Linguistic-related areas

Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study of speech sounds. Within
psycholinguistics, research focuses on how the brain processes and understands
these sounds.
Morphology is the study of word structures, especially the relationships between
related words (such as dog and dogs) and the formation of words based on rules
(such as plural formation).
Syntax is the study of the patterns which dictate how words are combined
together to form sentences.
Semantics deals with the meaning of words and sentences. Where syntax is
concerned with the formal structure of sentences, semantics deals with the actual
meaning of sentences.
Pragmatics is concerned with the role of context in the interpretation of
meaning.
What is Syntax??
The word syntax derives from the Greek word syntaxis, which means
arrangement deals with phrase and sentence formation out of words.
The forms that !nglish words may be given and the se"uences in which they are
arranged with other words to express larger, more complex meanings make up the
syntactic pattern or system of !nglish.
What is a sentence##
$ hierarchically organi%ed structure of words that maps sound to meaning and
vice versa.
The traditional, or common sense definition states that a sentence is a group of
words that expresses a thought .
The grammatical definition of the sentence is the largest unit to which syntactic
rules can apply.
&ome sentence types make no internal syntactic structure there is no distinction between
sub'ect and predicate(
)
a) !motive sentences such as Gee! Wow. Darn! Yes! No!
b) *mperatives( Go! Leave! Taxi! All aboard! Down with alcohol!
c) !lliptic sentences( Who took the car !ohn.
d) small talk phrases( "ello. Good#bye. Good morning.
Types of sentences
a simple sentence contains at least one sub'ect and one predicate( !ohn read
$%shkin.
a compound sentence is two or more simple sentences 'oined into a single
sentence( !ohn read $%shkin and &ary read '(dike. They may be 'oined by a
coordinating con'unction such as and or or, or asyndetically (without a
con'unction).
a complex sentence is a sentence in which one of the syntactic roles is played by
an embedded sentence( ) made st%dents read *homsky. The simple sentence
st%dents read *homsky plays the role of ob'ect of the verb made. +ecause the
syntax of the two parts of a complex sentence is intertwined, it is often not
possible to divide them into two free,standing simple sentences. -) made.
+t%dents read *homsky. ) saw &ary r%n.
Sentence and clause
&yntax is concerned with the way words combine to from sentences.
sentence . largest unit of syntax (intuitively understood concept) /a syntactically related
group of words that expresses an assertion, a "uestion, a command, a wish or an
exclamation0 usually begins with a capital letter and ends with a
period, "uestion or exclamation mark.
clause . basic syntactic construction consisting of a sub'ect and a predicate occurs as
main, co,ordinated or subordinated clause.
phrase. a word or a group of words without a sub'ect and predicate but functioning as a
unit in a sentence
word . smallest unit of syntax (intuitively understood concept)
Ambiguity
Two kinds of ambiguity(
1
+he called her ,boy-riend ,-rom A%stralia...
&T234T32$5 $6+*G3*T7
We went down to the bank yesterday
5!8*4$5 $6+*G3*T7
Parts of Speech:
&yntactic classes of words are traditionally called parts of speech. !nglish has the
following parts of speech( verb, noun, ad'ective, adverb, pronoun, preposition,
articles, inter'ections
maor word classes( 9, : (and pronouns), $d', $dv, ;rep
minor word classes( subordinators, coordinators, determinative, numeral,
6a'or parts,of,speech are marked for the <!$= feature
Le!els of description
Word classes
noun( bird/ -reedom/ %ncle/ walk/ "enry/ -armer/ sand
verb( walk/ swim/ cycle/ ride/ consider/ think/ (erceive/ write
ad'ective( bl%e/ exha%sted/ (ain-%l/ big/ strong/ (ower-%l
adverb( hard/ hardly/ ha((ily/ very/ however/ %(/ merely
>
preposition( in/ on/ at/ %nder/ a-ter/ amongst/ like/ since
coordinator( and/ b%t/ or/ nor
subordinator( that/ beca%se altho%gh/ since
pronoun( we/ her/ mine/ his/ who/ someone/ which
article( the/ a/ an
numeral( three/ third
inter'ection( oo(s/ / wow
:oun( ;erson, place, or thing
9erb( $ction, occurrence or state of being
$d'ective( modifier that expresses "uality, "uantity or extent.
$dverb( modifier that expresses manner, "uality, place, time, degree, number,
cause, opposition, affirmation or denial
;reposition( modifier that indicates location or origin.
+%b0ect/ ob0ect/ (redicate and predicator name syntactic functions which are
reali%ed by a certain type of word, or a phrase, or a type of clause.
Phrases
We analyse sentences as consisting of smaller units (constituents) which are called
phrases.
;hrases,consists at least of one word but may contain other phrases
;hrases have constituents
?
constituents have functions
constituents have reali%ations
"iagramming sentences# how to deal with ambiguity
;arsing using parentheses to show syntactic relations can disambiguate such a
phrase as( old men and women
$%&S'(')*&$+
$onstituency $onstituency
CONSTITUENT
a group of words in a sentence that behave syntactically
and semantically as a unit.
scratched the dog with a stick scratched the dog with a stick
dog has stick
I have stick
$riteria for Word $lasses
We use a combination of three criteria for determining the word class of a word(

). The meaning of the word
1. The form or @shapeA of the word
>. The position or @environmentA of the word in a sentence

,- Meaning
3sing this criterion, we generali%e about the kind of meanings that words convey. Bor
example, we could group together the words brother and car/ as well as David, ho%se,
C
and London, on the basis that they all refer to people, places, or things. *n fact, this has
traditionally been a popular approach to determining members of the class of nouns. *t
has also been applied to verbs, by saying that they denote some kind of DactionD, like
cook, drive, eat, r%n, sho%t, walk.
This approach has certain merits, since it allows us to determine word classes by
replacing words in a sentence with words of DsimilarD meaning.
En the basis of this replacement test, we can conclude that all of these words belong to
the same class.
<owever, this approach also has some serious limitations. The definition of a noun as a
word denoting a person, place, or thing, is wholly inade"uate, since it excludes abstract
nouns such as time, imagination, re(etition, wisdom, and chance. &imilarly, to say that
verbs are DactionD words excludes a verb like be, as in ) want to be ha((y. What DactionD
does be refer to here# &o although this criterion has a certain validity when applied to
some words, we need other, more stringent criteria as well.

.- 'he form or /shape0 of a word
&ome words can be assigned to a word class on the basis of their form or @shapeA. Bor
example, many nouns have a characteristic #tion ending(

&imilarly, many ad'ectives end in #able or #ible(


6any words also take what are called *:B5!4T*E:&, that is, regular changes in their
form under certain conditions. Bor example, nouns can take a plural inflection, usually by
adding an #s at the end(

9erbs also take inflections(

walk ,, walks ,, walked ,, walking

1- 'he position or /en!ironment0 of a word in a sentence
This criterion refers to where words typically occur in a sentence, and the kinds of words
which typically occur near to them. We can illustrate the use of this criterion using a
simple example. 4ompare the following(

F)G * cook dinner every &unday
F1G The cook is on holiday

H
:otice that we can replace verbs with verbs, and nouns with nouns, but we cannot replace
verbs with nouns or nouns with verbs.

Epen and 4losed Word 4lasses
&ome word classes are E;!:, that is, new words can be added to the class as the need
arises. The class of nouns, for instance, is potentially infinite, since it is continually being
expanded as new scientific discoveries are made, new products are developed, and new
ideas are explored .:ew verbs have also been introduced.
The ad'ective and adverb classes can also be expanded by the addition of new words,
though less prolifically.
En the other hand, we never invent new prepositions, determiners, or con'unctions. These
classes include words like o-, the, and b%t. They are called 45E&!= word classes
because they are made up of finite sets of words which are never expanded (though their
members may change their spelling, for example, over long periods of time). The
subclass of pronouns, within the open noun class, is also closed.
Words in an open class are known as o(en#class items. Words in a closed class are
known as closed#class items.
*n this section we will be looking at ;<2$&!&.
=efining a ;hrase
When we looked at nouns and pronouns, we said that a pronoun can sometimes replace a
noun in a sentence. Ene of the examples we used was this(
F*hildrenG should watch less television
IFTheyG should watch less television
<ere it is certainly true that the pronoun they replaces the noun children. +ut consider(
FThe childrenG should watch less television
IFTheyG should watch less television
*n this example, they does not replace children. *nstead, it replaces the children, which is
a unit consisting of a determiner and a noun. We refer to this unit as a :E3: ;<2$&!
(:;), and we define it as any unit in which the central element is a noun.
J
&o instead of saying that pronouns can replace nouns, it is more accurate to say that they
can replace no%n (hrases.
We refer to the central element in a phrase as the <!$= of the phrase. *n the noun phrase
the children, the <ead is children.
:oun phrases do not have to contain strings of words. *n fact, they can contain 'ust one
word, such as the word children in children sho%ld watch less television. This is also a
phrase, though it contains only a <ead. $t the level of word class, of course, we would
call children a plural, common noun. +ut in a phrase,level analysis, we call children on
its own a noun phrase. This is not simply a matter of terminology ,, we call it a noun
phrase because it can be expanded to form longer strings which are more clearly noun
phrases.
'he 2asic Structure of a Phrase
;hrases consist minimally of a <ead. This means that in a one,word phrase like
FchildrenG, the <ead is children. *n longer phrases, a string of elements may appear before
the <ead(
pre-3ead string 3ead post-3ead string
Fthe small children in class 1G

Ef these three parts, only the <ead is obligatory. *t is the only part which cannot be
omitted from the phrase.
When the <ead is omitted, weAre left with an incomplete phrase (-the small in class -ive).
This provides a useful method of identifying the <ead of a phrase.
Kust as a noun functions as the <ead of a noun phrase, a verb functions as the <ead of a
verb phrase, and an ad'ective functions as the <ead of an ad'ective phrase, and so on. We
recognise five phrase types in all(

Phrase 'ype 3ead *xample
:oun ;hrase :oun Fthe children in class CG
L
9erb ;hrase 9erb Fplay the pianoG
$d'ective ;hrase $d'ective Fdelighted to meet youG
$dverb ;hrase $dverb Fvery 4uic5lyG
;repositional ;hrase ;reposition Fin the gardenG
&oun Phrase 6&P7
$s weAve seen, a noun phrase has a noun as its <ead. =eterminers and ad'ective phrases
usually constitute the pre,<ead string. *n theory at least, the post,<ead string in an :;
can be indefinitely long.
The <ead of an :; does not have to be a common or a proper noun. This means that
pronouns, too, can function as the <ead of an :;.
*f the <ead is a pronoun, the :; will generally consist of the <ead only. This is because
pronouns do not take determiners or ad'ectives, so there will be no pre,<ead string.
<owever, with some pronouns, there may be a post,<ead string(
F:; 'hose who arrive lateG cannot be admitted until the interval
&imilarly, numerals, as a subclass of nouns, can be the <ead of an :;(
F:; 'wo of my guestsG have arrived
F:; The first to arriveG was Kohn
M
Noun Phrases (NP) Noun Phrases (NP)
NP NP
D D AP AP AP AP N N
the the slippers slippers
A A A A
pink pink fluffy fluffy
NP(D) (AP+) N

8erb Phrase 68P7
*n a 9!2+ ;<2$&! (9;), the <ead is always a verb. The pre,<ead string, if any, will
be a @negativeA word such as not or never, or an adverb phrase.
6any verb <eads m%st be followed by a post,<ead string(
6y son F9; made a cakeG ,, (compare( -&y son made)
We F9; 5eep pigeonsG ,, (compare( -We kee()
* F9; recommend the fishG ,, (compare( -) recommend)
9erbs which re"uire a post,<ead string are called T2$:&*T*9! verbs. The post,<ead
string, in these examples, is called the =*2!4T E+K!4T.
*n contrast, some verbs are never followed by a direct ob'ect(
&usan F9; smiledG
The professor F9; yawnedG
These are known as *:T2$:&*T*9! 9!2+&.
<owever, most verbs in !nglish can be both transitive and intransitive, so it is perhaps
more accurate to refer to transitive and intransitive %ses of a verb. The following
examples show the two uses of the same verb(
)N
(ntransiti!e( =avid smokes
'ransiti!e( =avid smokes cigars
Verb Phrases (VP) Verb Phrases (VP)
VP VP (AP+ V (!NP"#$ (PP+ (AP+ (AP+ V (!NP"#$ (PP+ (AP+
VP
AP V NP PP PP
A got D N P NP P NP
frequently his buckets from D N for D N
the store a dollar
Adecti!e Phrase 6AP7
*n an $=K!4T*9! ;<2$&! ($;), the <ead word is an ad'ective. <ere are some
examples(
&usan is F$; cle!erGG
6y sister is F$; fond of animalsG
The pre,<ead string in an $; is most commonly an adverb phrase such as very or
extremely. $d'ective <eads may be followed by a post,<ead string(
F$; happy to meet yo%G
F$; afraid o- the darkG
$ small number of ad'ective <eads m%st be followed by a post,<ead string. The
ad'ective <ead -ond is one of these. 4ompare(
6y sister is F$; fond of animalsG
-6y sister is FfondG
))

Adjective/Adverb Phrases (APs) Adjective/Adverb Phrases (APs)
A situation easily confused% A situation easily confused%
&he big yellow balloon &he big yellow balloon
&he very yellow balloon &he very yellow balloon
' ' (hat does (hat does ) )big big* * modify+ (hat does modify+ (hat does , ,very very- -
modify+ modify+
NP
D AP AP N
the balloon
A A
big yellow
NP
D AP N
the balloon
AP
A A
very yellow
Ad!erb Phrase 6Ad!P7
*n an $=9!2+ ;<2$&!, the <ead word is an adverb. 6ost commonly, the pre,<ead
string is another adverb phrase(
<e graduated F$dv; very recentlyG
&he left F$dv; 2%ite suddenlyG
*n $dv;s, there is usually no post,<ead string, but hereAs a rare example(
F$dv; )nfortunately -or himG, his wife came home early

Prepositional Phrase 6PP7
;2!;E&*T*E:$5 ;<2$&!& usually consist of a <ead ,, a preposition ,, and a post,
<ead string only. <ere are some examples(
F;; through the windowG
F;; o!er the barG
)1
This makes ;;s easy to recognise ,, they nearly always begin with a preposition (the
<ead). $ pre,<ead string is rarely present, but here are some examples(
F;; straight through the windowG
F;; right o!er the barG
F;; 0%st after midnightG
Prepositional Phrases (PPs) Prepositional Phrases (PPs)
&hese generally consist of a &hese generally consist of a
Preposition and an NP% Preposition and an NP%
up the road up the road
on the video screen on the video screen
under the avocado under the avocado
PP PP P P NP NP
PP
P NP
under
D N
the avocado
Phrases within Phrases
$ll but the simplest phrases will contain smaller phrases within them. <ereAs an example(
F;; across F:; the roadGG
&o far we have been looking at phrases more or less in isolation. *n real use, of course,
they occur in isolation only in very restricted circumstances. Bor example, we find
isolated :;s in public signs and notices(
F!xitG,F&aleG,F2estricted $reaG,F<yde ;arkG
)>
We sometimes use isolated phrases in spoken !nglish, especially in responses to
"uestions(
O( What would you like to drink#
$( F:; 4offeeG
O( Where did you park the car#
$( F;; +ehind the houseG
*n more general use, however, phrases are integrated into longer units, which we call
45$3&!&(
O( What would you like to drink#
$( F*Ad like coffeeG
O( Where did you park the car#
$( F* parked the car behind the houseG
9orm and 9unction of the $lause in *nglish
$ clause is a group of related words that contain a sub'ect and predicate.
:ote the difference between phrases and clauses in the following examples(
4lause is the basic unit of meaning in !nglish(
conveys a message
can provide information about
what is happening (verb group)
)?
who, what is taking part (participant P usually a noun group)
when, where, how, why surrounding the activity (circumstance)
can be identified by the presence of a single verb or verb group.
Words and phrases are the constituents of the clause rank. *n order to discuss the
constituents of the clause, it is necessary to refer to the units smaller than the clause itself.
4onsider the following example, in which we can see that a single clause is composed of
smaller units of the phrase rank.
Brom our discussion of the phrase rank, we also know that we can categori%e the
constituents of that clause into the appropriate phrase type.
Burthermore, we also know that each phrase can be subcategori%ed into its constituent
parts.
The diagram above, however, looks at the constituents of the clause only from the
perspective of the constituentsA -orms. We should remember that those forms also serve
-%nctions, 'ust as the forms at the phrase rank can also be described according to the
)C
functions they served within their phrases. !ssentially the clause can be divided into eight
functional constituents, grouped into five categories(
Functional Categories Eight Clause Functions
()) &ub'ect F)G &ub'ect
(1) 9erb F1G 9erb
(>) Eb'ects F>G =irect Eb'ect
F?G *ndirect Eb'ect
(?) 4omplements FCG Eb'ect 4omplement
FHG &ub'ect 4omplement
(C) $dverbials FJG $dverbial 4omplement
FLG $dverbial
$t the clause rank, the constituents marked in the example sentence above serve four
different clause functions( subect (&) as in The news, verb (9) as in has been, subect
complement (&4) as in 2%ite sad, and ad!erbial ($) as in in -act. We use the following
abbreviations for the other four clause functions( direct ob'ect (=E), indirect ob'ect (*E),
ob'ect complement (E4), and adverbial complement ($4). The examples below
illustrates some other clause patterns that are possible in !nglish.
). 5i% (&) is resting (9) "uietly ($) in the other room ($).
1. The mind (&) is (9) immensely complex (&4).
>. The children (&) were (9) here ($4) all morning ($).
?. !mily (&) is playing (9) cards (E) with her sister ($).
C. !arly next week ($), the ;resident (&) will send (9) 4ongress (*E) his budget
(=E).
H. 4learly ($), the committee (&) considers (9) her (=E) the best (E4).
J. Ence again ($), * (&) will put (9) the book (=E) away ($4).
When we look at the examples, we notice that each clause has a different arrangement
of functional elements, but there are some patterns too. Birst, we notice that while the
different clauses have different arrangements of ob'ects, complements, and adverbials,
each clause consistently has a sub'ect and verb. Thus, in the declarative clause, we call
the functions of sub'ect and verb the AcentralA functions while ob'ects, complements, and
adverbials are the AperipheralA functions. We also notice that adverbials are AoptionalA
when compared to the other clause constituents.
)H
Some Examples of the Seven Clause Patterns in English
S 8 (% "% S$ %$ A$
S8 5i% is resting
S8$ The mind is complex
S8A The kids were here
S8% !mily is playing cards
S8%% 4linton will send 4ongress his budget
S8%$ We consider her the best
S8%A * will put the book away
This set of patterns is the most general classification that can be usefully applied to the
!nglish clause. 4orrelating with the seven clause patterns are the three main types of
verbs(
intransiti!e !erbs, followed by no obligatory constituents, as in &9 pattern
above
copular !erbs, followed by a &4 or $4, as in the &94 and &9$ patterns above
and
transiti!e !erbs# followed by an ob'ect, as in the &9E, &9EE, &9E4, and
&9E$ patterns above.
To conclude this outline of the basic clause patterns, we need to understand the
principles by which the functional constituents of the clause are identified. $lthough the
categories of &, 9, =E, *E, E4, &4, $4, and $ are functional constituents, they are
identifiable by both formal and functional criteria.
(&"*P*&"*&' A&" "*P*&"*&' $LA)S*S
An independent clause contains a subject, a verb, and a complete thought.
). 4an stand on its own and convey a message
1. *s always finite P ie has a &ub'ect (unless in the imperative form)
A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, but no complete thought.
)- ) am going to be late ,Dependent), ) will ring yo% (Independent..
)J
Main !s- embedded:subordinate clause
*t is important to note that a subordinate clause always expands an element of another
clause (or in some cases a phrase). 4onse"uently the subordinate clause should be viewed
as a subset of a clause, and not as being separate from it (as are coordinate clauses). This
is why they are also referred to as embedded clauses. This idea is best demonstrated by
means of a diagram(


Subordinate $lause 'ypes
)L
&ubordinate clauses may be finite or nonfinite. Within this broad classification, we can
make many further distinctions. We will begin by looking at subordinate clauses which
are distinguished by their -ormal characteristics.
6any subordinate clauses are named after the form of the !erb which they contain(
T3,*:B*:*T*9! 45$3&!(
7ou must book early Fto sec%re a seatG
+$2! *:B*:*T*9! 45$3&!(
They made Fthe professor -orget his notesG
,)NG ;$2T*4*;5! 45$3&!(
<is hobby is Fcollecting old photographsG
,4D ;$2T*4*;5! 45$3&!(
F5e0ected by his parentsG, the boy turned to a life of crime
Bor convenience, we sometimes name a clause after its first element(
)6,45$3&!(
*All be there at nine Fi- * catch the early trainG
$s weAll see on the next page, i-,clauses are sometimes called conditional clauses.
T"AT,45$3&!(
=avid thinks Fthat we should have a meetingG
The that element is sometimes ellipted(
=avid thinks Fwe should have a meetingG
;elati!e $lauses
$n important type of subordinate clause is the 2!5$T*9! 45$3&!.
The man Fwho lives beside usG is ill
The video Fwhich you recommendedG was terrific
)M
2elative clauses are generally introduced by a relative pronoun, such as who, or which.
<owever, the relative pronoun may be ellipted(
The video Fyou recommendedG was terrific
$nother variant, the 2!=34!= 2!5$T*9! 45$3&!, has no relative pronoun, and the
verb is nonfinite(
The man Fliving beside usG is ill
(4ompare( The man 7who lives beside %s8...)
&ominal ;elati!e $lauses
:E6*:$5 2!5$T*9! 45$3&!& (or independent relatives) function in some respects
like noun phrases(
FWhat * like bestG is football
(cf. the s(ort ) like best...)
The pri%e will go to Fwhoever submits the best designG
(cf. the (erson who s%bmits...)
6y son is teaching me Fhow to use emailG
(cf. the way to %se email)
This is Fwhere &hakespeare was bornG
(cf. the (lace where...)
The similarity with :;s can be further seen in the fact that certain nominal relatives
exhibit number contrast(
&ingular( FWhat we needG is a plan
;lural( FWhat we needG are new ideas
:otice the agreement here with is (singular) and are (plural).
Small $lauses
Binally, we will mention briefly an unusual type of clause, the verbless or &6$55
45$3&!. While clauses usually contain a verb, which is finite or nonfinite, small clauses
lack an overt verb(
&usan found Fthe 'ob very difficultG
1N
We analyse this as a unit because clearly its parts cannot be separated. What &usan found
was not the 0ob, but the 0ob very di--ic%lt. $nd we analyse this unit specifically as a clause
because we can posit an implicit verb, namely, a form of the verb be(
&usan found Fthe 'ob (to be) very difficultG
<ere are some more examples of small clauses(
+%san considers 7David an idiot8
The 0%ry -o%nd 7the de-endant g%ilty8
7L%nch over8/ the g%ests de(arted 2%ickly
$ll of the clause types discussed here are distinguished by formal characteristics. En the
next page, we will distinguish some more types, this time on the basis of their meaning.
Subordinate $lauses: Semantic 'ypes
<ere we will look at subordinate clauses from the point of view of their meaning. The
main semantic types are exemplified in the following table(
Subordinate
$lause 'ype
*xample
'emporal *All ring you again Fbe-ore ) leaveG
* read the newspaper Fwhile ) was waitingG
$onditional *All be there at nine Fi- ) can catch the early trainG
F$rovided he works hardG, heAll do very well at
school
=onAt call me F%nless its an emergencyG
$oncessi!e <e bought me a lovely gift, Faltho%gh he can9t
really a--ord itG
FWhile ) don9t agree with herG, * can understand her
viewpoint
;eason ;aul was an hour late Fbeca%se he missed the trainG
* borrowed your lawn mower, Fsince yo% weren9t
%sing itG
FAs ) don9t know the wayG, *All take a taxi
;esult The kitchen was flooded, Fso we had to go to a
1)
resta%rantG
*Ave forgotten my password, Fso ) can9t read my
emailG
$omparati!e This is a lot more difficult Fthan ) ex(ectedG
&he earns as much money Fas ) doG
* think 5ondon is less crowded Fthan it %sed to beG
The table does not cover all the possible types, but it does illustrate many of the various
meanings which can be expressed by subordinate clauses.
:otice that the same word can introduce different semantic types. Bor instance, the word
while can introduce a temporal clause(
* read the newspaper Fwhile * was waitingG
or a concessive clause(
FWhile * donAt agree with herG, * can understand her viewpoint.
&imilarly, the word since can express time(
*Ave known him Fsince he was a childG
as well as reason(
* borrowed your lawn mower, Fsince you werenAt using itG
&!:T!:4!&
6ost people recognise a sentence as a unit which begins with a capital letter and ends
with a full stop (period), a "uestion mark, or an exclamation mark. Ef course, this applies
only to written sentences. &entences have also been defined notionally as units which
express a Dcomplete thoughtD, though it is not at all clear what a Dcomplete thoughtD is.
*t is more useful to define a sentence syntactically, as a unit which consists of one or
more clauses. $ccording to this definition, the following examples are all sentences(
F)G $a%l likes -ootball
7:8 Yo% can borrow my (en i- yo% need one
7;8 $a%l likes -ootball and David likes chess
&entence F)G is a &*6;5! &!:T!:4! ,, it contains only one clause.
11
&entence F1G consists of a matrix clause Yo% can borrow my (en i- yo% need one, and a
subordinate clause i- yo% need one. This is called a 4E6;5!8 &!:T!:4!. $ complex
sentence is defined as a sentence which contains at least one subordinate clause.
Binally, sentence F>G consists of two clauses which are coordinated with each other. This
is a 4E6;E3:= sentence.
+y using subordination and coordination, sentences can potentially be infinitely long, but
in all cases we can analyse them as one or more clauses.
$%MM)&($A'(8* S*&'*&$*S
T<! =*&4E32&! B3:4T*E:& EB &!:T!:4!&
&entences may be classified according to their use in discourse. We recognise four main
sentence types(
*xclamati!e
$n exclamative or exclamatory sentence is released because of, and expresses strong
emotion. They many times feel like involuntary reactions to a situation
*n punctuation, an exclamative is ended with an exclamation mark.
3%ch/ that h%rt!
6antastic!
)9ll never -inish this (a(er in time!
!xclamative sentence can begin with DwhatD or DhowD
What a na%ghty dog he is!
What an ama<ing game that was!
"ow well everyone (layed!
(mperati!e
$n imperative sentence gives anything from a command or order, to a re"uest, a
suggestion, direction, or instruction
*mperative sentences are a little more intentional than exclamatory sentences and do
re"uire an audience as their aim is to get the person(s) being spoken to to either do or not
do something
Look at me!
1>
(mperati!e clauses
The basic structure of the imperative consists of the predicator alone(
+it down!
Typically, imperatives has no sub'ect when a sub'ect is added, the result is marked form .
Yo% sit down and )=ll stand.
Yo% kee( 2%iet!
+it down/ will yo%
>e a bit more care-%l/ can=t yo%
(mperati!e: (ndicati!e
------------------------------------------------------
&omebody call a doctor &ombody calls a doctor.
:obody say a wordQ :obody says a word.
:egative imperative structures( =onRt say a word.
"eclarati!e
*n its most basic sense, a declarative states an idea (either ob'ectively or sub'ectively on
the part of the speaker) for the sheer purpose of transferring information to the receiver.
*n writing, a statement will end with a period.
9orm:meaning
&emantically, a declarative structure is used to express a statement and is accompanied by
falling intonation.
)t=s raining. ?
*f spoken with rising intonation, it will be interpreted as a "uestion.
)t=s raining. @
$ clause which is declarative but which contains a displaced W<,element, will have the
force of a "uestion(
And in the end yo% le-t them where
+o yo% took the doc%ments to which &inistry
Wo%ld like/ m%st/ am a-raid ) have to/ ...
) m%st beg yo% not to tell anyone abo%t this.
(nterrogati!e
$n interrogative sentence asks a "uestion and therefore ends with a "uestion
mark. *ts effort is to try and gather information that is previously unknown to the
interrogator, or to seek validation for a preconceived notion held
)s David gay
1?
o They typically begin with a "uestion word such as what# who# or how, or an
auxiliary !erb such as do:does# can or would.
o Do yo% s(eak 6rench
o Will yo% go to the s%(ermarket -or me
o o! can ) do that
'+P*S %9 %9 (&'*;;%<A'(8* S*&'*&$*S-
There are four types of interrogative sentences.
+es:&o (nterrogati!es
7esS:o "uestions usually will be answered by yes or no.
Alternati!e (nterrogati!es
$lternative interrogativse offer two or more alternative responses(
+ho%ld ) tele(hone yo% or send an email
Do yo% want bear/ wine/ or wisky
7esSno interrogatives and alternative interrogatives are introduced by an auxiliary verb.
Wh, *nterrogatives
Wh, *nterrogatives are introduced by a wh- word, and they elicit an open,ended
response(
What ha((ened
'ag =uestions
They are sometimes tagged onto the end of a declarative sentence.
David (lays the (iano/ doesn"t he
;hetorical 4uestion
$ rhetorical 4uestion is a figure of speech in the form of a "uestion posed for its
persuasive effect without the expectation of a reply (ex( DWhy me#D)
2ather, it is a device used by the speaker to assert or deny something.
(nterrogati!e structures are either positi!e or negati!e:
"ave yo% acce(ted the 0ob
"aven=t yo% acce(ted the 0ob
1C
The "uestions expressed by interrogative structures can be oriented according to the kind
of answer the speaker expects, and are said to have &*)';AL# P%S('(8* %;
&*<A'(8* %;(&*'A'(%&-
This is achieved by the addition of non,assertive forms (any/ anybody/ evr/ yet./ assertive
forms (some/ somebody/ always/ already) and negative forms (nobody/ no/ never)
$ neutral attitude is expressed by a positive interrogative togther with non,assertive
forms(
"ave yo% ever been to )ndia.
Do yo% know anyone in >righton
$ positi!e orientation is given by adding assertive forms to the positive interrogative(
=o you know someone in +righton#
=eclarative negative( Nobody has given back their books.
*nterrogative negative( "as nobody given back their books#
"*$LA;A'(8* 8S- A99(;MA'(8* 8S- P%S('(8*
$ declarative statement should not be deemed synonymous with an affirmative one. This
is because although a declarative statement can state facts (given that the speaker is not
consciously lying), it can also express something which is not true.
Therefore, a declarative can be either in the affirmative or in the negative, and we can say
that, !oanna is late and !oanna is not late, both technically "ualify as declarative
sentences.
Declarative refers to a sentenceAs function or purpose, while a--irmative and negative deal
with a sentenceAs grammatical polarity, which is why the different terms can overlap
simultaneously.
Positive in linguistic terms refers to the degree of the "uality of an ad'ective or adverb
(along with the comparative and superlative), while a--irmative refers to the perceived
validity of the entire sentence.
<;AMMA'($AL P%LA;('+
<rammatical polarity is the distinction of affirmative and negative, which indicates the
truth or falsehood of a statement respectively. *n !nglish, grammatical polarity is
generally indicated by the presence or absence of the modifier not, which negates the
statement.
*n many languages, rather than inflecting the verb, negation is expressed by adding a
particle(
&tandard !nglish usually adds the auxiliary verb do, and then adds not after it( D*
did not go thereD.
1H
*n grammar, negation is the process that turns an affirmative statement () am the
chicken) into its opposite denial () am not the chicken).
:ouns as well as verbs can be grammatically negated, by the use of a negative ad'ective
(There is no chicken), a negative pronoun (Nobody is the chicken), or a negative adverb ()
never was the chicken).
&)$L*); &*<A'(8*S
6any negative declarative structures can be formed in two ways(
). +y negating the Binite element (arenRt waitng, donRt care) or the non,finite verb in a
dependent clause (not expecting a reply)
1. +y negating a non,verbal element(
Nobody knows.
+he -elt no (ain.
Neither (arent was in-ormed.
Not m%ch whisky was le-t.
4le(hants never -orget.
ASS*;'(%& A&" &%&-ASS*;'(%&
*n !nglish, rather than distinguishing simply between positive and negative forms, we
must establish a distinction between asserti!e and non-asserti!e forms.
Asserti!e words such as &E6!, &E6!E:!, &E6!W<!2! occur typically in
assertive contexts. These are expressed by positive declarative clauses.
&on-asserti!e words such as $:7, $:7E:!, $:7T<*:G, !9!2 occur in
contextas which are non,positiveT interrogative, and negative clauses
$&&!2T*9! BE26&(
We have some very good co--ee.
)=ve le-t my car keys somewhere.
:E:,$&&!2T*9! BE26&(
"ave yo% any good co--ee
"ave yo%n seen my glasses anywhere
Take any yo% like!
No#one said anything.
Didn=t yo% say anything ,interrogative#negative cla%se.
Did yo% say anything
"%)2L* &*<A'(%&
&tandard national forms of !nglish do not favour multiple negation, that is, a successtion
of nucleur negative items in one clause.
1J
*nstead, the first negative item is followed throughout the rest of the clause by one or
more non,assertive forms, such as $:7, !*T<!2, !9!2, etc.
We are not going anywhere with either o- o%r (arents.
) haven=t said anything to anybody yet.
"e hardly ever writes *hristmas cards to anyone any more.
P%S('(8* S';)$');*S:&egati!e ,:&egati!e .
ThereRs some bread left.
There isnRt any bread left.
There is no bread left.
<e met someone at the pub
<e didnRt meet anyone at the pub.
<e met no,one at the pub.
* know something about it.
* donRt know anything about it.
* know nothing about it.
'3* <;AMMA'($AL 3(*;A;$3+: W%;"S# P3;AS*S#
$LA)S*S# A&" S*&'*&$*S
Words, phrases, clauses, and sentences constitute what is called the
G2$66$T*4$5 <*!2$24<7. We can represent this schematically as
follows(
sentences
clauses
phrases
words
&entences are at the top of the hierarchy, so they are the largest unit which we
will be considering (though some grammars do look beyond the sentence). $t
the other end of the hierarchy, words are at the lowest level, though again,
some grammars go below the word to consider morphology, the study of how
words are constructed.
$t the clause level and at the phrase level, two points should be noted(
,- $lthough clauses are higher than phrases in the hierarchy, clauses can
occur within phrases, as weAve already seen(
1L
The man who lives beside us is ill
.- WeAve also seen that clauses can occur within clauses, and phrases can
occur within phrases.
+earing these two points in mind, we can now illustrate the grammatical
hierarchy using the following sentence(
6y brother won the lottery
This is a simple sentence (&), consisting of a matrix clause (64).
F&S64 F:; F=et 6yG F: brotherGG F9; F9 wonG F:; F=et theG F: lotteryGGGG
!ach of the bracketed units here is a word, a phrase, or a clause. We refer to
these as 4E:&T*T3!:T&. $ constituent is defined as a word or a group of
words which acts syntactically as a unit.
$ tree diagram is a visual representation of syntactic structure, in which
the grammatical hierarchy is graphically displayed. <ereAs the tree diagram
for our sentence, &y brother won the lottery(
9%;M A&" 9)&$'(%&
We saw that the form or DshapeD of a word is often a good clue to its word class.
When we looked at phrases, too, we were concerned with their form. We said that
phrases may have the basic form ,$re#"ead string. # "ead # ,$ost#"ead string..
$nd finally, we classified clauses according to the form (finite or nonfinite) of their main
verb.
1M
*n all of these cases, we were conducting a BE26$5 analysis. 6orm denotes how
something looks ,, its shape or appearance, and what its structure is. When we say that
the old man is an :;, or that the old man bo%ght a news(a(er is a finite clause, we are
carrying out a formal analysis.
We can also look at constituents ,, phrases and clauses ,, from another angle. We can
examine the B3:4T*E:s which they perform in the larger structures which contain
them.
S)2>*$' A&" P;*"($A'*
The most familiar grammatical function is the &3+K!4T. *n notional terms, we can think
of the &ub'ect as the element which performs the DactionD denoted by the verb(
F)G David plays the piano
F1G The (olice interviewed all the witnesses
*n these terms, this means that we can identify the &ub'ect by asking a wh#"uestion.
<aving identified the &ub'ect, we can see that the remainder of the sentence tells us what
the &ub'ect does or did. *n F)G, for example, (lays the (iano tells us what =avid does. We
refer to this string as the ;2!=*4$T! of the sentence. *n F1G, the ;redicate is
interviewed all the witnesses.
<ere are some more examples of sentences labelled for &ub'ect and ;redicate.

Subect Predicate
The lion roared
"e writes well
+he en0oys going to the cinema
The girl in the bl%e dress arrived late

*n each of these examples, the &ub'ect performs the action described in the ;redicate.
WeAve seen, however, that there are problems in defining verbs as DactionD words, and for
>N
the same reasons, there are problems in defining the &ub'ect as the DperformerD of the
action. The &ub'ect in !ohn seems %nha((y is !ohn, but we would hardly say he is
performing an action. Bor this reason, we need to define the &ub'ect more precisely than
this. We will look at the characteristics of the &ub'ect on the next page.
$haracteristics of the subect
,- Subect-8erb (n!ersion
*n a declarative sentence, the &ub'ect comes before the verb(
When we change this into a yes@no interrogative, the &ub'ect and the verb
change places with each other(
*f an auxiliary verb is present, however, the &ub'ect changes places with the
auxiliary(
"eclarati!e: !im has left already
(nterrogati!e: "as !im left already#
*n this interrogative, the &ub'ect still comes before the main verb, but after
the auxiliary. This is true also of interrogatives with a do,auxiliary(
&ub'ect,verb inversion is probably the most reliable method of identifying
the &ub'ect of a sentence.
.- Position of the Subect
*n a declarative sentence, the &ub'ect is usually the -irst constituent(
!im was in bed
We made a donation to charity
<owever, there are exceptions to this. Bor instance(
7esterday the theatre was closed
<ere, the first constituent is the adverb phrase yesterday, but this is not the
&ub'ect of the sentence. :otice that the theatre, and not yesterday, inverts
>)
with the verb in the interrogative(
"eclarati!e( 7esterday the theatre was closed
(nterrogati!e( 7esterday was the theatre closed#
&o the &ub'ect here is the theatre, even though it is not the first constituent
in the sentence.
1- Subect-!erb Agreement
&ub'ect,verb $G2!!6!:T or 4E:4E2= relates to number agreement
(singular or plural) between the &ub'ect and the verb which follows it(
Singular Subect: The dog howls all night
Plural Subect: The dogs howl all night
There are two important limitations to &ub'ect,verb agreement. Birstly,
agreement only applies when the verb is in the present tense. *n the past
tense, there is no overt agreement between the &ub'ect and the verb(
The dog howled all night
The dogs howled all night
$nd secondly, agreement applies only to third person &ub'ects. There is no
distinction, for example, between a first person singular &ub'ect and a first
person plural &ub'ect(
) howl all night
We howl all night
The concept of :ET*E:$5 $G2!!6!:T sometimes comes into play(
The government is considering the proposal
The government are considering the proposal
<ere, the form of the verb is not determined by the form of the &ub'ect.
*nstead, it is determined by how we interpret the &ub'ect. *n the government
is..., the &ub'ect is interpreted as a unit, re"uiring a singular form of the
verb. *n the government are..., the &ub'ect is interpreted as having a plural
meaning, since it relates to a collection of individual people. $ccordingly,
the verb has the plural form are.
>1
?- Subecti!e Pronouns
The pronouns )/ he@she@it/ we/ they, always function as &ub'ects, in contrast
with me/ him@her/ %s/ them(
) left early
-&e left early
The pronoun yo% can also be a &ub'ect(
Yo% left early
but it does not always perform this function. *n the following example, the
&ub'ect is Tom, not yo%(
Tom likes you
;ealisations of the Subect
*n the sentence, !im was in bed, the &ub'ect is the :; !im. 6ore precisely, we say that
the &ub'ect is realised by the :; !im. 4onversely, the :; !im is the realisation of the
&ub'ect in this sentence. 2emember that N$ is a -ormal term, while +%b0ect is a
-%nctional term(
9%;M 9)&$'(%&
:oun ;hrase &ub'ect
&ub'ects are typically realised by :;s. This includes :;s which have pronouns F)G,
cardinal numerals F1G, and ordinal numerals F>G as their <ead word(
F)G FWeG decided to have a party
F1G FEne of my contacts lensesG fell on the floor
F>G FThe first car to reach +rightonG is the winner
<owever, other constituents can also function as &ub'ects, and we will examine these in
the following sections.
$lauses functioning as Subect
>>
4lauses can also function as &ub'ect, +%b0ect cla%ses. The table below shows examples
of the ma'or types of &ub'ect clauses(

$LA)S*S
functioning as
S)2>*$'S
E#$%P&E
9inite
That,clause
:ominal 2elative
clause
@,A That his theory was -lawed soon
became obvious
@.A What ) need is a long holiday
&onfinite
To#infinitive clause
#ing clause
@1A To become an o(era singer takes years
of training
@?A >eing the chairman is a huge
responsibility
:otice that some of these &ub'ect clauses have &ub'ects of their own. *n F)G, the &ub'ect
clause that his theory was -lawed, has its own &ub'ect, his theory. &imilarly, in F1G, the
&ub'ect of what ) need is ).
$mong nonfinite clauses, only to#infinitive clauses and #ing participle clauses can
function as &ub'ect. +are infinitive clauses and #ed participle clauses cannot perform this
function. *n the examples above ,, F>G and F?G ,, the nonfinite &ub'ect clauses do not have
&ub'ects of their own, although they can do(
F>aG 6or &ary to become an o(era singer would take years of training
>?
F?aG David being the chairman has meant more work for all of us
Prepositional Phrases functioning as Subect
5ess commonly, the &ub'ect may be realised by a prepositional phrase(
A-ter nine is a good time to ring
;repositional phrases as &ub'ect typically refer to time or to space.
Some )nusual Subects
+efore leaving this topic, we will point out some grammatical &ub'ects which may at first
glance be difficult to recognise as such. Bor example, can you work out the &ub'ect of the
following sentence#
There is a -ly in my so%(
$s weAve seen, the most reliable test for identifying the &ub'ect is &ub'ect,verb inversion,
so letAs try it here(
"eclarati!e: There is a fly in my soup
(nterrogati!e: *s there a fly in my soup#
The inversion test shows that the sub'ect is there. 7ou will recall that this is an example
of existential there, and the sentence in which it is the &ub'ect is an existential sentence.
:ow try the same test on the following(
*t is raining
The inversion test shows that the &ub'ect is it(
These two examples illustrate how limited the notional definition of the &ub'ect really is.
*n no sense can we say that there and it are performing an DactionD in their respective
sentences, and yet they are grammatically functioning as &ub'ects.
En this page, weAve seen that the function of &ub'ect can be realised by several different
forms. 4onversely, the various forms (:;, clause, ;;, etc) can perform several other
functions, and we will look at these in the following pages.
(nside the Predicate
>C
2ecall that the ;redicate is everything apart from the &ub'ect. &o in David
(lays the (iano, the ;redicate is (lays the (iano. This ;redicate consists of a
verb phrase, and we can divide this into two further elements(
FplaysG Fthe pianoG
*n formal terms, we refer to the verb as the ;2!=*4$TE2, because its
function is to (redicate or state something about the sub'ect. :otice that
$redicator is a functional term, while verb is a formal term(
9%;M 9)&$'(%&
9erb ;redicator
<owever, since the ;redicator is always realised by a verb, we will continue
to use the more familiar term verb, even when we are discussing functions.
'he "irect %bect
*n the sentence David (lays the (iano, the :; the (iano is the constituent
which undergoes the DactionD of being played (by =avid, the &ub'ect). We
refer to this constituent as the =*2!4T E+K!4T.
We can usually identify the =irect Eb'ect by asking who or what was affected
by the &ub'ect. Bor example(
We bo%ght a new com(%ter
=- What did we buy#
A- A new com(%ter ( . the =irect Eb'ect)
The =irect Eb'ect generally comes after the verb, 'ust as the &ub'ect
generally comes before it. &o in a declarative sentence, the usual pattern is(
Subect -- 8erb -- "irect %bect
;ealisations of the "irect %bect
The =irect Eb'ect is most often realised by an :;. <owever, this function
can also be realised by a clause. The following table shows examples of
clauses functioning as =irect Eb'ects(
>H

$LA)S*S
functioning as
"(;*$'
%2>*$'S
E#$%P&ES
9inite
That#clause
:ominal relative
clause
@,A <e thought that he had a (er-ect alibi
@.A The officer described what he saw
thro%gh the keyhole
&onfinite
To,infinitive clause
+are infinitive
clause
#ing clause
#ed clause
@1A The dog wants to (lay in the garden
@?A &he made the lect%rer la%gh
@BA ;aul loves (laying -ootball
@CA *Am having my ho%se (ainted
Subects and %bects# Acti!e and Passi!e
$ useful way to compare &ub'ects and =irect Eb'ects is to observe how they
behave in active and passive sentences. 4onsider the following active
sentence(
Acti!e: 6ire destroyed the (alace
<ere we have a &ub'ect -ire and a =irect Eb'ect the (alace.
:ow letAs convert this into a passive sentence(
Passi!e( The (alace was destroyed by -ire
The change from active to passive has the following results(
). The active =irect Eb'ect the (alace becomes the passive &ub'ect
>J
1. The active &ub'ect -ire becomes part of the ;; by -ire (the by,agent
phrase).
'he (ndirect %bect
&ome verbs occur with two Eb'ects(
We gave FKohnG Fa presentG
<ere, the :; a (resent undergoes the DactionD (a present is what is given). &o a (resent is
the =irect Eb'ect. We refer to the :; !ohn as the *:=*2!4T E+K!4T.
*ndirect Eb'ects usually occur with a =irect Eb'ect, and they always come be-ore the
=irect Eb'ect. The typical pattern is(
Subect -- 8erb -- (ndirect %bect -- "irect %bect
9erbs which take an *ndirect Eb'ect and a =irect Eb'ect are known as =*T2$:&*T*9!
verbs. 9erbs which take only a =irect Eb'ect are called 6E:ET2$:&*T*9! verbs. The
verb tell is a typical ditransitive verb, but it can also be monotransitive.
*ndirect Eb'ect usually co,occurs with a =irect Eb'ect. <owever, with some verbs an
*ndirect Eb'ect may occur alone(
=avid told the children
although we can usually posit an implicit =irect Eb'ect in such cases(
=avid told the children the news
;ealisations of the (ndirect %bect
:;s are the most common realisations of the *ndirect Eb'ect. *t is a typical function of
pronouns in the ob'ective case, such as me, him, %s, and them.
5ess commonly, a clause will function as *ndirect Eb'ect(
=avid told whoever saw her to report to the police
Aduncts
>L
4ertain parts of a sentence may convey information about how, when, or where
something happened, $=K3:4T&. Brom a syntactic point of view, $d'uncts are optional
elements, since their omission still leaves a complete sentence.
;ealisations of Aduncts
&oun Phrases functioning as Aduncts
=avid gave blood last week
WeAve agreed to meet the day a-ter tomorrow
:;s as $d'uncts generally refer to time, as in these examples.
Ad!erb Phrases functioning as Aduncts
They ate their meal too 2%ickly
+%ddenly, the door opened
Prepositional Phrases functioning as Aduncts
&usan went to school in New York
* work late on &ondays
;;s as $d'uncts generally refer to time or to place ,, they tell us when or where
something happens.
$lauses functioning as Aduncts
&ubordinate clauses can function as $d'uncts. WeAll begin with some examples of finite
subordinate clauses(

$lauses
functioning as
Aduncts
E#$%P&ES
9inite While we were crossing the (ark, we heard a loud
explosion
>M
* was late for the interview beca%se the train broke down
)- yo% want tickets -or the concert, you have to apply early
6y car broke down, so ) had to walk
&onfinite
To,infinitive clause
+are infinitive
clause
#ing clause
,ed clause
&mall clause
To o(en the window, you have to climb a ladder
5ather than leave the child alone, * brought him to work
with me
>eing a 2%ali-ied (l%mber, ;aul had no difficulty in
finding the leak
Le-t to himsel-, he usually gets the 'ob done "uickly
"is -ace red with rage, Kohn stormed out of the room

7ou will notice that these clauses express the range of meanings that we looked at earlier
(in &ubordinate 4lauses( &emantic Types). *n all cases, notice also that the $d'uncts
express additional and optional information.
S*&'*&$* PA''*;&S 9;%M A 9)&$'(%&AL P*;SP*$'(8*
$s weAve seen, the &ub'ect is usually (but not always) the first element in a sentence, and
it is followed by the verb(
Pattern ,
Subect 8erb
David sings
*n this pattern, the verb is not followed by any Eb'ect, and we refer to this as an
intransitive verb. *f the verb is monotransitive, it takes a =irect Eb'ect, which follows the
verb(
Pattern .
?N
Subect 8erb "irect %bect
The 0%ry -o%nd the de-endant g%ilty
*n the ditransitive pattern, the verb is followed by an *ndirect Eb'ect and a =irect
Eb'ect, in that order(
Pattern 1
Subect 8erb (ndirect %bect "irect %bect
The detectives asked Amy lots o- 2%estions
$d'uncts are syntactically peripheral to the rest of the sentence. They may occur at the
beginning and at the end of a sentence, and they may occur in all three of the patterns
above(
Pattern ?
;attern ? is essentially a conflation of the other three, with $d'uncts added. We have
bracketed the $d'uncts to show that they are optional. &trictly speaking, Eb'ects are also
optional, since they are only re"uired by monotransitive and ditransitive verbs.
Some )ntypical Sentence Patterns
*xtraposition
The &ub'ect is sometimes postponed until the end of the sentence. <ere are some
examples(
*n first place is 5ed 5%m
*nside the house were two detectives
6ore important is the 2%estion o- com(ensation
<ere, the typical declarative order has been disrupted for stylistic effect. *n these
examples, the &ub'ect comes a-ter the verb, and is said to be !8T2$;E&!d.
The &ub'ect is also extraposed when the sentence is introduced by anticipatory it(
?)
*t is a good idea to book early
*t is not surprising that he -ailed his exams
*n the more typical pattern, these constructions may sound stylistically awkward(
To book early is a good idea
That he -ailed his exams is not surprising
!xtraposition is not always 'ust a matter of style. *n the following examples, it is
obligatory(
*t seems that he9ll be late
again
I-That he9ll be late
again seems
*t turned out that his
secretary had stolen the
money
I-That his secretary had
stolen the money turned
out
=irect Eb'ects, too, can be extraposed. 2ecall that their typical position is after the verb
(;attern 1). <owever, when anticipatory it is used, the =irect Eb'ect is extraposed(
<e made it very clear that he wo%ld not be coming back
$gain, the canonical pattern is stylistically very awkward(
-<e made that he wo%ld not be coming back very clear
$left Sentences
$ declarative sentence, such as David st%died 4nglish at 3x-ord can be reformulated as(
)t was David who st%died 4nglish at 3x-ord
This is called a 45!BT &!:T!:4! because the original sentence has been divided (or
DcleftD) into two clauses( )t was David and who st%died 4nglish at 3x-ord. 4left
sentences focus on one constituent of the original sentence, placing it after it was (or it
is). <ere we have focussed on the &ub'ect David, but we could also focus on the =irect
Eb'ect 4nglish(
*t was 4nglish that =avid studied at Exford
or on the $d'unct at 3x-ord
*t was at 3x-ord that =avid studied !nglish
?1
4left constructions, then, exhibit the pattern(
It D 'e D focus D clause
<enerati!e grammar
$ generati!e grammar is a theory of competence( a model of the psychological system
of unconscious knowledge that underlies a speakerAs ability to produce and interpret
utterances in a language. . . . $ good way of trying to understand F:oamG 4homskyAs
point is to think of a generative grammar as essentially a de-inition of competence( a set
of criteria that linguistic structures must meet to be 'udged acceptable. (Brank ;arker and
Uathryn 2iley, Ling%istics -or Non#Ling%ists. $llyn and +acon, )MM?)
:oam 4homsky advocates the view that the human mind has innate ability to generate
grammatical sentences, thus, all utterances deemed sensible to the speaker are necessarily
grammatical. $ll humans, he argues, share a core of grammar that explodes into the
thousands and thousands of distinct languages spoken by humans over time and place.
Generative grammar ultimately suggests that the brain is like an unlabeled map, and a
childAs role is to assign different DpathsD with particular labels.
Universal Grammar
:oam 4homsky also proposed the theory that a kind of universal grammar, a grammar
that underlies all human languages, is hard,wired in the human brain. Thus all human
languages are fundamentally the same, with only superficial differences.
T2$:&BE26$T*E:$5 G!:!2$T*9! 5*:G3*&T*4&
Which sentences do not sound right?
4homsky considered language to be a species,specific property which is a part of the
human mind.
4homsky studied the )nternal#lang%age, a mental faculty for language. <e also wanted to
account for the linguistic competence of native speakers and the linguistic knowledge of
language present in language usersR minds. $s he argued( $eo(le know which sentences
are grammatically well -ormed in their native lang%age. They have this knowledge also
o- (revio%sly %nheard sentences. +o they m%st rely on mentally re(resented r%les and not
only on memory
Generative grammars might be regarded as models o- mentally re(resented r%les
The ability to ac2%ire s%ch sets o- r%les is most (robably %ni2%ely h%man.
?>
6oreover, 4homsky argued that people posses a kind of &anguage Facult( which is a
part of human natural biological "ualities. The innate linguistic knowledge that enables
practically any child to learn any of about HNNN existing languages (at a given point in
time) is sometimes known as the )niversal *rammar.
This theory is often supported by the arguments that creole languages are created in a
natural way and their users invent their own linguistic systems. What is more, it appears
that creole languages share certain features even despite the distances that not allows for
contact of two different creoles.
<*&*;A'(8* <;AMMA;
4homskyRs concept of generative grammar implies a finite set of rules that can be
applied to generate sentences# at the same time capable of producing infinite number of
strings from the set rules.
$ type of grammar which describes a language by giving a set of rules that can be used to
produce other possible sentences in that language.
$ generati!e grammar is an algorithm for specifying, or generating# all and only the
grammatical sentences in a language.
*n theoretical linguistics, generati!e grammar refers to a particular approach to the
study of syntax. $ generative grammar of a language attempts to give a set of rules that
will correctly predict which combinations of words will form grammatical sentences.
Generative grammar originates in the work of :oam 4homsky, beginning in the late
)MCNs. !arly versions of 4homskyAs theory were called transformational grammar, and
this term is still used as a collective term that includes his subse"uent theories. There are
a number of competing versions of generative grammar currently practiced within
linguistics . 4homskyAs current theory is known as the 6inimalist program

G!:!2$T*9!#
'he <enerati!e Aspects
What is <rammar?
F4homskyRs mentalist viewG
Grammar is aboutV
competence D performance
7+(eaker@hearer=s knowledge o- the lang%age8 7act%al %se o- lang%age in real sit%ations8
FcompetenceG Fwell,formed sentences vs ill,formed sentencesG
W 6y uncle reali%es that *Rm a busy cook.
W 6y frying pan reali%es that *Rm a lousy cook.
??
--The 0oddityX of some of these sentences is (ragmatic, :ET ling%istic.
'ransformational generati!e grammar
'wo Le!els of ;epresentation
). =eep &tructure (=&)(
represents syntactic relations (underlying representation)
1. &urface &tructure (&&)(
derived (surface) representation of a =eep &tructure
&& can be derived from =& by transformations like passivi%ation, forming of "uestions
etc.
*n )MCJ, :oam 4homsky published +yntactic +tr%ct%res, in which he developed the idea
that each sentence in a language has two levels of representation Y a deep structure and a
s%r-ace str%ct%re.
The deep structure represented the core semantic relations of a sentence, and was mapped
on to the surface structure (which followed the phonological form of the sentence very
closely) via trans-ormations. 4homsky believed there are considerable similarities
between languagesA deep structures, and that these structures reveal properties, common
to all languages that surface structures conceal
Though transformations continue to be important in 4homskyAs current theories, he has
now abandoned the original notion of =eep &tructure and &urface &tructure.
*nitially, two additional levels of representation were introduced (5B Y 5ogical Borm,
and ;B Y ;honetic Borm), and then in the )MMNs 4homsky sketched out a new program
of research known as &inimalism.
B- <eneral (deas about Language
4homsky distinguishes between(
). 4ompetence( speakerZsS hearerZs knowledge of his language
1. ;erformance( actual use of language in concrete situations
3niversal Gramamr (3G) is part of the competence of all language speakers
(nnate linguistic 5nowledge
Ene of the most important of 4homskyAs ideas is that most of this knowledge is innate,
with the result that a baby can have a large body of prior knowledge about the structure
of language in general, and need only actually learn the idiosyncratic features of the
language(s) it is exposed to .
?C
<rammaticality
'he aim of a generati!e grammar is to generate all and only the grammatical
sentences of a language-
4homsky argued that the notions DgrammaticalD and DungrammaticalD could be defined in
a meaningful and useful way.
*t is possible for a sentence to be both grammatical and meaningless, as in 4homskyAs
famous example Dcolorless green ideas sleep furiously.D +ut such sentences manifest a
linguistic problem distinct from that posed by meaningful but ungrammatical (non),
sentences such as Dman the bit sandwich the,D the meaning of which is fairly clear, but no
native speaker would accept as well formed.
Transformational rules map the =eep &tructure onto &urface &tructure representations.
;hrase,structure rules were used in early transformational,generative grammars (TGG) to
describe a given languageAs syntax.
This was accomplished by attempting to break language down into its constituent parts
(also known as syntactic categories) namely phrasal categories and lexical categories
(aka parts of speech). ;hrasal categories include the noun phrase, verb phrase, and
prepositional phrase lexical categories include noun, verb, ad'ective, adverb, and many
others.
'ree "iagram-
$ phrase,structure grammar G can also produce a structure for a sentence that it
generates. *f G is context,free, this structure can have the form of a tree with its root node
corresponding to the starting symbol of the grammar
2rac5eted String-
The phrase or constituent structure of a sentence can also be represented in the form of a
bracketed string such as the following(
@S@&P@A niceA @& dogsAA @8P@8 li5eA @&P@& catsAAAA
;ewriting ;ules-
;hrase,structure grammars are often characterised as rule,based because the classification
of words and the formation of phrases is described by a collection of rules.
?H
Bor example, the classification of words such as 9dogs/9 9like/9 and 9nice9 into the noun,
verb, and ad'ective lexical categories, respectively, may be represented by lexical rules of
the form : [ dogs, 9 [ like, and $ [ nice.
?J