A Short Guide to the Types and Details of Constructing a Suspension Bridge - Including Various Arrangements of Suspension Spans, Methods of Vertical Stiffening and Wire Cables Versus Eyebar Chains
1 World's first development and application of HTSS (high tensile strength steel) with yield stress of 47 kgf/mm 2 to actual ship hull structure Along with the rapid increase in the size of container ships, the steel plates used for ship hulls have been increased in thickness. As the toughness of steel plates generally tends to decrease for thicker plates, more consideration of brittle fractures is required. I n order to address this challenge, Mitsubishi Heavy I ndustries, Ltd. (MHI ) has jointly developed with Nippon Steel Corporation steel plates with the yield strength of 47 kgf/mm 2 , which is an increase of about 20% in comparison with conventional steel plates for general commercial ship hulls. This steel possesses both high strength and high toughness, which has made it possible to substantially improve the reliability of the hull structure of mega container ships against brittle fractures through reduced plate thickness and appropriate plate layout design based on good use of its special characteristics. I n addition, its weight-reducing effect has also contrib- uted to improvement in propulsive performance and cargo loading efficiency. This steel has already been used for the first time in the world on an 8100 TEU container ship constructed by MHI and has gained the deep appreciation of the customer both for its safety and performance. 1. I ntroduction 1. I ntroduction 1. I ntroduction 1. I ntroduction 1. I ntroduction As shown in Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Fig. 1, container ships have increased in size over the past 10 years, along with which the steel pl ates used have become thi cker to cope wi th the i n- creased load as a result of the enlarged hulls. Generally speaking, the thicker a steel plate is, the lower its tough- ness, and i ts resi stance to bri ttl e fracture tends to decrease. MHI together with Nippon Steel Corporation has worked on developing a highly reliable hull struc- ture for mega container ships. As a result of these efforts, HTSS (high tensile strength steel) with a yield strength of 47 kgf/mm 2 has been developed which is an increase in strength by about 20% in comparison with the con- ventional steel plates and has been used on an actual ship as the world's first. Further, Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (Class NK) participated in the establishment of the rel- evant standards. This report introduces an outline of the ship in which the steel plates were used and their characteristics, as well as the concept of the safety de- si gn of the hul l structure, and fi nal l y descri bes the welding method. 2. I ntroduction to the state-of-the-art 8100 TEU con- 2. I ntroduction to the state-of-the-art 8100 TEU con- 2. I ntroduction to the state-of-the-art 8100 TEU con- 2. I ntroduction to the state-of-the-art 8100 TEU con- 2. I ntroduction to the state-of-the-art 8100 TEU con- tainer ship tainer ship tainer ship tainer ship tainer ship MOL Creation was constructed in MHI 's Nagasaki Shipyard and Machinery Works for Mitsui O.S.K. Lines as the world's first 8100 TEU class container ship using 47 kgf/mm 2 HTSS and was delivered in J une 2007 as the first ship in the six ship series of that class. TEU: Twenty feet equivalent unit (used to indicate the size of container ship) 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 0 2 000 4 000 8 000 10000 6 000 Fig. 1 Increase in size of container ships and increase in thickness of hull girder strength members N u m b e r
o f
c o n t a i n e r s
l o a d e d
( T E U ) Number of containers loaded (TEU) T h i c k n e s s
o f
h u l l
g i r d e r
s t r e n g t h
m e m b e r
( m m ) Year ship delivered KAZUHIRO HIROTA* 1 SHINGEN TAKEDA* 1 MASUO TADA* 2 TAKASHI NAKAGAWA* 1 YOSHIMI HASHI* 1 *1 Nagasaki Shipyard & Machinery Works *2 Nagasaki Research & Development Center, Technical Headquarters 2 Mitsubishi Heavy I ndustries, Ltd. Technical Review Vol. 44 No. 3 (Sep. 2007) An outl i ne arrangement of thi s shi p i s shown i n Fi g. Fi g. Fi g. Fi g. Fi g. 2 22 22 and i ts pri nci pal parti cl ul ars i n T TT TTabl e 1 abl e 1 abl e 1 abl e 1 abl e 1. Thi s i s the shi powner's l argest contai ner shi p, whi ch i s scheduled to serve on the Asia-Europe route after she i s put i nto servi ce. This ship has widely adopted state-of-the-art technol- ogy i ncl udi ng 47 kgf/mm 2 HTSS. The outl i ne i s as follows: (1) The latest electronic control type Mitsubishi Sulzer 11RT-flex96C was adopted as the main engine. The adoption of electronic control has realized optimal fuel injection control in accordance with the engine revo- l uti ons, bri ngi ng about the excel l ent emi ssi on reduction of NOx (nitrogen oxides) and PM (particu- late matter). (2) With regard to propulsive performance, despite the fact that the fuel-efficient, 11 cylinder main engine is the smallest for this class of container ship, a service speed of 25.25 kt has been attained because of its so- phisticated hull form. (3) With regard to loading performance, reduced light- weight and a lower center of gravity were realized through the adoption of a relatively wide hull form and 47 kgf/mm 2 HTSS, which have contributed to an i ncrease i n the number of contai ners l oaded and a reduction of the amount of ballast water. As a result, improved profitability and operational convenience have been brought about. (4) All the fuel tanks and oil tanks are structured within a double hull to prevent marine pollution. (5) Dangerous goods can be loaded into all holds. I n par- ticular holds Nos. 1 to 7 can take cars loaded with fuel. As described above, this is a state-of-the-art container ship which has improved both environmental friendli- ness and safety through the use of the latest technology including 47 kgf/mm 2 HTSS. 3. Adoption of steel plates with yield stress of 47 kgf/ 3. Adoption of steel plates with yield stress of 47 kgf/ 3. Adoption of steel plates with yield stress of 47 kgf/ 3. Adoption of steel plates with yield stress of 47 kgf/ 3. Adoption of steel plates with yield stress of 47 kgf/ mm mm mm mm mm 2 22 22 and improvement of safety and improvement of safety and improvement of safety and improvement of safety and improvement of safety 3.1 Material property 3.1 Material property 3.1 Material property 3.1 Material property 3.1 Material property The history of the increase in strength of steel plates for hull structures is shown in Fi g. 3 Fi g. 3 Fi g. 3 Fi g. 3 Fi g. 3. While conven- ti onal contai ner shi ps normal l y use 40 kgf/mm 2 steel plates, an approximately 20% increase in strength has been realized by development of the 47 kgf/mm 2 HTSS. I n devel opi ng these steel pl ates, both the i ncreased strength and resistance to brittle crack propagation de- scribed in Sections 3.2 to 3.3 have been realized at the same time. Further, the high weldability integral to steel plates for shipbuilding work has been addressed by grain refining of the metal structure through precise control of the heating, rolling and cooling conditions (Fig. 4 Fig. 4 Fig. 4 Fig. 4 Fig. 4). 45.6 14.5 90678 86692 62 920kW x 102rpm 25.25 MITSUBISHI-SULZER 11RT-flex 96C Table 1 Principal specifications Overall length (m) Approx. 316 Number of containers loaded (TEU) 8 110 Breadth (m) Main engine Full load draft (m) Dead-weight (t) Max. output Gross tonnage Service speed (kt) L.W.L. L.W.L. L.W.L. F.P. A.P. L c Fig. 2 General arrangement 1980 1990 2006 32 47 40 36 Fig. 3 History of maximum strength of high tensile strength steel used for hulls of general commercial ships Y i e l d
s t r e s s
( k g f / m m 2 ) 32 kgf/mm 2
HTSS 36 kgf/mm 2
HTSS 40 kgf/mm 2
HTSS 47 kgf/mm 2
HTSS Year Approx. 20% increase in strength has been achieved. (a) Conventional steel (b) 47 kgf/mm 2 HTSS Fig. 4 Comparison of microstructures (optical microscope structure) Mitsubishi Heavy I ndustries, Ltd. Technical Review Vol. 44 No. 3 (Sep. 2007) 3 3.2 Structural design 3.2 Structural design 3.2 Structural design 3.2 Structural design 3.2 Structural design Container ships, as shown in Fig. 5 Fig. 5 Fig. 5 Fig. 5 Fig. 5, have a large open- ing, through which containers are loaded inside the cargo holds, on the upper deck of their hulls, where the ar- rangement of the structural members which resist the loads which bend the entire hull (longitudinal bending load (hull girder bending)) is limited. Therefore, as the upper hull is naturally subject to large loads, thick plates, usual l y of about 65 mm, have been used to cope wi th this problem. I n addition, as the hull girder bending loads increase due to the growing size of ship hulls, in- creasing the plate thickness (80 mm to 100 mm) had to be further accelerated as shown in Fig. 1. However, this increase in thickness leads to a decrease in the tough- ness of the steel pl ates and can possi bl y reduce the reliability of the hull structure. I n this regard, a hull structure is designed to arrest any brittle crack propa- gation which might occur in the worst case. This has been realized by considering the balance between plate thickness and the toughness of the ship hull. This in- cludes the following concepts, and a large-scale model test, described in Section 3.3, was carried out to verify the effectiveness of the concepts. (1) To reduce plate thickness by adopting 47 kgf/mm 2 HTSS in order to obtain greater toughness. (2) To lay out the special toughness-oriented steel plates appropriately in the ship hull structure. I n the course of construction, initial weld defects that could induce brittle cracks were removed by carrying out thorough non-destructive inspections. An application of 47 kgf/mm 2 HTSS is shown in Fig. 6 Fig. 6 Fig. 6 Fig. 6 Fig. 6. This is the hatch side coaming in the midship section of the hull, which is subject to the largest hull girder bend- ing. I ts increased strength naturally contributes to the weight reduction of the hull structure and to the lowered center of gravity especially through reducing the weight of the hull upper section, resulting in an increase in the number of containers carried. 3.3 Characteristics to stop brittle crack propagation 3.3 Characteristics to stop brittle crack propagation 3.3 Characteristics to stop brittle crack propagation 3.3 Characteristics to stop brittle crack propagation 3.3 Characteristics to stop brittle crack propagation I n the rare event that a brittle crack should occur, its propagation must be arrested. For this purpose, steel plates with high toughness are required and they must be outstandi ng i n stoppi ng bri ttl e crack propagati on (arrestability). I n this regard, we implemented a propa- gation and arrest test for brittle cracks by using a large scale structural test model that was made to simulate the actual hull structure as closely as possible. The 8,000 tonf tensile tester and the structural test model which were used for the test are shown in Fig. 7 Fig. 7 Fig. 7 Fig. 7 Fig. 7. The test model used was the largest of its kind with a height of about 2.5 m and with a distance of 7.2 m between the load pins. I n this large scale test, a defect as the fracture starting point was prepared on the upper part of the test hull and ten- sile loads equivalent to the design stress for the hull were applied in the longitudinal direction. At the same time, by keeping the temperature low and applying an impact load to the defect, brittle cracks were artificially started. These brittle cracks were propagated on the test steel plate, where the arrestability against brittle crack propa- gation was examined. Figure 8 Figure 8 Figure 8 Figure 8 Figure 8 shows the test results on the shelf plate (cruciform joint) type, while Fig. 9 Fig. 9 Fig. 9 Fig. 9 Fig. 9 shows the test results on the ultra wide duplex ESSO type sub- ject to more severe conditions. By adopting the design concept described in Section 3.2, we confirmed that brittle cracks were arrested in both tests and verified that the ability to arrest brittle cracks was obtained as planned. Fig. 5 Structural characteristics of container ship (midship section) Large hull girder stress Large opening for containers 2 . 5 m Fig. 7 Tester and test hull to measure resistance to large scale brittle crack propagation Distance between pins: 7.2m W i d t h : Brittle crack artificially started Fig. 6 Application of 47 kgf/mm 2 HTSS Applied strength member Fig. 8 Results of large scale brittle crack propagation arrest test (shelf plate) Arrest of brittle crack Running plate Test plate Mitsubishi Heavy I ndustries, Ltd. Technical Review Vol. 44 No. 3 (Sep. 2007) 4 4. Welding 4. Welding 4. Welding 4. Welding 4. Welding 4.1 Welding process 4.1 Welding process 4.1 Welding process 4.1 Welding process 4.1 Welding process The tandem-electrode VEGA (vibratory electro-gas arc welding) process was adopted for the vertical butt weld- ing of the 47 kgf/mm 2 HTSS plate. The tandem-electrode VEGA welding process was developed jointly by Nippon Steel Wel di ng Products & Engi neeri ng Co., Ltd. (the present Ni ppon Steel & Sumi ki n Wel di ng Co., Ltd.), Nippon Steel Corp., and MHI . As shown in Fig. 10 Fig. 10 Fig. 10 Fig. 10 Fig. 10, this welding process uses two welding electrodes arranged in parallel to the plate which are automatically raised while being oscillated across the weld. A sliding copper shoe with a shielding gas supply port is mounted on the front face of the groove and there is a ceramic backing pl ate on the rear face of the groove. As thi s wel di ng process obtained satisfactory results in the actual weld- ing of 40 kgf/mm 2 HTSS with plate thickness of 65 mm or less, we adopted this welding process also for the 47 kgf/mm 2 HTSS. As shown in Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Fig. 11 11 11, the tandem-electrode VEGA pro- cess welding speed is about twice that of the conventional single-electrode welding process and reduces the weld- ing heat input to 85 to 90% of that of single-electrode welding. Because of these, improvements in welding ef- ficiency and prevention of a drop in toughness of the weld heat-affected zone (HAZ) were attai ned. Al so for the welding material, welding wire (EG-47T) that optimizes the matching of strength between the weld metal and the base metal, described in Section 4.2, was developed and used in the actual ship construction. 4.2 Welded section characteristic 4.2 Welded section characteristic 4.2 Welded section characteristic 4.2 Welded section characteristic 4.2 Welded section characteristic The fracture toughness (Kc) of welded joints of extra- thi ck, hi gh-strength steel pl ates i s affected by the matching of strength (hardness) between weld metal and the base metal. Figure 12 Figure 12 Figure 12 Figure 12 Figure 12 shows the relation between the experimen- t al val ue r esul t (K c (-20 o C)) t aken f r om t he center-notched wide-plate tensile test in which a notch is prepared on the fusion line of the welded joint (width 400 mm, notch length 240 mm, test temperature -20 o C) and the Kc value at -20 o C estimated from the results of a Charpy impact test of the fusion line section. Fig. 9 Results of large scale brittle crack propagation arrest test (ultra wide duplex ESSO test) Brittle crack Running plate Test plate Gas cutting after test Arrest of crack propagation Brittle crack Arrest of crack propagation Oscillatory direction Molten pool Arc Welding direction Backing material 1st electrode 2nd electrode 1st electrode Shielding gas Sliding copper shoe Cooling water Weld metal 2nd electrode Fig. 10 Schematic drawing of tandem-electrode VEGA welding method 8 6 4 2 0 40 50 60 70 80 Fig. 11 Relation between welding speed and plate thickness W e l d i n g
s p e e d
v
( m m / m i n )
Tandem electrodes Single electrode Plate thickness t (mm) 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 Fig. 12 Relation between matching of weld metal-to-base metal hardness and fracture toughness value K c
( - 2 0 o C )
e x p e r i m e n t a l
v a l u e
( N / m m 1 . 5 ) Kc ( - 20 o C) estimated value (N/mm 1.5 ) : <1.15 :1.15 <1.20 : >1.20 Mitsubishi Heavy I ndustries, Ltd. Technical Review Vol. 44 No. 3 (Sep. 2007) 5 I n Fi g. 12, the data i s cl assi fi ed based on the rati o ( = HV(WM)/HV(BM)) of the wel d metal hardness (HV(WM)) and the base metal hardness (HV(BM)) of the welded joint to be tested. I t was indicated that, in some data groups where exceeded 1.2, the experi mental values did not correspond to the estimated values (the experimental values are obviously lower than the esti- mated val ues.) Thi s suggests a possi bi l i ty that the fracture toughness may have been dropped in some cases even i f the notch toughness l evel s expressed i n the Charpy impact test are the same and, therefore, there is a danger of judgi ng the toughness of wel ded joi nts of extra-thick, high-strength steel plates based on the re- sults of the Charpy impact tests alone. I n order to ensure the quality of the welded joints match- ing the strength (hardness) between the welding metal and the base metal is essential, as described above. I n consid- eration of the effect of strength matching on fracture toughness, we developed the tandem-electrode VEGA weld- ing wire (EG-47T) which was mentioned in Section 4.1. Figure 13 Figure 13 Figure 13 Figure 13 Figure 13 shows an example of the results of a 2 mm V-notch Charpy impact test of a 47 kg/mm 2 HTSS tan- dem-el ectrode VEGA wel ded j oi nt usi ng the newl y devel oped wi re (EG-47T). The mean val ue of the ab- sorbed energy at -20 o C (vE (-20 o C)) is above 100 J in all the notch positions. I t also indicates outstanding Charpy impact properties. Further, a center-notched wide-plate tensile test of the welded joint was conducted and suffi- cient fracture toughness was confirmed. Figure 14 Figure 14 Figure 14 Figure 14 Figure 14 shows the results of a maximum hardness test (J I SZ3101) in the heat-affected welding zone (HAZ) which was conducted to assess the cold cracking proper- ties of HAZ. The results show that the HAZ maximum hardness of the 47 kg/mm 2 HTSS is below the hardness level (400 HV) defined by the J SQS (1) at which cold crack- ing is prevented, indicating it has sufficient capability to prevent cold cracking. This confirms that the cold crack- ing performance of 47 kg/mm 2 HTSS is equivalent or superior to that of the conventional shipbuilding steel plates and ensures sufficient reliability to prevent the occurrence of cold cracking defects during manufacturing. 5. Conclusion 5. Conclusion 5. Conclusion 5. Conclusion 5. Conclusion MHI has developed the world's first 47 kg/mm 2 HTSS by responding to the trend toward larger container ships and used it on an actual ship. I ts major characteristics are as follows. (1) Through a combination of reduced thickness realized by increased strength and the improved toughness of the steel material, the brittle crack performance level has been increased and the reliability of the ship hull has been improved. (2) Due to the reduced weight realized by the increased strength of the steel , cargo tonnage has been i n- creased, thus contri buti ng to the i mprovement of propulsive performance and fuel consumption. (3) As described above, we have been able to supply a product which helps improve both safety and envi- r onmental fr i endl i ness by r espondi ng to our customers' needs. The 47 kg/mm 2 HTSS is not just a high strength steel. I t can both reduce the weight and improve the reliabil- ity of ship hulls when used in an appropriate design. This approach, we believe, will eventually become the global standard in the development and construction of mega container ships for the future. Reference Reference Reference Reference Reference (1) J apan Shipbuilding Quality Standard (J SQS) (1985) 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Weld Metal Fusion Line HAZ 1mm HAZ 3mm HAZ 5mm Fig. 13 Results of Chalpy impact test A b s o r b e d
e n e r g y
v E
( - 2 0 o C )
( J ) Notch position 360 340 320 300 280 260 240 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Fig. 14 Results of HAZ maximum hardness test H A Z
m a x i m u m
h a r d n e s s
( H V ) Low hydrogen type electrode (4 mm ) Heat input 1.7 kJ/mm Weld bead length (mm) Kazuhiro Hirota Takashi Nakagawa Shingen Takeda Yoshimi Hashi Masuo Tada
A Short Guide to the Types and Details of Constructing a Suspension Bridge - Including Various Arrangements of Suspension Spans, Methods of Vertical Stiffening and Wire Cables Versus Eyebar Chains