials.
b‐ Fuel costs for the State of technological work
c‐ Water
d‐ Electricity
e‐ Steam
f‐ workers, technical engineering employees
Table14: calculate the basic material costs and auxiliary materials, fuel costs, electricity, water vapor and air
9 Total 19833541
Costs of raw materials, electricity, water and steam are given in Table 14. The staff cost is
calculated and included in Table 15.
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Norm used for fuel, electricity, steam, water and compressed air for the unit continues to
produce and annual production of technological calculations are taken in this case.
Annual production capacity × Norm used for produced 27836M3 = the total consumption in year
Number of workers can be received:
In the above formula:
N ‐ Total number of personnel
C ‐ Number of equipment that is equal to 9.
n‐ Managed norm the number of people who have been here two set
S ‐ The number of shafts in a working day which is equal to 3.
1.09 –is it Words for workers who take leave due to illness or above the present work
after considered:
Employees engineering ‐ technical and low rating personnel can be set so as follows.
A ‐ Engineering Employees can be as much as% 12 ÷ 8 total numbers of workers included were
closed. 11% agree that here we have been following.
59 100 % 10 × 59 (6.2)
X= = 5.9 = 6
X 10 % 100
B ‐ Number of low‐ranking personnel can be of size% 8 ÷ 5 includes the total number of workers
can shut agreed. Here are the 5% was accepted.
59 100% 5 × 59
X = = 2.95 = 3 (6.3)
X 5% 100
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C ‐ Number of workers is equal to:
(Engineering staff + staff) ‐ Total = Total workers = 50
Wages were calculated in Table (15)
Table15: Wages be paid
Now we arrange the estimate comprehensive:
Table16: estimated the comprehensive
Intrinsic value of the product (unit) (tons, cubic meter), is calculated through the division.
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If the estimated O2, N2 sales price per normal cubic meter is 0.05 USA, and Ar sales price per
normal cubic meter is 0.25 USD, the provisions in this case is equal to:
Annually:
QO2= 222688000 Nm3/year H O2 = 222688000 × 0,05 = 11134400 USD
QN2=845299463Nm3/year H N2 = 845299463 × 0.05 = 42264973 USD
Q Ar=9909083.3Nm3/year H Ar = 9909083.3 × 0.25 = 2477270 USD
H=HO2+HN2+HAr H =55876643 USD
P = H ‐ C (6.4)
P = 55876643 – 25633359 = 30243284USD
Payback period of investment is approximately one year.
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Summary
This project describes the cryogenic air separation to its components (Nitrogen, Oxygen
and Argon). A special attention was devoted to the separation of argon. In theoretical part we
included information about air properties, separation process, air cooling, air clearing,
distillation of air, products of air and their application and other aspects of air separation.
In practical parts we have described: Thermodynamic of air separation, in this section the
Peng‐Robinson state equation for calculation of equilibrium coefficient of nitrogen and oxygen
system was used. And also the isobaric t, xy and x,y diagrams of N2‐O2 and Ar‐O2 binary systems
at different pressures were analyzed. After that we Calculated air distillation by McCabe‐Thiele
method, and Enthalpy balance of reboiler and total condenser was done.
Aspen simulation of air separation process forms the core of this work. The process flowsheet
including heat exchange and cryogenic separation was designed. Material and enthalpy balance
calculations in steady state were made for all basic process equipment. The work contents the
results of process simulation including results of material and enthalpy balances, temperature
and composition profiles in all columns. The optimal parameter of distillation column such as
reflux ratio, number of theoretical stages and feed stages were set.
Mechanical calculation of air distillation tower, safety aspects of air distillation process,
Principles of control of air distillation columns are another chapters of this work. And finaly the
economy of air distillation process is evaluated. Using Aspen Economic evaluation the
investment costs of air distillation process was estimated. The operational costs of the proces
were obtained based on the literature information and Afghanistan conditions.
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Conclusion
An air separation plant processing 6048,9 kmol/hr of air to the basic air components Nitrogen
(4761,98 kmol/hr), Oxygen (1242,77 kmol/hr) and Argon (44, 15 kmol/ hr) was designed. Purity
of produced Nitrogen and Oxygen is 99 % and purity of Argon 99,99 %. A system of 4
distillation towers was designed for separation of air into Nitrogen, Oxygen and Argon.
From the thermodynamic analysis of binary isobaric diagrams of the systems N2‐O2 and Ar‐O2
results that cryogenic separation of Nitrogen and Oxygen and also separation of Nitrogen from
Argon is not very difficult, but separation of Argon from Oxygen can require large number of
theoretical stages and large value of reflux ratio.
Argon is separated in the last two columns. A side stream reached with Argon is drawn out from
the top part of the column C2. In column C3 a mixture of Argon and Nitrogen is distillated from
Oxygen, which is removed from the bottom of this column. The mixture of Nitrogen and
Oxygen is separated in the column C4. The purity and recovery of Argon beside conditions in
columns C3 and CC4 can be influenced also by different factors in columns C1 and C2, such as
distillate rate of column C1, side stream stage, and reflux ratio in the column C2. The influence
of these parameters was investigated.
From the economic evaluation of the process results that the cost of basic equipments for air
distillation process is around 30 millions USD, However the energy consumption of the process
is very high.
Symbols
1. O2 – Oxygen
2. N2 – Nitrogen
3. Ar – Argon
4. D – Humidity ratio of wet air (g/kg)or(d.a)
5. H – Enthalpy of wet air kg/kg
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6. Wt – ideal input work of turbine (kg/kg)
7. Wc – ideal input work of compressor (kg/kg)
8. N – exponent
9. R – gas constant (kg/kg K)
10. T – temperature °C,°K
11. Twet – wet bulb temperature
12. W – Water
13. ηc – Efficiency of compressor
14. ηt – Efficiency of turbine
15. Wm – practical work consumed by system (kJ/kg)
16. B – wet air pressure Pa
17. α i – Differential effect
18. ∆Ti – Integral effect of transmission
19. αs – Adiabatically effect of transmission
20. i1,2 ‐ Enthalpies
21. Yi – Mole fraction in vapor phase
22. Ki – Equilibrium coefficient
23. R – Reflux ratio
24. HE – Heat exchanger
25. C1, 2... – Column
26. Φ – stitch length welding
27. Sp ‐ Calculated wall thickness
28. σ – Seizure authorized
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29. σB ,σT – least limit order price stability authorized
30. nB,nT – Stability comment , much fluidity
31. η – Correction factor
32. Dbn – Internal diameter , mm
33. Hn – Height , mm
34. tn – Temperature , °C
35. δb – Much Stability , kg/cm2
36. C – Surplus , mm
37. m – indicators monetary trope
38. N – Number of personnel
39. C – Number of equipment
40. n – Managed norm
41. S – Number of shafts
42. I – Producing Currency
43. i ‐ Producing Unit value
44. R ‐ Utility level
45. H – Full value unit production
46. C – Intrinsic value of production
47. XD – mole fraction of distillate
48. Xw – mole fraction of bottom
49. ∆vhw – Heat of evaporation
100
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