O u t s i d e o f l i f e : t rad i t i o ns o f i nf ant

b u ri al i n I re l and f ro m ci l l i n t o ci s t
Nyre e Fi nl ay
Ab s t ract
The i nf ant f o rm s an am b i gu o u s cl as s o f i nd i vi d u al , l o cat e d o n t he pe ri phe ry o f no rm al l i f e cycl e
e ve nt s . Thi s i s o f t e n re f l e ct e d i n t he charact e r and cho i ce o f b u ri al l o cat i o n. Du ri ng t he Hi s t o ri c
pe ri o d i n I re l and t he s e parat e b u ri al o f u nb apt i s e d i nf ant s re u s e d e arl i e r m o nu m e nt s , part i cu l arl y
t ho s e wi t h Earl y Chri s t i an as s o ci at i o ns . The s e ci l l i ni (chi l d re n's b u ri al gro u nd s ) we re f re qu e nt l y
s i t u at e d i n m argi nal l o cat i o ns and t he i r i d e nt i f i cat i o n wi t h t he ho s t s i t e o f t e n e nhance d t he i r
am b i gu o u s and l i m i nal charact e r. A re vi e w o f t he pre hi s t o ri c e vi d e nce al s o s u gge s t s t he d i f f e re n-
t i al t re at m e nt o f i nf ant s d u ri ng t he Ne o l i t hi c-Earl y Bro nze Age , i n part i cu l ar t he l o cat i o n o f i nf ant
b u ri al s i n t he pas s age s o f t wo l at e r Ne o l i t hi c s i t e s at Fo u rkno cks , Co . Me at h. The re u s e o f e arl i e r
m e gal i t hs f o r i nf ant b u ri al s m ay re f l e ct t he re i nve nt i o n o f t he s e s i t e s i n t he co nt e m po rary m yt ho -
l o gi cal l and s cape at a l at t e r s t age i n t he i r o wn m o nu m e nt al l i f e cycl e .
Ke ywo rd s
I re l and ; i nf ant ; s e parat e b u ri al ; ci l l f n; Fo u rkno cks ; re u s e o f m e gal i t hs .
i n an u nke m pt s pace o f d ank, cl i ngi ng gras s , wi t h s t o ne s s cat t e re d o ve r i t he re and t he re .
The re he s ai d , t he i s l and e rs had b e e n accu s t o m e d t o b u ry s u i ci d e s and u nb apt i ze d chi l -
d re n; a s ad as s o ci at i o n, I t ho u ght , o f t ho s e who had kno wn no t hi ng and t ho s e who had
kno wn t o o m u ch o f l i f e .
(Fl o we r 1985 (1944): 85, 86)
I nt ro d u ct i o n
As a re s u l t o f ge nd e r archae o l o gy, t he re has b e e n a f o cu s o n d e f i ni t i o ns o f t he chi l d and
a ge ne ral co nce rn wi t h e l ab o rat i ng e l e m e nt s o f t he l i f e cycl e (e .g. Li l l e ham m e r 1989;
De re ve ns ki 1997; Re ga 1997). Ce nt ral t o t hi s has b e e n t he ackno wl e d ge m e nt t hat age as
we l l as ge nd e r has a cru ci al part i n t he s o ci al co ns t ru ct i o n o f d i f f e re nce . I nt e re s t i n t he
i nf ant as a s e parat e cat e go ry o f anal ys i s has f o l l o we d ; i n part i cu l ar, t he re has b e e n an
e m phas i s o n t he i d e nt i f i cat i o n o f i nf ant i ci d e and t he i nt e rpre t at i o n o f i nf ant b u ri al s (Sco t t
Wo rl d Archae o l o gy Vo l . 31(3): 407-422 Hu m an Li f e cycl e s
(C 2000 Tayl o r & Franci s Lt d 0043-8243
This content downloaded from 136.206.1.12 on Tue, 3 Jun 2014 15:30:57 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
408 Nyre e Fi nl ay
1992). To d at e , i n Bri t ai n, d i s cu s s i o n has b e e n f o cu s e d pri m ari l y o n Ro m an e vi d e nce
(e ~g.
Le e 1994; Mays 1993; Sco t t 1990; Wat t s 1989). The re i s , ho we ve r, a b ro ad e r co rpu s o f
m at e ri al t hat can b e u s e d t o e xpl o re t he t re at m e nt o f t he i nf ant i n d e at h and m o re s pe ci f i c-
al l y i t s l i m i nal pl ace i n t he l i f e cycl e .
Thi s pape r i s co nce rne d wi t h t he re l at i o ns hi p b e t we e n t he cat e go ry o f i nf ant and t he
cho i ce o f b u ri al l o cat i o n, and whe t he r co nne ct i o ns can b e m ad e b e t we e n t he hu m an l i f e -
cycl e and t ho s e o f b u ri al s i t e s and t he i r m e ani ng i n t he co nt e m po rary l and s cape . Two cas e
s t u d i e s d rawn f ro m t he hi s t o ri c pe ri o d and t he Ne o l i t hi c-Bro nze Age l o cat e d i s cu s s i o n b y
f o cu s i ng o n t he e vi d e nce f o r t he d i f f e re nt i al t re at m e nt o f t he i nf ant .
The o pe ni ng qu o t e i s t ake n f ro m a d e s cri pt i o n o f t he b u ri al o f a s t i l l b o rn o n Gre at
Bl as ke t I s l and o f f t he we s t co as t o f I re l and d u ri ng t he 1940s . I t s e rve s t o e ncaps u l at e t he
am b i gu o u s cat e go ry o f t he d e ad i nf ant . De vi at i ng f ro m no rm al l i f e -co u rs e e ve nt s t he
t re at m e nt o f t he i nf ant i n d e at h o f t e n m i rro rs t hat o f o t he r cat e go ri e s o f i nd i vi d u al s who
are e xcl u d e d f ro m t he u s u al pat t e rn o f m o rt u ary t re at m e nt and co rps e d i s po s al . He nce
t he u s e o f t he s am e l o cat i o n f o r i nf ant s and s u i ci d e s . By f o cu s i ng o n i nf ant s as o ne po t e n-
t i al cat e go ry o f 'o t he r', I s hal l argu e t hat t he l i m i nal charact e r o f t ho s e o u t s i d e o f
t rad i t i o nal ri t e s o f pas s age i s re f l e ct e d i n b u ri al pract i ce s and t hat t hi s t e nd s t o re i nf o rce
t he i r m argi nal s t at u s . The i nf ant i s pe rhaps t he m o s t acce s s i b l e o f s u ch am b i val e nt i nd i -
vi d u al s , whi ch m ake s t he m an i d e al s u b je ct t o b e gi n t o i d e nt i f y d i f f e re nt i al t re at m e nt and
i t s b ro ad e r l and s cape d i m e ns i o ns .
I re l and has a l o ng t rad i t i o n o f s e parat e b u ri al f o r u nb apt i s e d chi l d re n. The
hi s t o ri c,
f o l kl o re and archae o l o gi cal d i m e ns i o ns o f t he i r d i f f e re nt i al t re at m e nt m ake s f o r i nt e re s t -
i ng re ad i ng and i s a val i d s u b je ct o f e nqu i ry i n i t s o wn ri ght . Mo re o ve r, an e xam i nat i o n
o f t he charact e r o f t he s e s i t e s can i nf o rm o u r u nd e rs t and i ng o f t he pre hi s t o ri c re co rd . I
s hal l argu e t hat t he re are val i d paral l e l s t hat can b e d rawn i n re l at i o n t o t he pre hi s t o ri c
re u s e o f e xi s t i ng m o nu m e nt s , and a s i m i l ar pat t e rn i n t he hi s t o ri c u s e o f s u ch s i t e s f o r t he
b u ri al o f chi l d re n. Bo t h appe ar t o s hare a co nce rn wi t h t he t re at m e nt o f t ho s e f o r who m
t he ri t e s o f pas s age d i f f e r f ro m co nve nt i o nal t re at m e nt i n d e at h and t hi s i s re f l e ct e d i n
t e rm s o f t he re u s e and appro pri at i o n o f s i t e s as a pl ace o f b u ri al . What f o l l o ws i s b y no
m e ans a d e f i ni t i ve s t at e m e nt o n t rad i t i o ns o f i nf ant b u ri al ; rat he r, t hi s i s ve ry m u ch a
pre l i m i nary e ngage m e nt wi t h t he s u b je ct . The m ai n pu rpo s e i s t o d raw at t e nt i o n t o t he
po t e nt i al o f l o o ki ng at t he t re at m e nt o f d i f f e re nt cat e go ri e s o f i nd i vi d u al i n t e rm s o f t he
l i f e cycl e s o f b o t h pe o pl e and s i t e s .
Trad i t i o ns o f s e parat e b u ri al
The pro vi s i o n o f s e parat e b u ri al gro u nd s f o r u nb apt i s e d i nf ant s and chi l d re n was we l l
e s t ab l i s he d i n I re l and f ro m t he m e d i e val pe ri o d o nward s , and co nt i nu e d i n s o m e are as
we l l i nt o t hi s ce nt u ry and re ce nt m e m o ry. The u nb apt i s e d chi l d was no t e l i gi b l e f o r b u ri al
wi t hi n t he co ns e crat e d gro u nd o f t he chu rchyard and as a re s u l t a nu m b e r o f al t e rnat i ve
b u ri al l o cal i t i e s d e ve l o pe d t o cat e r f o r t hi s gro u p o f am b i gu o u s b o d i e s . Acco rd i ng t o
Ro m an Cat ho l i c b e l i e f s , t he s e i nf ant s we re d e s t i ne d t o s pe nd pe rpe t u i t y i n l i m b o , and t he
l i m i nal s t at e o f t he i nf ant s o u l was m i rro re d i n t he s pi ri t u al l y m argi nal l o cat i o n o f t he i r
b u ri al . Se parat e b u ri al gro u nd s f o r chi l d re n are kno wn i n I ri s h b y a nu m b e r o f nam e s
-
This content downloaded from 136.206.1.12 on Tue, 3 Jun 2014 15:30:57 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
O u t s i d e o f l i f e : t rad i t i o ns o f i nf ant b u ri al i n I re l and f ro m ci l l i f n t o ci s t 409
ci l l i n/ki l l e e n, cal l u ragh, ce al l u 'nach. Ul t i m at e l y, t he s e d e ri ve f ro m t he Lat i n Ce l i a - l i t t l e
chu rch o r o rat o ry; t he nam e l i s he e n i s al s o u s e d and re f l e ct s t he pre s e nce o f t he s e s i t e s i n
ri ngf o rt s (O Su 'i l l e ab hai i n 1939; O 'Su l l i van and She e han 1996). Chi l d re n's b u ri al gro u nd s
are m arke d o n t he f i rs t e d i t i o n O rd nance Su rve y m aps o f I re l and , d at i ng f ro m t he m i d -
ni ne t e e nt h ce nt u ry, and s i t e s can b e i d e nt i f i e d f ro m t he i r pl ace -nam e e l e m e nt s , as we l l as
f ro m t he vi s i b l e archae o l o gi cal re m ai ns o f s m al l grave m arke rs .
The t rad i t i o n o f s e parat e b u ri al was e xt e nd e d t o o t he r cat e go ri e s o f i nd i vi d u al , e s pe ci -
al l y t ho s e who d e vi at e d f ro m t he no rm , e i t he r b y vi rt u e o f t he i r d i f f e re nt l i f e hi s t o ry o r,
m o re f re qu e nt l y, b y t he nat u re o f t he i r d e at h. Cat e go ri e s o f i nd i vi d u al f o r who m s e parat e
b u ri al wo u l d b e appro pri at e i ncl u d e s t i l l b i rt hs , cas e s o f s u i ci d e s u ch as t hat re f e re nce d i n
t he o pe ni ng qu o t at i o n, s hi pwre cke d s ai l o rs , u nre pe nt ant m u rd e re rs and t he i r vi ct i m s ,
s t range rs and t ho s e wi t h d i f f e re nt re l i gi o u s b e l i e f s (Fanni ng and She e han 1983). The
m e nt al l y i l l and t ho s e d yi ng f ro m f am i ne o r co nt agi o u s d i s e as e we re o f t e n t re at e d d i f f e r-
e nt l y i n d e at h. The s e parat e b u ri al o f wo m e n, whi l e i d e nt i f i e d i n pl ace -nam e e vi d e nce , i s
no t f re qu e nt l y re co rd e d and wo u l d appe ar t o re l at e pri m ari l y t o s i ngl e -s e x re l i gi o u s o rd e rs
i n t he e arl y I ri s h chu rch (Ham l i n and Fo l e y 1983).
Unt i l re ce nt l y, ci l l i ni have b e e n a ne gl e ct e d co m po ne nt o f t he archae o l o gi cal re co rd ,
wi t h t he d e po s i t s at m any s i t e s b e i ng b u l l d o ze d o r re m o ve d d u ri ng l and cl e arance wi t ho u t
d e t ai l e d archae o l o gi cal e xcavat i o n. Du e t o t he co nt i nu e d u s e o f s o m e o f t he s e s i t e s u p
i nt o t he 1960s , t he e xcavat i o n and e xam i nat i o n o f i nf ant b u ri al s i s o f t e n a s e ns i t i ve s u b je ct .
To d at e , ci l l i n d e po s i t s have pri m ari l y b e e n e xam i ne d as a re s u l t o f e xcavat i o n f o cu s e d o n
e arl i e r m o nu m e nt s (Fanni ng 1981; She e han 1994; Whi t e Mars hal l and Wal s h 1998).
Se ve ral re ce nt s t u d i e s have b e gu n t o re ve al t he co ns i d e rab l e re s e arch po t e nt i al o f l o o ki ng
at t he s e s i t e s i n t he i r o wn ri ght (Cro m b i e 1988; De nne hy 1997; Lynch 1998).
I t i s i m po s s i b l e t o e s t i m at e t he o ri gi nal d e ns i t y o f ci l l i ni , as i t i s t o e s t ab l i s h t he d e t ai l e d
chro no l o gy o f t he i r u s e . Cart o graphi c e vi d e nce can b e u s e d t o d o cu m e nt t he changi ng
co nf i gu rat i o n o f re co rd e d s i t e s and pat t e rns o f t he i r ab and o nm e nt d u ri ng t he l as t ce nt u ry
(s e e Fi g. 1). Re ce nt re s e arch b y Em e r De nne hy i n Co . Ke rry has d e m o ns t rat e d t he po t e n-
t i al o f t hi s : s he s u gge s t s t hat d u ri ng t he 1840s t he re we re pro b ab l y s e ve ral wi t hi n e ach
pari s h, al t ho u gh i t i s d e b at ab l e whe t he r t hi s appro ache d an o ri gi nal d e ns i t y o f o ne pe r
t o wnl and .1 Mo s t s i t e s we re as s o ci at e d wi t h s o m e f o rm o f t e rri t o ri al b o u nd ary, b e i t a f i e l d
wal l , co rne r o r are a o f m argi nal l and (De nne hy 1997). A s i m i l ar pat t e rn was no t e d f o r Co .
Gal way, whe re m o s t we re l o cat e d cl o s e t o t o wnl and b o u nd ari e s (Cro m b i e 1988). Many
ci l l t ni are l o cat e d o n m argi nal l and at u ne ncl o s e d rai s e d o u t cro ps , whi l e o t he rs are t o b e
f o u nd at ab and o ne d chu rch s i t e s , e arl y e ccl e s i as t i cal e ncl o s u re s as we l l as s e ve ral o t he r
cat e go ri e s o f re u s e d m o nu m e nt s . De nne hy i d e nt i f i e d no co ns i s t e nt pat t e rni ng i n re l at i o n
t o t he s hape , s i ze and o ri e nt at i o n o f s i t e s i n Co . Ke rry. Thi s was l arge l y a pro d u ct o f t he
re u s e o f e xi s t i ng s i t e s whi ch d e t e rm i ne d t he phys i cal charact e r o f t he ci l l i l . The ci l l i ni d o
t e nd t o cl u s t e r wi t hi n d i s cre t e l y d e f i ne d are as , part i cu l arl y wi t hi n l arge r e ncl o s e d s i t e s
s u ch as ri ngf o rt s . Grave m arke rs are a co m m o n e l e m e nt ; whe n pre s e nt , t he s e co m pri s e
ro ws o f ro u gh s t o ne m arke rs , c.0.2 m i n he i ght , o f t e n o ri e nt at e d i n a no rt h-s o u t h d i re c-
t i o n (s e e Pl at e 1). Wat e rwo rn pe b b l e s , part i cu l arl y o f qu art z, are al s o a co m m o n f e at u re
(O 'Su l l i van and She e han, 1996).
The l i m i t e d e xcavat i o n o f ci l l i ni has re ve al e d e vi d e nce f o r t he u s e o f s t o ne -l i ne d grave s
as we l l as t i m b e r co f f i ns (Cro m b i e 1988; She e han 1994). At I l au nl o u ghan, an i s l and s i t e ,
This content downloaded from 136.206.1.12 on Tue, 3 Jun 2014 15:30:57 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
410 Nyre e Fi nl ay
Fi gu re
]
Bal l yb o wl e r So u t h Td . (Co . Ke rry).
Exam pl e
o f t he l o cat i o n o f d i s u s e d chi l d re n's
b u ri al
gro u nd s
m arke d o n t he s e co nd e d i t i o n
nap (1894-8,
s he e t
43).
Ext ract f ro m
O rd nance
Su rve y
6 I nch
Su rve y
C
(1894-8),
Pe rm i t No . MP003099.
i nf ant co f f i ns we re m ad e f ro m Sco t s Pi ne
(Whi t e
Mars hal l and Wal s h
1998).
Po o r b o ne
pre s e rvat i o n
and t he l ack o f
grave go o d s
m ake s
d at i ng pro b l e m at i c.
The
s t rat i graphy
at
t he e xcavat e d s i t e s
u s u al l y
o f f e rs l i t t l e
b e yo nd
t he t e nt at i ve
phas i ng
o f
d e po s i t s
and cru d e
e s t i m at e s f o r t he nu m b e r o f b u ri al s , f o r b o ne
pre s e rvat i o n
i s
po o r
and no t al l
grave s
are
d e no t e d
b y
m arke rs . Excavat i o ns at t he
e arl y
e ccl e s i as t i cal e ncl o s u re at Re as k, o n t he
Di ngl e pe ni ns u l a,
f o u nd t hat
o nl y
a d i s cre t e are a b e s i d e t he
o ri gi nal o rat o ry
was u s e d f o r
chi l d re n's b u ri al s , t he re s t
b e i ng
u s e d f o r
t i l l age (Fanni ng 1981). He re , s m al l , ro u gh,
ci s t -
b u i l t
grave s (0.5
m
b y
0.3
m )
we re
pre s e nt .
No b o ne s u rvi ve d ; t he
o nl y grave go o d s re co v-
e re d we re a s m al l
ant hro po m o rphi c
s t o ne
f i gu ri ne
and a s e ri e s o f f l at
pu i rt hi ni ' s t o ne s ,
s i m i l ar t o
jacks t o ne s
u s e d i n a
t hro wi ng gam e .
Excavat i o n has co nf i rm e d f o l kl o re t rad i t i o ns t hat s u ch s i t e s we re al s o u s e d f o r o t he r
t ype s
o f i nd i vi d u al s . Chi l d re n
u p
t o t he
age
o f 6 have b e e n re co ve re d f ro m e xcavat i o ns at
Cahe rl e hi l l an, Co .
Ke rry (She e han pe rs co m m .)
and ad u l t s have al s o b e e n f o u nd , f o r
e xam pl e
at
Au ghi ni s h Cas t l e , Co . Li m e ri ck
(Lynch 1998).
At t he l at t e r, t he u s e o f an ab an-
cl o ne d t o we r ho u s e o n an i s l and
s u gge s t s
t hat t he s e i nd i vi d u al s
m ay
al s o
b e l o ng
t o a
d e vi ant
cat e go ry
o r we re t he vi ct i m s o f f am i ne
(Lynch i b i d .).
I n
ge ne ral
we m u s t b e
cau t i o u s i n
as cri b i ng
al l t he ad u l t s f o u nd at ci l l i 'ni t o a d e vi ant s t at u s o f 'o t he r'
m e re l y b y
as s o ci at i o n. Mo s t o f t he s i t e s have a
pro t ract e d hi s t o ry
whi ch o f t e n m ake s
e s t ab l i s hi ng
t he
phas i ng
o f
d e po s i t s
d i f f i cu l t .
Many
are l o cat e d i n f o rm e r chu rch s i t e s whe re t he
o ri gi nal
ct o t h
e
ad u t b a m have b s w d I
This content downloaded from 136.206.1.12 on Tue, 3 Jun 2014 15:30:57 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
O u t s i d e o f l i f e : t rad i t i o ns o f i nf ant b u ri al i n I re l and f ro m ci l l i n t o ci s t 411
'
: ? N;X.,.. ... ;i u t ; ?} : ' '
.. ...............
.
.............. ...........: ;: H
*: : .: : !: : .: : i : .. ........,.: : ;x ^ : .: ?e 8 : : : e : : ^ ?i Af t f f i 9. 0: . Am .MBW XY..: .;: !..: ; : : : i ': : ': : : 8'@': : : : : *^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. .........
4A: :
Pl at e 1
Ki l d re e nagh (Co o l
Eas t Td . Co .
Ke rry),
ro ws o f
grave -m arke rs
i n t hi s chi l d re n's b u ri al
gro u nd
rad i at e o u t f ro m t he
o gham
s t o ne vi s i b l e t o t he l e f t .
(Pho t o graph co u rt e s y
o f Jo hn
She e han.)
The l o cat i o n o f s i t e s i n t he
l and s cape
and t he i r
re l at i o ns hi p
wi t h o t he r m o nu m e nt
t ype s
i s t he m ai n f e at u re o f i nt e re s t he re . Ci l l i 'ni d i vi d e i nt o t hre e b ro ad
cat e go ri e s :
t ho s e wi t h
no kno wn as s o ci at i o ns wi t h e arl i e r m o nu m e nt s ; a s e co nd cl as s wi t hi n ab and o ne d
chu rche s , i ncl u d i ng
s i t e s as s o ci at e d wi t h
e arl y
e ccl e s i as t i cal m o nu m e nt s o r o t he r
re l i gi o u s
f e at u re s s u ch as
ho l y we l l s , cro s s s l ab s and l e acht a
(s hri ne s ); f i nal l y,
t he re are t he s i t e s wi t h
o t he r m o nu m e nt as s o ci at i o ns s u ch as
m e gal i t hs , f u l acht f i ad h (b u rnt m o u nd s ), ri ngf o rt s
and t o we r ho u s e s .
Li t t l e i s kno wn o f t he f i rs t
cat e go ry
o f s i t e s as t o d at e ci l l i ni have no t b e e n
s u b je ct
t o
e xcavat i o n i n t he i r o wn
ri ght , al t ho u gh m any
o f t he s e
m ay
i nd e e d b e l o cat e d o n e arl i e r
m o nu m e nt s
(Fanni ng
and She e han
1983).
The s e co nd cl as s o f s i t e s s hare
re l i gi o u s
as s o ci -
at i o ns t hat wo u l d ad d
s anct i t y
t o t he b u ri al s
b e i ng
i nt e rre d . The l i m i nal
cat e go ri zat i o n
o f t he i nf ant s as
b e i ng b e yo nd
t he
s pi ri t u al
b o u nd ari e s o f t he chu rch i s re f l e ct e d i n t he
phys i cal pl ace m e nt
o f t he ci l l i 'n e i t he r o u t s i d e t he chu rch e ncl o s u re
-
whe n i t i s s t i l l an
act i ve m o nu m e nt
-
o r, i n m o re re ce nt t i m e s , whe n a
pl o t
f o r chi l d b u ri al i s e s t ab l i s he d
o n t he no rt h s i d e o f t he chu rch
(0 Si i i l l e ab hai i n 1939).
Mo s t s i t e s d o no t
appe ar
t o
d e ve l o p b y
vi rt u e o f t he i r
phys i cal pro xi m i t y
t o t he
co nt e m po rary chu rch, rat he r t he
ci l l Tn i s s i t u at e d o n an ab and o ne d s i t e wi t h
re l i gi o u s co nne ct i o ns , as at Re as k and I l l au n-
l o u ghan
whe re i t
d e ve l o ps
b e s i d e t he
o rat o ry
and at Cahe rl e hi l l an
(s e e
Pl at e
2).
Thi s
f act o r i s
i m po rt ant :
t he ab and o ne d and
f re qu e nt l y
s e cl u d e d o r hi d d e n s i t e , whi l e o f t e n
re t ai ni ng
a t rad i t i o n o f
s anct i t y,
i s no t an act i ve f o cu s f o r
wo rs hi p
i n t he
co nt e m po rary
ri t u al
l and s cape .
The cre at i o n o f a ci l l i n at o t he r cl as s e s o f m o nu m e nt l i ke m e gal i t hs and ri ngf o rt s can
al s o b e re l at e d t o t he f o l kl o re i d e nt i f i cat i o n o f t he s e s i t e s as
b e i ng
co nne ct e d wi t h t he
This content downloaded from 136.206.1.12 on Tue, 3 Jun 2014 15:30:57 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
412 Nyre e Fi nl ay
Pl at e 2 Cahe rl e hi l l an (Co .
_-
a*Ke rry).
The ci l l i n
grave s
cl u s t e r aro u nd t he cro s s -
s l ab s and co rne r-po s t s hri ne
i n t hi s
e arl y
e ccl e s i as t i cal
e ncl o s u re
(he i ght
o f
l arge s t
cro s s -s l ab 1.15 m ). (Pho t o -
graph co u rt e s y
o f Jo hn
She e han.)
,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~9 Z i z
o t he r wo rl d . The re i s a ri ch f o l kl o re
co nce rni ng
'd e ad chi l d ' t rad i t i o ns o f
change l i ngs
and
chi l d m u rd e re s s e s i n I re l and
(O 'Co nno r 1991).
The s e o f t e n have kno wn as s o ci at i o ns wi t h
part i cu l ar
ci l l i 'ni and o t he r s i t e
t ype s ,
f o r
e xam pl e , ri ngf o rt s
wi t h f ai ri e s . I n s u ch i ns t ance s
t he
t ype
o f m o nu m e nt i s act i ve i n
cre at i ng
and
t rans f o rm i ng
t he
m yt ho l o gi cal l and s cape
o f whi ch t he ci l l i 'n b e cam e a
part .
Su ch f o l kl o re i d e nt i f i cat i o ns have co nt ri b u t e d t o t he
s u rvi val o f s i t e s d u e t o
s u pe rs t i t i o ns s u rro u nd i ng
t he i r d e s t ru ct i o n; a s i m i l ar
pat t e rn
i s
no t e d f o r Scand i navi a
(Wi cke r 1999).
Ano t he r
as pe ct
t o co ns i d e r, i n ad d i t i o n t o t he
s pi ri t u al
o r f o l kl o re d i m e ns i o ns , i s t he
co nd i t i o n o f t he ho s t s i t e and i t s o wn
cycl e
o f u s e . I t i s
i nt e re s t i ng
t o no t e t hat t he cre at i o n
o f a ci l l i 'n m arks a l at e r re u s e o f a s i t e o nce i t has b e e n ab and o ne d o r f al l e n i nt o d i s u s e .
The ci l l i 'n
re pre s e nt s
a ne w f o cu s o f
act i vi t y
t hat i s o f t e n a d i s t i nct
d e part u re
f ro m t he
o ri g-
i nal f u nct i o n o f t he ho s t s i t e , f o r
e xam pl e
t he u s e o f
f i u l acht f i ad h
and t o we r ho u s e s as f o ci
f o r i nf ant b u ri al s . I n
m any
cas e s t he
o ri gi nal m e ani ng
and f u nct i o n o f t he s i t e wo u l d b e
part
o f f o l k t rad i t i o n, e i t he r
f o rgo t t e n
o r re wri t t e n as
part
o f t he
m yt ho l o gi cal l and s cape .
I t wo u l d
appe ar
t hat t he ho s t s i t e s we re s e l e ct e d b e cau s e o f t he i r
m argi nal
l o cat i o n i n t he
co nt e m po rary l and s cape .
The f act t hat t he s e s i t e s are t he m s e l ve s an
am b i gu o u s cat e go ry
This content downloaded from 136.206.1.12 on Tue, 3 Jun 2014 15:30:57 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
O u t s i d e o f l i f e : t rad i t i o ns o f i nf ant b u ri al i n I re l and f ro m ci l l i n t o ci s t 413
o f m o nu m e nt s m ay al s o have had m e ani ng and i s anal o go u s wi t h t he nat u re o f t he i nt e r-
m e nt s .
The pre s e nce o f a ci l l i n d o e s no t m ake t he s i t e o ne o f re ne we d o r f o cu s e d ri t u al act i v-
i t y. The charact e r o f t he s e s i t e s and t he t ype o f b u ri al d e po s i t s d o e s no t e nco u rage vi s i t a-
t i o n as an act i ve act o f re m e m b rance . Fo l kl o re e vi d e nce and t e s t i m o ny o n t he u s e o f s i t e s
co nf i rm s t he d i s cre e t nat u re o f t he b u ri al . I n re ce nt m e m o ry, t hi s was co nd u ct e d b y m al e
m e m b e rs o f t he f am i l y, u s u al l y t he f at he r, and b u ri al wo u l d t ake pl ace at ni ght wi t h l i t t l e
o r no ce re m o ny (Su gru e 1993, ci t e d i n O 'Su l l i van and She e han 1996). I n ge ne ral t he d e at h
wo u l d no t have b e e n m arke d b y a wake and t he e ve nt wo u l d have b e e n d e al t wi t h qu i ckl y
and d i s cre e t l y.
To s u m m ari ze , ci l l i ni are b o t h phys i cal l y and s pi ri t u al l y l i m i nal i n t he l and s cape . The
ab and o ne d charact e r o f t he ho s t s i t e o r i t s m argi nal l o cat i o n i s ce nt ral t o i t s re u s e as a
b u ri al gro u nd f o r i nf ant s . Thi s phys i cal l i m i nal i t y t ake s a nu m b e r o f f o rm s and t he l o ca-
t i o n and charact e r o f t he ho s t s i t e i s an i m po rt ant d e t e rm i nant , e nhanci ng t he am b i gu i t y
and o t he rne s s o f t he b u ri al s .
Pat t e rns o f i nf ant b u ri al i n t he Ne o l i t hi c and Bro nze Age
Exam i ni ng t he t rad i t i o ns o f i nf ant b u ri al i n pre hi s t o ri c I re l and i s m o re pro b l e m at i c, b e i ng
co m pl i cat e d b y t he d i ve rs i t y o f b u ri al ri t e s , i s s u e s o f chro no l o gy and o t he r archae o l o gi cal
f act o rs , nam e l y pre s e rvat i o n, re co ve ry and i d e nt i f i cat i o n. I t i s u nf o rt u nat e t hat i n m any
acco u nt s i nf ant re m ai ns are no t pro pe rl y age d . The re has al s o b e e n a t e nd e ncy t o i ncl u d e
i nf ant s wi t hi n a b ro ad e r cat e go ry o f chi l d , whi ch t e nd s t o o b s cu re po t e nt i al d i s t i nct i o ns
i n m o rt u ary t re at m e nt o n t he b as i s o f age . Mo re o ve r, t he accu racy o f t he act u al i d e nt i f i -
cat i o ns , whe re re m ai ns have b e e n re t ai ne d t o e nab l e re as s e s s m e nt , are al s o s o m e what
qu e s t i o nab l e (O Do nnab hai n and Bri nd l e y 1989/90; Po we r pe rs co m m .). Ne ve rt he l e s s ,
d e s pi t e t he s e cave at s , t he re i s s o m e e vi d e nce t o s u gge s t t he d i f f e re nt i al t re at m e nt o f
i nf ant s and t he re u s e o f e arl i e r m o nu m e nt s as a f o cu s f o r t he i r s e parat e b u ri al .
The cas e o f Fo u rkno cks
Fo u rkno cks , Co . Me at h pro vi d e s s o m e o f t he b e s t e vi d e nce f o r l o o ki ng at t he d i f f e re nt i al
t re at m e nt o f i nf ant s (s e e Fi g. 2; Hart ne t t 1957, 1971). Fo u rkno cks I co m pri s e s a s m al l l at e
Ne o l i t hi c pas s age t o m b wi t h t hre e cham b e rs and a s e ri e s o f d e co rat e d s t o ne s . The m o u nd
o f Fo u rkno cks I I , l O O m t o t he e as t , i s a m o re co m pl e x s i t e . He re a ro ck-cu t d i t ch e ncl o s e s
a m e gal i t hi c pas s age and a ro ck-cu t t re nch appare nt l y u s e d as a pyre s i t e and a ri ng d i t ch
wi t h ce nt ral cai rn (s e e Fi g. 2). Gab ri e l Co o ne y (1992) has d i s cu s s e d b o t h s i t e s i n re l at i o n
t o t he d i f f e re nt i al t re at m e nt o f ad u l t s and chi l d re n i n I ri s h Ne o l i t hi c m o rt u ary pract i ce s .
He i d e nt i f i e d t he f o l l o wi ng pat t e rn b as e d o n l i f e cycl e s t age , l o cat i o n o f t he re m ai ns and
m o d e o f d i s po s al :
chi l d re n
-
pe ri phe ral l o cat i o n -
i nhu m at i o n
ad u l t
-
ce nt ral
po s i t i o n
-
cre m at i o n
This content downloaded from 136.206.1.12 on Tue, 3 Jun 2014 15:30:57 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
414 Nyre e Fi nl ay
Fi gu re 2 Pl ans o f Fo u rkno cks I and I I , Co . Me at h (af t e r Hart ne t t t hi c 1957).
ai s t o f nt ro c ku re as
cal l y l at e phas e o f act i vi t y han m o s t f t he ad u l cre m at i o s . The prm ary b u ri l yd e po s i t
pas s age s t a o o s ri e d i nt e
t UrnBu ri al WW ae 5 1 | \
nu m b e r f e l e m e t s s u gs V ht t e ps ae d ps t e e d s u b d whi chqu e t d i o ns t h
Fo u rno ck
I
M
o rncs 11
Fi gu re
2 Pl at s o f Fo u rkno cks I and I I , Co . Me at h
(af t e r
Hart ne t t
1957).
I wo u l d l i ke t o
pro po s e
he re t hat a m o re cri t i cal re e xam i nat i o n o f t he e vi d e nce
s u gge s t
t hat t he
m ai ns t ay
o f t he i nf ant b u ri al s i s
l i ke l y
t o re f l e ct re u s e m o r at l e as t a
chro no l o gi v
cal t y
l at e r
phas e
o f
act i vi t y
t han m o s t o f t he ad u l t cre m at i o ns . The
pri m ary
b u ri al
d e po s i t s
at Fo u rkno cks I
co m pri s e
a s e ri e s o f cre m at i o n
d e po s i t s
wi t h s o m e
f ragm e nt ary
i nhu m an
t i o ns i n t he s i d e cham b e rs and t he pas s age . Al l t he b u ri al
d e po s i t s
i u t he
pas s age
we re
b e l i e ve d
b y
t he e xcavat o r t o b e
pri m aryt
whi ch wo u l d
s u ppo rt
hi s
i nt e rpre t at i o n
t hat t he
pas s age
was no t
o ri gi nal l y
ro o f e d : s e e
Lynch (1973)
f o r an al t e rnat i ve
i nt e rpre t at i o n.
A
nu m b e r o f e l e m e nt s
s u gge s t
t hat t he pas s age
d e po s i t s
we re d i s t u rb e d t whi ch
qu e s t i o ns
t he
pri m ary
s t at u s o f t he i nf ant i nhu m at i o ns . The s e wi l l t b e d e al t wi t h i n d e t ai l e l s e whe re
(Fi nl ay
i n
pre p.)s
b u t i ncl u d e :
f t he f i rs t o f t he
pas s age u pri ght s
had b e e n b ro ke n and
re .o ve d ;
2 t he b ack s t o ne o f ci s t I V was
pl ace d
i n f ro nt o f o ne o f t he s e
u pri ght s , s u gge s t i ng
t hat
t he o u t e r are a o f t he
pas s age
was d i s t u rb e d
d u ri ng
ci s t co ns t ru ct i o n;
3 Hart ne t t
(1957: 255-6)
s t at e s t hat 'f u rt he r e xcavat i o n s ho we d t hat t he ci s t
pe o pl e
had
d u g
i nt o t he
u ppe r
l e ve l s o f t he
pas s age
b u ri al s and i t was f o u nd t hat t he s t o ne s o f t he i r
ci s t re s t e d o n t he m i xe d b u rnt and u nb u rnt re m ai ns ' i .e . t he s o cal l e d
'pri m nary' d e po s i t s ;
4 Qu ant i t i e s o f ani m al b o ne
i ncl u d i ng
rab b i t /hare we re f o u nd i n t he
pas s age , s u gge s t i ng
f u rt he r d i s t u rb ance .
The
pre ci s e
l o cat i o n o f t he i nf ant s i s no t d e t ai l e d i n t he f i nal
re po rt ,
b u t m o s t we re
f o u nd i n t he
pas s age . Fu rt he rm o re , o u t o f a t o t al o f
t we nt y-o ne chi l d re n, o nl y
t hre e we re
cre m at e d . The i nhu rnat i o ns
co m pri s e d
s e vm e n
ne o nat e s ,
s i x i nf ant s i n t he i r f i rs t
ye ar,
t hre e
i n t he i r s e co nd and a chi l d o f ab o u t 5 and o ne o f i nd e t e rm i nat e
age (Fi g. 3; Hart ne t t 1957:
270).
Fo u rkno cks I was re m o d e l l e d d u ri ng t he Earl y Bro nze Age b y t he cre at i o n o f a s e co nd -
ary m ant l i ng i n t he no rt h e as t o f t he m o u nd i nco rpo rat i ng t he are a o f t he m e gal i t hi c
This content downloaded from 136.206.1.12 on Tue, 3 Jun 2014 15:30:57 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
O u t s i d e o f l i f e : t rad i t i o ns o f i nf ant b u ri al i n I re l and f ro m ci l l i n t o ci s t 415
pas s age (s e e Fi g. 2). Thi s cre at e d a f o cu s f o r f o u r s e co nd ary ci s t s , al l co nt ai ni ng chi l d re n
(s e e Tab l e 1), and , i n l i ght o f t he pre ce d i ng d i s cu s s i o n, s o m e i f no t al l o f t he pas s age b u ri al s
co u l d we l l b e l o ng t o t hi s phas e (Fi g. 3). I t i s al s o no t e wo rt hy t hat t he s i t e wo u l d have b e e n
i n a s t at e o f co l l aps e at t hi s s t age .
Hu m an b o ne was f o u nd i n s o i l d i re ct l y ab o ve ci s t I I and i n t he i nwas he d s o i l o f ci s t I I I .
Two f u rt he r chi l d i nhu m at i o ns we re pre s e nt i n co l l aps e d e po s i t s i n t he ce nt ral cham b e r.
Thi s e vi d e nce s u gge s t s t hat t he m o u nd was a f o cu s f o r o t he r b u ri al s . I t i s u nf o rt u nat e t hat
t he chro no l o gy o f t he ci s t b u ri al s and t he d e po s i t i o n o f i nf ant s i n t he pas s age i s at pre s e nt
u nkno wn. Two d i s art i cu l at e s ke l e t o ns we re f o u nd s i d e b y s i d e m i d way al o ng t he l e ngt h
o f t he pas s age , t he s ku l l s f ace d o u t ward s and b e ach pe b b l e s we re pre s e nt o n e i t he r s i d e
b e s i d e t he s ku l l s . Thi s u nu s u al d e po s i t m ay i nd i cat e t hat t he s i t e was al s o b e i ng u s e d f o r
t he d i s po s al o f o t he r 'd e vi ant ' cat e go ri e s o f i nd i vi d u al .
Fo u rkno cks I I i s an ano m al o u s m u l t i -phas e s i t e . he re t he s t rat i graphy o f t he m e gal i t hi c
pas s age i s al s o u ncl e ar (Hart ne t t 1971). Ad u l t cre m at i o ns we re co nf i ne d t o t he ro ck-cu t
7+ 4 I
5+42 L
8+~~~~: jj~~~I -~~ I nhu m at i o n
O t he r Bu ri al s Ad u l H
J2
3 C0re m at rChi d
Fo u rkno cks H
I
o
~
I
Fo u rkno cks
11
|
J U S a Jv_'~~~~~~~~
1 0cs
Fi gu re 3 De t ai l s o f t he b u ri al s at Fo u rkno cks I and I I (af t e r Hart ne t t 1957 and Co o ne y 1992).
Tab l e
]
Fo u rkno cks I : co nt e nt s o f s e co nd ary ci s t s (i nf o rm at i o n f ro m Hart ne t t 1957).
Ci s t Co nt e nt s
I cro u che d i nhu m at i o n, chi l d , e i ght ye ars , f o o d ve s s e l .
I I i nhu m at i o n o f a chi l d o f f i ve ; t hi s d i s t u rb e d a chi l d o f t wo . Fragm e nt ary re m ai ns o f
chi l d , s e ve n ye ars .
I I I cro u che d i nhu m at i o n o f a t wo ye ar o l d .
I V e m pt y, d i s t u rb e d t he pas s age d e po s i t s .
V e m pt y, d i s t u rb e d b y a l at e r cre m at i o n pi t d e po s i t .
This content downloaded from 136.206.1.12 on Tue, 3 Jun 2014 15:30:57 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
416 Nyre e Fi nl ay
t re nch. I t i s i nt e re s t i ng t o no t e t hat t he i nhu m at i o n re m ai ns o f chi l d re n o ccu r o nl y i n t he
pas s age (Fi g. 3). Al l e i ght we re u nd e r 5 ye ars ; o ne age d 4, t wo age d 1
ye ar, o ne d e f i ni t e
ne o nat e and t he re s t i nf ant s (Hart ne t t 1971: 63). The m o u nd at Fo u rkno cks I I was al s o
au gm e nt e d f o r ci s t b u ri al s , al t ho u gh he re t he e vi d e nce i s o nl y f o r ad u l t i nhu m at i o ns ,
t wo
wi t h f o o d ve s s e l s .
The re are e l e m e nt s o f t he s t rat i graphy and charact e r at b o t h s i t e s t o s u gge s t t hat t he
i nf ant re m ai ns are chro no l o gi cal l y l at e r t han t he Lat e r Ne o l i t hi c cre m at i o n d e po s i t s ,
al t ho u gh t hi s re m ai ns t o b e pro ve n b y rad i o carb o n d at i ng. Gi ve n t he s t rat i graphi c
e vi d e nce at Fo u rkno cks I t hi s i s l i ke l y t o re l at e t o t he Earl y Bro nze Age re wo rki ng o f t he
s i t e as a s e parat e b u ri al l o cat i o n f o r chi l d re n and s pe ci f i cal l y i nf ant s . I t i s i nt e re s t i ng t hat
o nl y t he chi l d o f 8 has a ve s s e l , whi ch m ay i nd i cat e age -b as e d d i s t i nct i o ns . The gre at e r
vi s i b i l i t y and l arge r s i ze o f t he m o u nd at Fo u rkno cks I [ m ay have l e d t o i t s s e l e ct i o n f o r
ad u l t b u ri al . Thu s , t he t wi nni ng o f t he t wo s i t e s i n t he Ne o l i t hi c (Co o ne y 1997) m ay have
had an e qu al l y i m po rt ant i f d i s t i nct charact e r i n t he Earl y Bro nze Age . The i d e nt i f i cat i o n
o f t he s i t e s wi t h chi l d re n m ay have co nt i nu e d i n f o l k t rad i t i o n, f o r a s e co nd ary u rn b u ri al
at t he ne arb y b arro w o f Fo u rkno cks I I I co nt ai ne d t he cre m at e d re m ai ns o f a yo u ng chi l d
(Hart ne t t 1971).
The e vi d e nce f ro m o t he r m e gal i t hs
Unf o rt u nat e l y, t he e xt e nt o f i nf ant b u ri al s at o t he r m e gal i t hi c s i t e s re m ai ns u nkno wn,
l arge l y as a re s u l t o f pre s e rvat i o nal and e xcavat i o n b i as . At Carro wke e l , f o r e xam pl e , f rag-
m e nt s o f f o e t al and i nf ant b o ne s we re f o u nd i n al l t he cai rns o pe ne d b y Macal i s t e r e t al .
(1912: 342). Whi l e t he s e we re re po rt e d l y f e w i n nu m b e r, t he re i s no m e ans o f d e t e rm i ni ng
whe t he r t he s e we re l at e r i ns e rt i o ns . Li ke wi s e , t he re i s l i t t l e i nf o rm at i o n o n whe t he r t he
i nf ant s f o u nd at t he Lo u gh Gu r m e gal i t h (Co . Li m e ri ck) we re f o u nd i n t he m ai n cham b e r
o r o u t s i d e o f t he t o m b (O Ri f o rd ai n and 0 h-I ce ad ha 1955). The i nf ant as s o ci at e d wi t h f o u r
o t he r i nhu m at i o ns and a f o o d ve s s e l at Au d l e ys t o wn (Co . Do wn) i s s u gge s t i ve o f a b ro nze
age b u ri al (Co l l i ns 1954). I nd e e d , at Lab b acal l e e we d ge t o m b (Co . Co rk) t he pre s e nce o f
a ne o nat e cl avi cl e i n t he cham b e r i s d i s m i s s e d as 't he b u ri al o f s o m e u nb apt i s e d b ab y at a
m u ch l at e r d at e ' (Mart i n i n Le as k and Pri ce 1936: 97). Unf o rt u nat e l y, t he cu rre nt ab s e nce
o f ab s o l u t e d at e s l i m i t s t he i nf e re nce s t hat can b e m ad e .
Ho we ve r9
t he pre s e nce o f a
ne o nat e i n t he po rt i co o f Po u l nab ro ne po rt al t o m b (Co . Cl are ) i s a d at e d e xam pl e o f t he
l at e r u s e o f a m e gal i t hi c t o m b f o r t he d i s po s al o f i nf ant s . He re , a co m pl e t e ne o nat e d at e s
t o t he Bro nze Age (3,290 ? 80BP O xA-1904) i n co nt ras t t o t he d i s art i cu l at e d Ne o l i t hi c
s ke l e t o ns f ro m t he cham b e r whi ch al s o i ncl u d e t wo i nf ant s (Lynch and 0 Do nnab ha'i n
1994: 6; He d ge s e t al . 1990: 106).
The e vi d e nce f ro m Ne o l i t hi c O rkne y i s m o re co ncl u s i ve . Jo hn Barb e r (1997) has
d i s cu s s e d t he l at e r b u ri al o f ne o nat e s at t he Po i nt o f Co t t , a cham b e re d t o m b o n We s t ray.
He re f o u r ne o nat e s are am o ng t he l at e s t b u ri al s at t he s i t e and are co nce nt rat e d i n t he
f i rs t t wo co m part m e nt s . Two f u rt he r s e parat e b u ri al s o f ne o nat e s i n t he cai rn m at ri x
o ccu rre d at a t i m e whe n t he m o nu m e nt was i n an ad vance d s t at e o f d e cay and co l l aps e .
I t has b e e n s u gge s t e d t hat t he u s e o f t hi s s o m e what d e re l i ct s i t e f o r t he d i s po s al o f
ne o nat e s m ay i nd i cat e t hat s o m e o f t he s e i nf ant s are , i n f act , i nf ant i ci d e vi ct i m s and t hat
s u ch s i t e s we re u s e d f o r t he b u ri al o f a s pe ci f i c cat e go ry o f 'u nwant e d d e ad ' (Barb e r 1997:
This content downloaded from 136.206.1.12 on Tue, 3 Jun 2014 15:30:57 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
O u t s i d e o f l i f e : t rad i t i o ns o f i nf ant b u ri al i n I re l and f ro m ci l l i n t o ci s t 417
70; Barb e r and Fi nl ay nd .). Ne o nat e and i nf ant re m ai ns we re al s o re co ve re d f ro m t he
m e gal i t hi c t o m b s o f I s b i s t e r (He d ge s 1983) and Qu ant e rne s s (Re nf re w 1979). At I s b i s t e r,
f i ve o f t he t we nt y-t wo i nf ant s are ne o nat e s , whi l e t e n i nf ant s we re f o u nd at Qu ant e rne s s .
I n b o t h cas e s t he s e re m ai ns we re re co ve re d f ro m d e po s i t s i n t he cham b e r t hat had b e e n
s u b je ct t o co ns i d e rab l e b i o t u rb at i o n and l at e r ani m al d i s t u rb ance . A ne o nat e was al s o
f o u nd i n t he pas s age at Tu l l o ch o f As s e ry B, Cai t hne s s (Davi d s o n and He ns hal l 1991: 162)
and i nf ant re m ai ns are o f t e n f o u nd i n s e co nd ary co nt e xt s at o t he r t o m b s , e .g. We s t
Ke nne t t (Tho m as and Whi t t l e 1986).
I n al l t he ab o ve cas e s i t wo u l d appe ar o n s t rat i graphi c gro u nd s at l e as t t hat t he re i s
val u e i n co ns i d e ri ng m any o f t he s e i nf ant b u ri al s as s e co nd ary d e po s i t s . Thi s s u gge s t s t hat
e arl i e r m o nu m e nt s we re a f o cu s f o r t he d i s po s al o f i nf ant s , part i cu l arl y t o ward s t he l at t e r
part o f t he i r o wn l i f e cycl e o f u s e . I t i s u nf o rt u nat e t hat i nf ant re m ai ns are rare l y
co ns i d e re d f o r rad i o carb o n d at i ng, s o t hat t he chro no l o gy o f t he s e b u ri al s i s m o s t l y u n-
d e f i ne d . Ho we ve r, t he re are gro u nd s f o r co ns i d e ri ng t hat m any o f t he s e e pi s o d e s o f re u s e
m ay b e l o ng t o t he Earl y Bro nze Age .
I nf ant s i n ci s t s
Al t e rnat i ve m e ans o f acco m m o d at i ng t he d i s po s al o f i nf ant s we re avai l ab l e i n t he Bro nze
Age and s e ve ral d i f f e re nt cat e go ri e s o f i nf ant b u ri al can b e i d e nt i f i e d f ro m t he co rpu s o f
kno wn I ri s h s i t e s (Wad d e l l 1990). Fo r t he s ake o f b re vi t y t he s e are d i vi d e d i nt o t hre e
cat e go ri e s : appare nt 'm o t he r and chi l d ' d e po s i t s (b o t h i nhu m at i o ns and cre m at i o ns ),
s e parat e d i s po s al and , t hi rd , m i xe d d e po s i t s - whe re t he i nf ant i s as s o ci at e d wi t h a nu m b e r
o f i nd i vi d u al s .
Exam pl e s o f 'm o t he r and ne o nat e ' cre m at i o ns are kno wn f ro m a nu m b e r o f s i t e s , s u ch
as Du ngat e (Co . Tyro ne ), Magane y Lo we r (Co . Ki l d are ) and Cre ggan (Co . Ant ri m ).
The re i s s o m e i nd i cat i o n t o s u gge s t t hat t he s e m ay have i nvo l ve d an e l e m e nt o f t he s pat i al
s e parat i o n o f s u ch ci s t s , f o r e xam pl e , at Bal l i nvo he r (Co . Co rk), t wo b u ri al s we re f o u nd
i n cl o s e pro xi m i t y: i n o ne t he re we re al s o f o e t al re m ai ns and a b o ar's t u s k. The d i s t u rb e d
re m ai ns o f a f e m al e i nhu m at i o n we re f o u nd ne arb y (O 'Ke l l y and She e 1974). Li ke wi s e a
nu m b e r o f t he s e co nd ary b u ri al s at t he b arro w ce m e t e ry at Carro wjam e s (Co . Mayo ) are
cre m at i o ns o f ad u l t wo m e n wi t h f o e t al /ne o nat al re m ai ns (Raf t e ry 1941), po s s i b l y i nd i -
cat i ng t he re u s e o f t he s i t e as a s e parat e b u ri al are a. I nhu m at i o n b u ri al s o f wo m e n and
i nf ant s are al s o kno wn (e .g. Ke e no ge , Co . Me at h; Mo u nt 1997).
Exam pl e s o f s e parat e ci s t b u ri al f o r i nf ant s and chi l d re n are l e s s f re qu e nt : f o r e xam pl e ,
a ne o nat e at Dru ng (Co . Do ne gal ) had a s e parat e s m al l ci s t i n cl o s e pro xi m i t y t o t wo ci s t s
co nt ai ni ng s i ngl e m al e and f e m al e i nhu m at i o ns (Rynne 1963). The re i s al s o an e xam pl e
o f a s l i ght l y o l d e r i nf ant (l e s s t han 1 ye ar) b e i ng i nhu m e d i n a ci s t , o ne wi t h a ce ram i c
ve s s e l at Carro wnt o b e r, Co . Gal way (Wad d e l l 1990: 92) and a cre m at e d i nf ant wi t h a
ve s s e l at Co o l m o re , Co . Ki l ke nny (i b i d .: 101).
Mo re co m m o n are t he m u l t i pl e as s o ci at i o ns o f i nf ant s wi t h o t he r cre m at e d re m ai ns
(e .g. Rat hm o o n; Ki l m o re and Hal ve rs t o wn; Wad d e l l 1990). The re i s no appare nt pat t e rn-
i ng: i n m o s t cas e s t he ad u l t s canno t b e s e xe d and i nf ant s as s o ci at e d wi t h b o t h m al e s and
f e m al e s are kno wn. At Ed m o nd s t o wn (Co . Du b l i n), i nf ant s we re f o u nd i n pi t b u ri al s wi t h
ad u l t s and i n s o m e cas e s s o l e l y wi t h o t he r chi l d re n (Mo u nt and Hart ne t t 1993).
This content downloaded from 136.206.1.12 on Tue, 3 Jun 2014 15:30:57 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
418 Nyre e Fi nl ay
Cre m at i o n o f f e rs a d i f f e re nt s e t o f co nt e xt s f o r t he t re at m e nt o f i nf ant s i n d e at h. The re
i s t he pe ri o d b e t we e n d e at h and t he cre m at i o n, t he vi s i b i l i t y and i ncl u s i o n o f t he i nf ant s
i n t he pyre , o r t he i r s e parat e i nci ne rat i o n, as we l l as t he co l l e ct i o n o f t he cre m at e d b o ne
and i t s f i nal i nco rpo rat i o n i nt o a ci s t o r pi t grave .
De s pi t e t he cave at s as s o ci at e d wi t h t he e xam i nat i o n o f t he s e i nf ant s , t he re i s s o m e
pat t e rni ng t o s u gge s t po t e nt i al e l e m e nt s o f d i f f e re nt i al t re at m e nt . O ne o f t he m ai n l i m b i
t at i o ns whe n e xam i ni ng t he Bro nze Age e vi d e nce i s whe t he r d i f f e re nce s i n t he b u ri al ri t e
wi t hi n and b e t we e n s i t e s re f l e ct chro no l o gi cal o r s o ci e t al d i s t i nct i o ns . Al t e rnat i ve l y, t he s e
b u ri al s m ay b e e vi d e nce o f d i s t i nct i o ns b e i ng m ad e aro u nd t he l i f e co u rs e . I n t he 'm o t he r
and chi l d ' e xam pl e s , i t m ay s e e m a s af e as s u m pt i o n t hat t he b u ri al o f an ad u l t f e m al e wi t h
a f o e t u s /ne o nat e re pre s e nt s d e at h i n l ab o u r o r o b s t e t ri c co m pl i cat i o ns d u ri ng o r s ho rt l y
af t e r b i rt h. Unf o rt u nat e l y, t he b i o l o gi cal re l at i o ns hi p b e t we e n t he m o t he r and chi l d i s
s e l d o m qu e s t i o ne d archae o l o gi cal l y and , m o re rare l y, s u b je ct t o
i nd e pe nd e nt ve ri f i cat i o n
b y ab s o l u t e d at i ng. I f we acce pt f o r t he s ake o f argu m e nt t hat m o s t o f t he ab o ve are
ge nu i ne as s o ci at i o ns , t he n a ge ne ral co nce rn wi t h re pro d u ct i o n m ay have b e e n act i ve l y
s t re s s e d , wi t h wo m e n s u b je ct t o b u ri al o n acco u nt o f t he i r re pro d u ct i ve s t at u s . Unf o rt u
nat e l y, gi ve n t hat m any o f t he s e are cre m at i o ns , we wi l l ne ve r b e ab l e po s i t i ve l y t o co nf i rm
a d i re ct as s o ci at i o n. Ne ve rt he l e s s , t he re cu rre nt as s o ci at i o n o f wo m e n wi t h cre m at e d
ne o nat e s m ay i nd i cat e t hi s . I n t he ce m e t e ry s i t e s i nf ant s and chi l d re n d o appe ar t o b e
u nd e r-re pre s e nt e d i n t e rm s o f l i f e -e xpe ct ancy e s t i m at e s (Mo u nt 1997). Gi ve n t apho no m i c
f act o rs i t i s d i f f i cu l t t o as ce rt ai n whe t he r t hi s re f l e ct s ge nu i ne l y d i f f e re nt pat t e rns o f
d i s po s al , o f whi ch t he re u s e o f m o nu m e nt s i s o ne d i m e ns i o n.
I n a hi e rarchi cal s o ci e t y whe re s o ci al d i s t i nct i o ns are m ad e al o ng s t at u s , ge nd e r and age
l i ne s , s u cce s s f u l re pro d u ct i o n o f t he l i ne age and f e m al e f e cu nd i t y wo u l d have b e e n ce nt ral
co nce rns , and o ne s t hat m ay have b e e n act i ve l y m ani pu l at e d i n f u ne rary co nt e xt s . At
pre s e nt , t he e vi d e nce f ro m t he ce m e t e ry s i t e s d o e s no t al l o w f o r u s t o e xam i ne t hi s i n m o re
d e t ai l . Gi ve n t he po t e nt i al d i s t i nct i o ns t hat m ay b e e l ab o rat e d wi t h re gard t o t he t re at -
m e nt o f t he i nf ant i n d e at h, i t i s e s s e nt i al t o s e parat e t he i nf ant f ro m t he ge ne ral cat e go ry
o f chi l d and f o cu s o n t he age and po t e nt i al s t at u s d i s t i nct i o ns t hat are b e i ng m ad e .
The i nco rpo rat i o n o f i nf ant s i nt o e xi s t i ng m o nu m e nt s was o ne m e t ho d o f co rps e
d i s po s al ; o t he r o pt i o ns we re avai l ab l e . I f d i s t i nct i o ns we re act i ve l y b e i ng s t re s s e d aro u nd
t he l i f e cycl e t he n t he s e parat e b u ri al o f i nf ant s i n e arl i e r m e gal i t hs m ay have had s pe ci f i c
m e ani ng, pe rhaps re f e re nci ng t he m yt ho l o gi cal o r ance s t ral s t at u s o f t he s e m o nu m e nt s ,
part i cu l arl y at s i t e s s u ch as Fo u rkno cks whe re t he f o cu s o f b u ri al s i s i n t he pas s age : i t s e l f
a t hre s ho l d b e t we e n t he d o m ai n o f t he l i vi ng and t he ance s t ral d e ad .
O u t s i d e o f l i f e : - d i s cu s s i o n and co ncl u s i o ns
The cat e go ry o f t he i nf ant i s cu l t u ral l y s pe ci f i c and has a range o f d i f f e re nt m e ani ngs
d e pe nd i ng o n t he s o ci al co nt e xt (Sco t t 1992). Unt i l acce pt e d i nt o s o ci e t y, t he i nf ant o f t e n
has no s o ci al pe rs o na and f o rm s an am b i gu o u s cl as s o f i nd i vi d u al . Thi s pape r has
co ns i d e re d t hat t he l o cat i o n o f t he i nf ant o n t he pe ri phe ry o f t he no rm al l i f e cycl e e ve nt s
has an archae o l o gi cal e xpre s s i o n i n t e rm s o f t he cho i ce o f b u ri al l o cat i o n.
I n t he cas e s t u d i e s d i s cu s s e d ab o ve , t he re i s no t hi ng i n t he nat u re o f t he b u ri al s o r t he
co nt e xt o f t he s e s i t e s pe r s e t hat al l u d e s t o an u nnat u ral d e at h f o r t he s e i nf ant s , i t i s o re
This content downloaded from 136.206.1.12 on Tue, 3 Jun 2014 15:30:57 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
O u t s i d e o f l i f e : t rad i t i o ns o f i nf ant b u ri al i n I re l and f ro m ci l l i n t o ci s t 419
t he b ro ad cat e go ri zat i o n o f i nf ant s as a s e parat e cat e go ry o f 'o t he rs ' t hat i s o f co nce rn, f o r
t hi s i s what m ay have f aci l i t at e d d i f f e re nt i al b u ri al i rre s pe ct i ve o f t he act u al cau s e o f d e at h.
I nf ant i ci d e i s an e m o t i ve s u b je ct t hat i s cl e arl y co l o u re d b y t he s e ns at i o nal i s m o f Vi ct o ri an
acco u nt s o f t he d i s po s al o f i nf ant s i n t he b u rge o ni ng u rb an ce nt re s (Ro s e 1986; Ke l l y 1992).
I t can t ake a nu m b e r o f f o rm s , f ro m t he d e l i b e rat e m u rd e r o f t he chi l d s ho rt l y af t e r b i rt h
(ne o nat i ci d e ), t o m o re pas s i ve f o rm s o f ne gl e ct o ve r a pro t ract e d pe ri o d (Sche pe r-Hu ghe s
1989). I t i s al m o s t i m po s s i b l e po s i t i ve l y t o i d e nt i f y i nf ant i ci d e archae o l o gi cal l y, al t ho u gh i t
i s o f t e n i nf e rre d f ro m d e m o graphi c and co nt e xt u al e vi d e nce (Sm i t h and Kahi l a 1992).
What i s i m po rt ant t o co ns i d e r, re gard l e s s o f act u al cau s e o f d e at h, i s t he co nce pt u al l o ca-
t i o n o f t he i nf ant and i t s s o m e what l i m i nal s t at u s i n t he l i f e cycl e . I have argu e d t hat t hi s
can b e i d e nt i f i e d i n t he charact e r o f t he b u ri al s and t he cho i ce o f b u ri al l o cat i o n.
Parad o xi cal l y ci l l i ni are a vi s i b l e , b u t ye t co nce al e d pre s e nce i n t he l and s cape . Thi s
am b i val e nt s t at e b e t we e n t he kno wn pu rpo s e and f u nct i o n o f t he s e s i t e s , e xe m pl i f i e d b y
t he i r pl ace -nam e as s o ci at i o ns and d e m arcat i o n o n m aps , i s m i rro re d i n t he f re qu e nt l y
m argi nal and l i m i nal l o cat i o ns i n f i e l d co rne rs , b y ro ad s i d e s as we l l as i n ab and o ne d
m o nu m e nt s and d i s u s e d b u i l d i ngs . The s i m pl i ci t y and f re qu e nt ab s e nce o f grave -m arke rs
s e rve s t o e m phas i ze t he ano nym i t y o f t he i nf ant s and i nd i vi d u al s i nt e rre d wi t hi n, t u rni ng
t he s i t e s i nt o pas s i ve m e m o ri al s rat he r t han pl ace s o f act i ve re m e m b rance .
Thu s , whi l e t he hi s t o ri c co nt e xt o f t he ci l l i n can b e l o cat e d wi t hi n s pe ci f i c re l i gi o u s
pro s cri pt i o ns , t he s i t e s al s o s e rve d a wi d e r f u nct i o n f o r t he d i s po s al o f o t he r cat e go ri cal l y
d i f f e re nt gro u ps i n s o ci e t y. At a m o re pragm at i c l e ve l , t he y no d o u b t al s o cat e re d f o r t ho s e
who co u l d no t af f o rd co nve nt i o nal b u ri al , as we l l as t ho s e no t d e e m e d wo rt hy o f i t . I n
m any i ns t ance s , t he s e cl u d e d l o cat i o n o f t he s i t e s and t he t rad i t i o n o f ni ght b u ri al wo u l d
b e s e cre t i ve e no u gh t o cat e r f o r d i s po s al o f t ho s e i ns t ance s o f i nf ant i ci d e t hat u nd o u b t -
e d l y d i d o ccu r.
Fo r t he Ne o l i t hi c-Bro nze Age e xam pl e s , a pat t e rn o f t he l at e r re u s e o f m e gal i t hi c t o m b s
f o r i nf ant b u ri al s can b e i d e nt i f i e d . At Fo u rkno cks I , i t has b e e n s u gge s t e d , m any i nf ant
b u ri al s i n t he pas s age re l at e t o a pe ri o d o f re d e f i ni t i o n o f t he s i t e as a b u ri al l o cal e pri m ari l y
f o r chi l d re n i n t he Earl y Bro nze Age . The u s e o f t he pas s age f o r ne o nat e and i nf ant b u ri al s
i s i t s e l f s i gni f i cant . The pas s age i s a l i m i nal e nt i t y t hat can b e re ad as a po rt al t o t he ance s -
t ral o t he r wo rl d . The pro vi s i o n o f a m e gal i t hi c pas s age at Fo u rkno cks I I m i rro rs t hat at
Fo u rkno cks I i n b o t h o ri e nt at i o n and d e s i gn, cre at i ng a 'pas t i che m e gal i t h' (Co o ne y 1997:
18). The re i nve nt i o n o f t rad i t i o n at Fo u rkno cks and t he re u s e o f s i t e s f o r i nf ant b u ri al s
o ccu rs at a t i m e whe n t he m e ani ng o f t he s i t e s i s b e i ng act i ve l y m ani pu l at e d and t rans -
f o rm e d . Si m i l ar pro ce s s e s have b e e n i d e nt i f i e d e l s e whe re d u ri ng t he l at e r s t age s o f m e ga-
l i t h b i o graphi e s (s e e Hi ngl e y 1996; Ho l t o rf 1998).
I n t e rm s o f s o m e o f t he o u t s t and i ng i s s u e s re gard i ng t he l at e r i ns e rt i o n o f i nf ant
re m ai ns , t he d at i ng o f s u ch pract i ce s co u l d b e d e t e rm i ne d b y a t arge t e d pro gram m e o f
rad i o carb o n d at i ng. Thi s wo u l d cl ari f y t he chro no l o gy o f s u ch b e havi o u r and i t wo u l d he l p
d e ci phe r whe t he r co nce pt u al d i s t i nct i o ns we re b e i ng m ad e b e t we e n i nf ant s and o t he r
i nd i vi d u al s . Thi s wo u l d al s o ai d i n t he i nt e rpre t at i o n o f d i f f e re nt co nt e xt s o f i nf ant b u ri al s
b e t we e n t ho s e i n cre m at i o n ce m e t e ri e s and t ho s e i n re u s e d m e gal i t hs . Mo re i m po rt ant l y,
t he re i s a cl e ar ne e d t o i s o l at e t he i nf ant as a s e parat e cat e go ry o f anal ys i s , and d i s t i ngu i s h
t he t re at m e nt o f ne o nat e s f ro m t hat o f o l d e r i nf ant s and chi l d re n. The cat e go ry o f chi l d
i s i ns u f f i ci e nt t o d e t e rm i ne t he vari o u s nu ance s o f d i f f e re nt i al t re at m e nt b e i ng m ad e
aro u nd t he l i f e cycl e .
This content downloaded from 136.206.1.12 on Tue, 3 Jun 2014 15:30:57 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
420 Nyre e Fi nl ay
I n co ncl u s i o n, t he u s e o f s i t e s as b u ri al gro u nd s f o r i nf ant s , and o t he r am b i gu o u s
cat e go ri e s o f i nd i vi d u al , l e ad s t o a re wo rki ng o f b o t h t he m e ani ng and m e m o ry o f t he o ri g-,
i nal m o nu m e nt . He re t he m yt ho l o gi cal l and s cape m ay b e as i m po rt ant as t he phys i cal
re m ai ns . The f o l kl o re as s o ci at e d wi t h t he ci l l i ni s t re s s e s t he s anct i t y o f t he i nf ant s b y
as s o ci at i o n wi t h f o rm al l y s acre d s i t e s , whe t he r Earl y Chri s t i an o r t he m o re pagan co nne c-
t i o ns at pre hi s t o ri c s i t e s . Su ch as s o ci at i o ns s e rve d t o e nhance t he l i m i nal l o cat i o n o f t he
s i t e , as we l l as t he charact e r o f t he i nf ant s , as b e t wi xt and b e t we e n t hi s wo rl d and t he ne xt .
At Fo u rkno cks I and I I t he u s e o f t he pas s age f o r i nf ant b u ri al s e ncaps u l at e s t he am b i gu -
o u s charact e r o f t he s e i nf ant s wi t hi n t he m o nu m e nt i t s e l f . I t m ay we l l b e t hat t he pre hi s -
t o ri c re u s e o f e arl i e r m e gal i t hi c s i t e s re i nve nt e d t he m e ani ng and m yt ho l o gy o f t he s e
m o nu m e nt s i n a s i m i l ar m anne r t o t he ci l l i ni at a t i m e whe n t he m ai ns t ay o f m o rt u ary
pract i ce s , and pe rhaps co nve nt i o nal b e l i e f s , was f o cu s e d e l s e whe re .
Ackno wl e d ge m e nt s
I wi s h t o t hank Ro b e rt a Gi l chri s t f o r i nvi t i ng m e t o wri t e t hi s pape r. I am i nd e b t e d t o
Jo hn Barb e r f o r d e ve l o pi ng m y i nt e re s t i n i nf ant b u ri al s s e ve ral ye ars ago . I am al s o grat e s
f u l t o t he ano nym o u s re f e re e s f o r t he i r co ns t ru ct i ve co m m e nt s and t o Jane Hawke s ,
Cat ryn Po we r and Pe t e r Wo o d m an f o r d i s cu s s i o n and Jo hn She e han f o r i nf o rm at i o n and
t he pl at e s . Ext ract f ro m The We s t e rn I s l and o r The Gre at Bl as ke t b y Ro b i n Fl o we r (1985)
b y pe rm i s s i o n o f O xf o rd Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s .
De part m e nt o f Archae o l o gy
Nat i o nal Uni ve rs i t y o f I re l and Co rk
No t e
1 To wnl and i s a s u b -d i vi s i o n o f l and wi t hi n a pari s h.
Re f e re nce s
Barb e r, J. 1997. The Excavat i o n o f a St al l e d Cai rn at t he Po i nt o f Co t t , We s t ray, O rkne y. Ed i nb u rgh:
Sco t t i s h Tru s t f o r Archae o l o gi cal Re s e arch.
Barb e r, J. and Fi nl ay, N. nd . The u nwant e d d e ad : pre hi s t o ri c e vi d e nce f o r i nf ant i ci d e . Unpu b l i s he d
pape r.
Co l l i ns , A. E. P. 1954. The e xcavat i o n o f a d o u b l e ho rne d cai rn at Au d l e ys t o wn l o ng cai rn, Co .
Do wn. Ul s t e r Jo u rnal o f Archae o l o gy, 17: 7-56.
Co o ne y, G. 1992. Bo d y po l i t i cs and grave m e s s age s : I ri s h Ne o l i t hi c m o rt u ary pract i ce s . I n Ve s s e l s
f o r t he Ance s t o rs (e d s A. She ri d an and N. Sharpl e s ). Ed i nb u rgh: Ed i nb u rgh Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s , pp.
128-42.
Co o ne y, G. 1997. A t al e o f t wo m o u nd s : m o nu m e nt al l and s cape d e s i gn at Fo u rkno cks , Co . Me at h.
Archae o l o gy I re l and , 11(2): 17-19.
Cro m b i e , D. 1988. Chi l d re n's b u ri al gro u nd s i n t he b aro ny o f Du nm o re : a pre l i m i nary no t e . Jo u rnal
o f t he Gal way Archae o l o gi cal and Hi s t o ri cal So ci e t y, 41: 149-51.
Davi d s o n, J. L. and He ns hal l , A. 1991. The Chat m b e re d Cai rns o f Cai t hne s s . Ed i nb u rgh: Ed i nb u rgh
Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s .
This content downloaded from 136.206.1.12 on Tue, 3 Jun 2014 15:30:57 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
O u t s i d e o f l i f e : t rad i t i o ns o f i nf ant b u ri al i n I re l and f ro m ci l l i n t o ci s t 421
De nne hy, E. A. 1997. The Ce l l u nai gh o f Co u nt y Ke rry: An Archae o l o gi cal Pe rs pe ct i ve . Unpu b -
l i s he d MA t he s i s , Uni ve rs i t y Co l l e ge Co rk.
De re ve ns ki , J. S. 1997, Enge nd e ri ng chi l d re n, e nge nd e ri ng archae o l o gy. I n I nvi s i b l e Pe o pl e and
Pro ce s s e s : Wri t i ng Ge nd e r and Chi l d ho o d i nt o Eu ro pe an Archae o l o gy (e d s . J. Mo o re and E. Sco t t ).
Le i ce s t e r: Le i ce s t e r Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s , pp. 192-202.
Fanni ng, T. 1981. Excavat i o n o f an Earl y Chri s t i an ce m e t e ry and s e t t l e m e nt at Re as k, Co . Ke rry.
Pro ce e d i ngs o f t he Ro yal I ri s h Acad e m y, 81C: 3-172.
Fanni ng, T. and She e han, J. 1983. Ki l l e e ns , o r chi l d re n's b u ri al gro u nd s , i n t he Di o ce s e o f Gal way.
Gal way Di o ce s an Di re ct o ry, 18: 97-100.
Fi nl ay, N. i n pre p. Fo u rkno cks Re vi s i t e d .
Fl o we r, R. 1985 (1944). The We s t e rn I s l and o r t he Gre at Bl as ke t . O xf o rd : O xf o rd Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s .
Ham l i n, A. and Fo l e y, C. 1983. A wo m e n's grave yard at Carri ckm o re , Co u nt y Tyro ne , and t he
s e parat e b u ri al o f wo m e n. Ul s t e r Jo u rnal o f Archae o l o gy, 46: 41-6.
Hart ne t t , P. J. 1957. Excavat i o n o f a Pas s age Grave at Fo u rkno cks , Co . Me at h. Pro ce e d i ngs o f t he
Ro yal I ri s h Acad e m y, 58C: 197-277.
Hart ne t t , P. J. 1971. The e xcavat i o n o f t wo t u m u l i at Fo u rkno cks (s i t e s I I and I I I ), Co . Me at h.
Pro ce e d i ngs o f t he Ro yal I ri s h Acad e m y, 71C: 35-89.
He d ge s , J. W. 1983. I s b i s t e r: A Cham b e re d To m b i n O rkne y. O xf o rd : Bri t i s h Archae o l o gi cal Re po rt s
115.
He d ge s , R. E. M., Ho u s l e y, R. A., Law, L. A. and Bro nk, C. A. 1990. Rad i o carb o n d at e s f ro m t he
O xf o rd AMS s ys t e m . Archae o m e t ry, 32(1): 101-8.
Hi ngl e y, R. 1996. Ance s t o rs and i d e nt i t y i n t he l at e r pre hi s t o ry o f At l ant i c Sco t l and : t he re u s e and
re i nve nt i o n o f Ne o l i t hi c m o nu m e nt s and m at e ri al cu l t u re . Wo rl d Archae o l o gy, 28(2): 231-43.
Ho l t o rf , C. J. 1998. The l i f e -hi s t o ri e s o f m e gal i t hs i n Me ckl e nb u rg-Vo rpo m m e rn (Ge rm any). Wo rl d
Archae o l o gy, 30(1): 23-38.
Ke l l y, J. 1992. I nf ant i ci d e i n e i ght e e nt h-ce nt u ry I re l and . I ri s h Eco no m i c So ci al Hi s t o ry, 19: 5-26.
Le as k, H. G. and Pri ce , L. 1936. The Lab b acal l e e Me gal i t h, Co . Co rk. Pro ce e d i ngs o f t he Ro yal I ri s h
Acad e m y, 43: 77-101.
Le e , K. A. 1994. At t i t u d e s and pre ju d i ce s t o ward s i nf ant i ci d e : Cart hage , Ro m e and t o d ay. Archae o -
l o gi cal Re vi e w Cam b ri d ge , 13(2): 65-79.
Li l l e ham m e r, G. 1989. A chi l d i s b o rn: t he chi l d 's wo rl d i n an archae o l o gi cal pe rs pe ct i ve . No rwe gi an
Archae o l o gi cal Re vi e w, 22: 89-105.
Lynch, A. and
6
Do nnab ha'i n, B. 1994. Po u l nab ro ne Po rt al To m b . The O t he r Cl are , 18: 5-7.
Lynch, F. 1973. The u s e o f t he pas s age i n ce rt ai n pas s age grave s as a m e ans o f co m m u ni cat i o n rat he r
t han acce s s . I n Me gal i t hi c Grave s and Ri t u al (e d s G. E. Dani e l and P. Kjae ru m ). Co pe nhage n:
Ju t l and Archae o l o gy So ci e t y Pu b l i cat i o n, pp. 147-61.
Lynch, L. G. 1998. Pl ace l e s s s o u l s : b i o archae o l o gy and s e parat e b u ri al s i n I re l and . Unpu b l i s he d MA
t he s i s , Uni ve rs i t y Co l l e ge Co rk.
Macal i s t e r, R. A. S., Arm s t ro ng, E. C. R. and Prae ge r, R. L. 1912. Re po rt o n t he e xpl o rat i o n o f t he
Bro nze -Age carns o n Carro wke e l Mo u nt ai n, Co . Sl i go . Pro ce e d i ngs o f t he Ro yal I ri s h Acad e m y,
29C: 311-49.
Mays , S. 1993. I nf ant i ci d e i n Ro m an Bri t ai n. Ant i qu i t y, 67: 883-8.
Mo u nt , C. 1997. Ne w re s e arch o n I ri s h Earl y Bro nze Age ce m e t e ri e s . I n I re l and i n t he Bro nze Age
(e d s J. Wad d e l l and E. She e -Two hi g). Du b l i n: The St at i o ne ry O f f i ce , pp. 97-112.
Mo u nt , C. and Hart ne t t , P. J. 1993. Earl y Bro nze Age ce m e t e ry at Ed m o nd s t o wn Co u nt y Du b l i n.
Pro ce e d i ngs o f t he Ro yal I ri s h Acad e m y, 93C: 21--79.
This content downloaded from 136.206.1.12 on Tue, 3 Jun 2014 15:30:57 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
422 Nyre e Fi nl ay
O 'Co nno r, A. 1991. Wo m e n i n I ri s h f o l kl o re : t he t e s t i m o ny re gard i ng i l l e gi t i m acy, ab o rt i o n and
i nf ant i ci d e . I n Wo m e n i n Earl y Mo d e rn I re l and (e d s M. MacCu rt ai n and M. O 'Do wd ). Ed i nb u rgh:
Ed i nb u rgh Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s , pp. 304-17.
o Do nnab hai n, B. and Bri nd l e y, A. L. 1989/90. The s t at u s o f chi l d re n i n a s am pl e o f Bro nze Age
b u ri al s co nt ai ni ng pygm y cu ps . Jo u rnal o f I ri s h Archae o l o gy, 5: 19-24.
O 'Ke l l y, M. J. and She e , E. 1974. Bro nze Age b u ri al s at Co o l nahane and Bal l i nvo he r, Co . Co rk.
Jo u rnal o f t he Co rk Hi s t o ri cal and Archae o l o gi cal So ci e t y, 79: 71-85.
O 'Ri f o rd ai f n, S. P and 0 h-I ce ad ha, G. 1955. Lo u gh Gu r e xcavat i o ns : t he m e gal i t hi c t o m b . Jo u rnal
o f t he Ro yal So ci e t y o f Ant i qu ari e s , 85: 34-50.
O Su i l l e ab hai n, S. 1939. Ad hl acad h Le anb hai . Jo u rnal o f t he Ro yal So ci e t y o f Ant i qu ari e s o f I re l and
69: 144-51 (t rans . S. 0 Lao i , May 1998).
O 'Su l l i van, A and She e han, J. 1996. The I ve ragh Pe ni ns u l a: An Archae o l o gi cal Su rve y o f So u t h
Ke rry. Co rk: Co rk Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s .
Raf t e ry, J. 1941. The Tu m u l u s -Ce m e t e ry o f Carro wjam e s , Co . Mayo . Part I I . Carro wjam e s 1I .
Jo u rnal o f t he Gal way Hi s t o ri cal and Archae o l o gi cal So ci e t y, 19(1940-1):
16-88.
Re ga, E. 1997. Age , ge nd e r and b i o l o gi cal re al i t y i n t he Earl y Bro nze Age ce m e t e ry at Mo kri n. I n
I nvi s i b l e Pe o pl e and Pro ce s s e s : Wri t i ng Ge nd e r and Chi l d ho o d i nt o Eu ro pe an Archae o l o gy (e d s J.
Mo o re and E. Sco t t ). Le i ce s t e r: Le i ce s t e r Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s , pp. 229-47.
Re nf re w, C. 1979. I nve s t i gat i o ns i n O rkne y. Lo nd o n: So ci e t y o f Ant i qu ari e s .
Ro s e , L. 1986. The Mas s acre o f t he I nno ce nt s : I nf ant i ci d e i n Bri t ai n 1900-1939. Lo nd o n: Ro u t l e ge
& Ke gan Pau l .
Rynne , E. 1963. Bro nze Age b u ri al s at Dru ng, Co . Do ne gal . Jo u rnal o f t he Ro yal So ci e t y o f Ant i -
qu ari e s o f I re l and , 93: 169-79.
Sche pe r-Hu ghe s , N. 1989. Li f e b o at e t hi cs : m o t he r l o ve and chi l d d e at h i n No rt he as t Brazi l . Nat u ral
Hi s t o ry, 98(10): 8-16.
Sco t t , E. 1990. A cri t i cal re vi e w o f t he i nt e rpre t at i o n o f i nf ant b u ri al s i n Ro m an Bri t ai n, wi t h
part i cu l ar re f e re nce t o vi l l as . Jo u rnal o f The o re t i cal Archae o l o gy, 1: 30-46.
Sco t t , E. 1992. I m age s and co nt e xt s o f i nf ant s and i nf ant b u ri al s : s o m e t ho u ght s o n s o m e cro s s -
cu l t u ral e vi d e nce . Archae o l o gi cal Re vi e w Cam b ri d ge , 11(1): 77--9.
She e han, J. 1994. Excavat i o n at an e arl y e ccl e s i as t i cal e ncl o s u re and ce al l u 'nach at Cahe rl e hi l l an,
Co . Ke rry, 1993. I n Excavat i o ns 1993, Su m m ary Acco u nt s o f Archae o l o gi cal Excavat i o ns i n I re l and
(e d . I . Be nne t t ). Bray: Wo rd we l l , pp. 41-2.
Sm i t h, P. and Kahi l a, G. 1992. I d e nt i f i cat i o n o f i nf ant i ci d e i n archae o l o gi cal s i t e s : a cas e s t u d y f ro m
t he Lat e Ro m an-Earl y Byzant i ne Pe ri o d s at As hke l o n, I s rae l . Jo u rnal o f Archae o l o gi cal Sci e nce ,
19: 667-75.
Tho m as , J. and Whi t t l e , A. 1986. Anat o m y o f a t o m b
-
We s t Ke nne t t re vi s i t e d . O xf o rd Jo u rnal o f
Archae o l o gy, 5: 129-56.
Wad d e l l , J. 1990. The Bro nze Age Bu ri al s o f I re l and . Gal way: Gal way Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s .
Wat t s , D. J. 1989. I nf ant b u ri al s and Ro m ano -Bri t i s h Chri s t i ani t y. Archae o l o gi cal Jo u rnal , 146: 372-83.
Whi t e Mars hal l , J. and Wal s h, C. 1998. I l l au nl o u ghan, Co ., Ke rry: an i s l and he rm i t age . I n Earl y
Me d i e val Mu ns t e r: Archae o l o gy, Hi s t o ry and So ci e t y (e d s M. A. Mo nk and J. She e han). Co rk: Co rk
Uni ve rs i t y Pre s s , pp. 102-11.
Wi cke r, N. 1999. I nf ant i ci d e i n Lat e -I ro n Age Scand i navi a. I n The Lo ve d Bo d y's Co rru pt i o n (e d s .
J. Do wne s and T. Po l l ard ). Gl as go w: Cru i t hne Pre s s , pp. 106-19.
This content downloaded from 136.206.1.12 on Tue, 3 Jun 2014 15:30:57 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions