Organizational Behaviour Assignment

Mapping Individual and Collective Regrets in

Organizational Life







Submitted by: Jitheesh V
PGP03 023

Table of Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 3
Evaluation of existing literature .............................................................................................................. 3
1. Person Organization Fit and Person Job Fit .......................................................................... 3
2. Organizational Citizenship Behaviour ......................................................................................... 3
3. Limited career growth opportunity ............................................................................................ 4
4. Workload ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Critique on the existing literature ........................................................................................................... 5
1. Person Organization Fit and Person Job Fit .......................................................................... 5
2. Organizational Citizenship Behaviour ......................................................................................... 6
3. Limited career growth opportunity ............................................................................................ 6
4. Workload ..................................................................................................................................... 6
Research Method .................................................................................................................................... 7
Analysis ................................................................................................................................................... 7
1. Person Organization Fit and Person Job Fit .......................................................................... 7
2. Organizational Citizenship Behaviour ......................................................................................... 7
3. Limited career growth opportunity ............................................................................................ 8
4. Workload ..................................................................................................................................... 8
Implications on Employees and for OB Practitioners ............................................................................. 8
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................... 8
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................ 9


Introduction
In this assignment, I have studied the organizational regrets of ten currently working
employees. Most of the employees interviewed are from the IT sector and their average age was 26
years.
I tried to analyse different categories of regrets using theories of OB. Most of the regrets
could be well explained by the respective theories. And towards the end, evidence based practice
oriented recommendations were given for organizational action.
Evaluation of existing literature
1. Person Organization Fit and Person Job Fit
Person-organization fit is broadly defined as the compatibility between people and
organizations. Researchers and practitioners contend that P-O fit is the key to maintaining the
flexible and committed workforce.
3

Schneiders ASA framework proposes that people and organizations are attracted to
one another based on their similarity. The applicant job choice behaviour and organizations
hiring practices are the major antecedents of P-O fit. Following organization entry, individual
and organizational socialization practices contribute to P-O fit. Empirical evidence has shown
that a high level of P-O fit is related to a number of positive outcomes. P-O fit was found to be
correlated with work attitudes such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment.
3
The concept of person-job fit is the traditional foundation for employee selection. P-J fit
is assessed by determining the demand of the job through a job analysis, which identifies the
essential job tasks that an incumbent performs, and the requisite skills, knowledge, and abilities
to perform job tasks.
3
Applicant self-selection and employee selection practices are the major antecedents of
P-J fit. Following job design strategy, organization entry may be another factor to establish P-J
fit. There is considerable evidence that high level of P-J fit has a number of positive outcomes.
Job satisfaction, low job stress, motivation, performance, attendance and retention were
identified as the positive outcomes of P-J fit. When P-J fit is assessed as the match between
what an employee wants and receives from performing job, it is correlated with improved job
satisfaction, adjustment and organizational commitment as well as reduced intentions to quit.
3


2. Organizational Citizenship Behaviour
Organizational citizenship behaviour can be defined as individual behaviour that is
discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the
aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization. By discretionary, we mean
that the behaviour is not an enforceable requirement of the role or the job description, that is,
the clearly specifiable terms of the persons employment contract with the organization; the
behaviour is rather a matter of personal choice, such that its omission is not generally
understood as punishable.
1
The following are the common themes of citizenship behaviour.

(1)Helping Behaviour, (2) Sportsmanship, (3) Organizational Loyalty, (4) Organizational
Compliance, (5) Individual Initiative, (6) Civic Virtue, and (7) Self Development.
1
There are two main causes of OCBs. The first of these is a general affective morale
factor which is viewed as underlying employee satisfaction, organizational commitment,
perceptions of fairness, and perceptions of leader supportiveness. In addition to morale,
various dispositional factors, such as agreeableness, conscientiousness, positive affectivity, and
negative affectivity, predispose people to certain orientations vis--vis co-workers and
managers. These dispositional variables could be seen as indirect contributors of OCBs, rather
than direct causes.
1
OCB has some consequences. The following are the most important effects of OCB.
(a)OCB influences managerial evaluations of performance and judgments regarding pay raises,
promotions, etc., (b) it affects organizational performance and success
1

3. Limited career growth opportunity

Organizational Career Management:
Organizational Career management has been described as a series of formal and less
formal activities designed and managed by the organization to influence the career
development of one or more employees (Arnold, 1996) and thereby to improve organizational
effectiveness. According to Orpen (1994), organizational career management covers the
various policies and practices, deliberately established by organizations, to improve the career
effectiveness of their employees.
5

A variety of organizational career management practices are described in the literature
such as employee workshops, job rotation, job enrichment, career progression ladders and like
organizationally planned programs or developmental stage theories. Organizations may also
contribute to career identity by providing abundant opportunities for self-development,
opportunities for advancement and mentors. When selecting an employee, organizations may
use internal job postings extensively, maintain a job-matching database, encourage job
rotations and internal management succession and transfer people across departments laterally
to increase their value for themselves and for the firm.
5

When organizational career management practices meet employees pre-joining
expectations (Sturges et al., 2000), this will enhance commitment and other positive outcomes.
Career management help can be seen as one form of perceived organizational support.
Perceived organizational support has been positively related to job performance and negatively
linked to withdrawal behaviours such as absenteeism and turnover.
5
4. Workload
Workload refers to the intensity of job assignments. It is a source of mental stress for
employees. Stress is an active state of mind in which human being faces both an opportunity and
constraint (Robbins, 1996). There are various ways that stress symptoms or outcomes are reflected
in the workplace. In stress, outcome that is desired from an employee is generally perceived to be
both uncertain and important (Robbins, 1996). If outcome of an activity is well known earlier or the
employee has no interest to enjoy the fruit of task completion or to avoid the consequences of non-
accomplishment, the potential stress cannot become actual stress.
6

Occupational stress is defined as the critical reactions of human body that occur when job
requirements do not match with the capabilities or environment, available to the worker (Sauter and
Murphy, 1999). Ultimate Effect of occupational stress is change in performance. Performance is
defined as the output and accomplishments of a worker, which are acknowledged by the
organization or system in which he works in. Many researchers developed studies to empirically
conclude the contributing factors of performance. On the basis of various researches we may say
that: - Performance = Abilities + Opportunities + Motivation
6

It is natural phenomena that when basic necessities of human being are fulfilled, he wants to
utilize his capabilities at full potential (Maslow, 1943). If he or she is not provided opportunities by
the organizations by extending his or her job assignments up to the level of his abilities, he will be
unsatisfied (Maslow). It will also lead to increase the stress level. Similarly, if he is not motivated by
providing comparative reward against his services, it will also affect his performance (Weissman,
2001). While giving the above said formula of performance, it is assumed that for good performance,
employees know what is expected from them, they know how their performance will be measured,
they are confident that their extra efforts will lead to better performance, and they feel confident
that their good performance will yield good rewards.
6

Critique on the existing literature
1. Person Organization Fit and Person Job Fit
1. Person-Job Fit (or P-J Fit).
It is the most common way fit is defined by organizations. Person-Job Fit involves the
measurement of what we often refer to as "hard" information about a candidate's suitability for
the tasks that are required for successful performance of a specific job. "Hard" aspects of P-J Fit
include things such as a candidate's specific skills, their levels of knowledge about specific subject
matter, and their cognitive abilities. In many cases, P-J Fit also includes "softer" measures such as
the examination of an applicant's personality traits relative to specific job requirements.
However, it is difficult to interpret personality when it comes to defining fit.
4


2. Person-Organization Fit (or P-O Fit).
It is much less common for this kind of fit to be systematically measured during the hiring
process using scientifically designed tools. Instead, this type of fit is usually discussed
conjecturally in hiring-related conversations.
4

It is often much more difficult to break down the idea of a "good fit" into the elements
required for using it as a systematic part of the hiring process. Doing so requires the use of
measures of P-O Fit that are based on the following definition: "Person-Organization Fit is the
congruence of an individual's beliefs and values with the culture, norms, and values of an
organization."
4

One of the limitations that are immediately apparent from this definition is the fact that the
elements of P-O Fit are rather soft. That is, it's much more difficult to examine the job-related
outcomes of a match between person and an organization as it relates to abstract concepts such
as "values" and "culture" then it is to examine the outcomes of the match between harder traits,
such as a person's mathematical ability and the related aspects of their job performance.
4

2. Organizational Citizenship Behaviour
The First, OCBs are thought of as discretionary behaviours, which are not part of the job
description, and are performed by the employee as a result of personal choice. Second, OCBs go
above and beyond that which is an enforceable requirement of the job description. Finally, OCBs
contribute positively to overall organizational effectiveness.
2
Organs (1988) definition of OCB has generated a great deal of criticism. The very nature of
the construct makes it difficult to operationally define. Critics started questioning whether or not
OCBs, as defined by Organ, were discretionary in nature. Organ (1997), in response to criticisms,
notes that since his original definition, jobs have moved away from a clearly defined set of tasks
and responsibilities and have evolved into much more ambiguous roles. Without a defined role, it
quickly becomes difficult to define what is outside of that role. What might be considered extra-
role behaviour to one manager or subordinate might be considered in-role to another.
2

Another area of substantial debate is the idea that OCBs are not formally rewarded. Organ
(1997) explains that OCBs may at some point encourage some sort of reward, but that these
rewards would be indirect, uncertain, and not within the contractually guarantied formal rewards
system. However, Organ admits that there has been some research that proves OCBs are just as
likely to lead to monetary reward as in-role performance.
2

Despite its conceptual weaknesses, the theory and concepts of OCB are still important and
worth consideration. It is impossible for any construct to be perfectly defined. The definition of
OCB is based on the transitory needs of the workplace and thus will most likely continue to
evolve.
2
3. Limited career growth opportunity
Organizations can contribute to career identity by providing abundant opportunities for self-
development, opportunities for advancement, and mentors. This type of organizational support may
enhance the development of employee commitment but it may also generate negative outcomes for
organizations and their employees. This is why successful career management programs should
involve the individuals in career planning and clarify the organizational plans to individuals to reduce
their anxiety and frustration.
5

4. Workload
Workload has significant impact on the performance of employees. For high performance
workload on employees must be according to their abilities and potential to cope with the stress.
Extensive high workload and extremely low workload correlate to low performance. It is the job of
the leader to create culture in the organization, where optimum workload productivity correlation
exists. If an individual has low workload in relation to his abilities, he is underutilization and his
workload must be raised to an appropriate level. It will give satisfaction to the individual and the
organization will also gain optimum production. Conversely if workload is high, it is the leaders job
to reduce this workload level.
6

Moreover, sudden increase or decrease in workload both lead to impaired performance.
However, sudden increase in workload curve is more sensitive and it badly affects the performance
of the employees. Workload should be periodically evaluated in terms of new organizational
priorities and initiatives (HPWS). It is more desirable if employees are involved in this evaluation
process and workload is determined as per their demand and potential. However, organizational
priorities and norms cannot be ignored while establishing this process.
6

Research Method
Ten employees who are actively engaged in organizational positions were interviewed and
their organizational regrets were collected. Then, all the regrets, their antecedents and outcomes
were listed and then grouped in to different categories based on the nature of the regret. An
attempt was made to study the different categories of regrets using theories of OB.
Analysis
1. Person Organization Fit and Person Job Fit
A major proportion of the employees that I interviewed were unhappy about the mismatch
between their current job and their aspirations. Some employees mentioned the reason for this
regret as their inability to get a relevant job while others believed that the reasons are
organisational policy and lack of planning by the organization.
The outcomes of this category of regrets are demotivation, dissatisfaction and lack of
interest towards work.
The antecedents and outcomes of the regrets are perfectly in accordance with the P-O and
P-J theories.
2. Organizational Citizenship Behaviour
Some of the employees that I interviewed expressed their dissatisfaction that they could not
take part in extracurricular activities like sports and games in their organization. This can be linked
to the individual initiative aspect of OCB. These employees have the extra enthusiasm to perform
above and beyond the routine work.
The causes of the regrets are the lack of organisational support and work pressure. Even
though they had the enthusiasm to take part in the extracurricular activities, they were unable to
do that because of the organizational restrictions.
The effect of this category of regrets was demotivation and reduced work performance in
general. This is well explained by the OCB theory.
In general, OCB theory properly explains this category of regrets expressed by the
employees that I interviewed.
3. Limited career growth opportunity
Some of the employees that I interviewed felt that the growth opportunity within the
organization was very low. According to them, the antecedents of their regrets are the
organizational structure and management.
The outcome of this regret was dissatisfaction and reduced commitment towards work. This
behaviour is well explained by the Organizational Career Management theory.
4. Workload
Many employees whom I interviewed mentioned workload as their regret. Various reasons
of this regret are shortage of resources, nature of work and management.
For some employees, the effect of workload was reduced performance, dissatisfaction and
demotivation. But for some other employees it affected the personal relationship with the team
members
Implications on Employees and for OB Practitioners
The regret that affected most of the employees was P-J fit and P-O fit. One of the reasons for
this is that some of the employees chose a job that that does not fit them. Another reason seems to
be the inefficiency of the employee selection practices and job design strategy. In order to reduce P-
J and P-O fit issues, employees should select their job judiciously and at the same time organizations
should select the right people and use the right job design strategies.
The regrets expressed by some of the employees are related to organizational citizenship
behaviour. They were not able to take part in extracurricular activities. The causes of the regrets are
the lack of organisational support and work pressure. Even though this is not a serious issue,
organizations should support the employees to engage in activities that are beyond the general
requirements of job description for increasing organizational performance and success
Lack of opportunities for growth in the organization is a serious regret raised by a few
employees. Growth opportunities are necessary to keep the employees motivated and to attain
organizational effectiveness. Most of the employees attributed the lack of growth opportunities to
the organizational structure. The right option for these employees would be to move to another
organization.
An important issue faced by some of the employees was high workload. It is evident that the
main reason for the increased workload is shortage of resources. The organizations should employ
adequate resources so that the employees will not be overloaded.
Conclusion
As most of the employees interviewed belong to the IT sector, their major regrets were
Person-Job fit issue, workload and lack of growth opportunities. These issues were analysed using
various theories of OB and solutions were proposed. Some of the regrets can be addressed by the
employees themselves while others need action from the organization.
Bibliography
1. Organizational Citizenship Behaviours: A Critical Review of the Theoretical and Empirical Literature
and Suggestions for Future Research, Journal of Management, 2000, Vol. 26, No. 3, 513563
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_citizenship_behavior
3. Person-organization fit and person-job fit in employee selection: A review of the literature, Osaka
Keidai Ronshu, Vol. 54 No. 6 March 2004
4. http://www.buildaninterview.com/the_value_of_person_organization_fit.asp
5. The Organizational Career Management and the Career Behaviour
6. INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS SEPTEMBER 2011
VOL 3, NO 5