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Process Control Suggestion
Process Control Suggestion
Process Control Suggestion
The most commonly defined criteria for a process control system to be described as a
good control system as described below:
(i) The decay ratio should be 0.25, where decay ratio is defined as the ratio of the
second peak overshoot and the first peak overshoot.
(ii) The integral of the square error (ISE) should be minimum. The ISE is defined as:
.
(iii) The integral of the absolute value of error (IAE) should be minimum. The IAE is
defined as:
.
(iv) The integral of time-weighted absolute error (ITAE) should be minimum. The ITAE
is defined as:
.
Function of quarter decay ratio:
The decay ratio is defined as the ratio of the second peak overshoot to the first peak
overshoot of a system having transient response. The Ziegler-Nichols, Cohen-Coon and
many other controller tuning is based on tuning the controller to achieve the quarter
decay response. The characteristic of the quarter decay response is that each oscillation
has an amplitude that is one-fourth of the previous oscillation. It is illustrated in the
following diagram.
2. What are the basic functions of pneumatic controller and which are the basic
parameters of pneumatic controller? Describe the pneumatic PI controller with
proper diagram.
Principles and working parameters of Pneumatic Controllers:
In a pneumatic system, information is carried by the pressure of gas in a pipe. If we have
a pipe of any length and raise the pressure of gas in one end, this increase in pressure
will propagate down the pipe until the pressure throughout is raised to the new value.
The pressure signal travels down the pipe at a speed in the range of the speed of sound
in the gas (say, air), which is about 330 m/s (1083 ft/s). Thus, if a transducer varies gas
pressure at one end of a 330-m pipe (about 360 yd) in response to some controlled
variable, then that same pressure occurs at the other end of the pipe after a delay of
approximately 1 sec. For many processescontrol installations, this delay time is of no
consequence
In general, pneumatic signals are carried with dry air as the gas and signal information
adjusted to lie within the range of 3-I5 psi. In SI unit systems, the range of 20-100 kPa is
used. There are three types of signal conversion of primary interest. This is usually
derived from a regulated air supply of 20-30 psi. As usual, we use the English system
unit of pressure because its use is so widespread in the process-control industry.
Eventual conversion to the SI unit of N /m2 or Pa will require some alteration in scale (of
measurement) to a range of 20 to 100 kPa.
Pneumatic proportional-integral controller:
Pneumatic proportional-integral controller control mode is also implemented using
pneumatics by the system shown in Figure.
In this case, an extra bellows with a variable
restriction is added to the proportional
system. Suppose the input pressure shows a
sudden increase. This drives the flapper
toward the nozzle, increasing output pressure
until the proportional bellows balances the
input as in the previous case. The integral
bellows is still at the original output
pressure, because the restriction prevents
pressure changes from being transmitted immediately. As the increased pressure on the
output bleeds through the restriction, the integral bellows slowly moves the flapper closer
to the nozzle, thereby causing a steady increase in output pressure (as dictated by the
integral mode). The variable restriction allows for variation of the leakage rate, and hence
the integration time.
3. Explain with block diagram the feed-forward control and ratio control. What are
their differences?
Feedforward Control:
Conventional feed-back loops can
never achieve perfect control. It is
difficult for the conventional loops
to keep the process output
continuously at the desired setpoint
value in the presence of load or
setpoint changes. This is because of
feedback controller reacts only after
it has detected a diversion in the
value of the output from the desired
setpoioint. Unlike feedback systems
a feed-forward control configuration
measures the disturbance directly and takes control action to eliminate its impact on the
process output. Feed-forward controllers have the theoretical potential for perfect control.
In feed-forward control strategy, information concerning one or more conditions that
might disturb the control variable is converted into corrective action to minimize
Controller
Disturbance
Process Controlled
Output
Manipulated
Variable
deviation of control variable. The signals which have the potential to upset the process
are transmitted to the controller. The controller makes appropriate computation on the
signals and calculates new values for the manipulated signals and sends those to the
final control element, therefore, the control variable remains unaffected in spite of load
changes. The generalized block diagram of feed-forward control system is shown in the
figure alongside.
Ratio Control:
Ratio control is used to ensure that two or more
flows are kept a constant ratio even if the flows are
changing. Ratio control is special type of feed-
forward control where two disturbances are
measured and held at constant ratio with each
other. Sometimes the control of one of the streams
becomes difficult, in which case its flow is
measured; and then, the flow rate of the other
stream is controlled. The stream whose flow rate is
uncontrollable is called wild stream.
The configuration of a basic ratio-control is described below. In this configuration we
measure both the flow rates, and take their ratio. The ratio is compared with the desired
ratio, and the deviation between the two is used to generate the actuating signal for the
ratio controller.
Difference between feed forward and ratio control:
In feed-forward control strategy, information concerning one or more conditions that
might disturb the control variable is converted into corrective action to minimize
deviation of control variable. Whereas, ratio control is special type of feed-forward control
where two disturbances are measured and held at constant ratio with each other.
4. Describe the controller tuning method of Harriot.
When it is undesirable to allow sustained oscillations, the Harriotts method of controller
tuning is used. The process is characterized by finding the gain at which the system has
a damping ratio of , and the frequency of oscillation at this point. Similar to the Ziegler-
Nichols method, the controller parameters are calculated from the gain and oscillation
frequency.
P 1.1
PI 1.1
/2.6
PID 1.1
/3.6
/9
determined whether the trial value of gain is the desired one. Second, while one loop is
being tested in this manner, its output may affect several other loops, thus possibly
upsetting an entire unit. While all tuning methods require that some changes be made in
the control loop, other techniques require only one and not several tests, unlike the
closed-loop methods. Also, if the tuning parameters are too aggressive, the expected
response can be obtained by increasing the proportional band (or decreasing the
proportional gain). The integral and derivative settings probably need to be modified. The
proportional gain has to be reduced to 3.5 to have a quarter of amplitude decay.
5. What is the valve characteristics?
All control valves are classified by relationship between the valve stem position and the
flow rate through the valve. Control valves exhibit and Inherent characteristic and
install or effective characteristic.
Inherent characteristic: This control valve characteristic is assigned with the assumption
that the set point indicates the extent of the valve opening and that the pressure
difference is determined by the valve alone.
(a) Quick Opening: In this type, the relationship between flow and valve opening is
approximately linear up to 60-70% of valve opening. After this limit, the flow
does not change rapidly with the change in the valve opening.
(b) Linear Opening: The flow is directly proportional ro the valve opening for a
constant pressure drop. The relationship thus can be expressed as a straight
line. It is given as:
Where,
Stem position (m)
(iii) The integral of the absolute value of error (IAE) should be minimum. The IAE
is defined as:
(iv) The integral of time-weighted absolute error (ITAE) should be minimum. The
ITAE is defined as:
Where e is defined as the generalized error, such that
(d) Explain the tuning criteria of Ziegler-Nicholls method.
The Ziegler-Nichols technique of controller tuning is also called Ultimate Cycling
Method is based on adjusting a closed loop until steady oscillations occur.
Controller settings are then based on the conditions that generate the cycling. This
method is based on frequency response analysis.
Unlike the process reaction curve method which uses data from the open-loop
response of a system, the Ziegler-Nichols tuning technique is a closed-loop
procedure. It goes through the following steps:
(i) Bring the system to the desired operational level
(ii) Reduce any integral and derivative actions to their minimum effect
(iii) Using proportional control only and with the feedback loop closed, introduce
a set point change and vary proportional gain until the system oscillates
continuously. The frequency of continuous oscillation is the cross over
frequency
(v) Using the values of
&
Proportional
Proportional-Integral
Proportional-Integral-Derivative
The settings above reveal the rationale of the Ziegler-Nichols methodology.
(i) For proportional control alone, use a gain margin equal to 2
(ii) For PI control use a lower proportional gain because the pressure of the
integral control mode introduces additional phase lag in all frequencies with
destabilizing effects on the system. Therefore lower
maintains
approximately the same gain margin.
(iii) The presence of the derivative control mode introduces phase lead with
strong stabilizing effects in the closed-loop response. Consequently the
proportional gain
Frictional force exerted upward & resulting from the close contact of the
stem with valve packing; is the friction coefficient between stem & packing.
Apply Newtons law and take
Let
and
and take
The last equation indicates that the stem-position follows inherent second-order
dynamics. The transfer function is
Usually,
and
factor (or
factors for their valves. These factors form the basis for all calculations.
The flow coefficient indicates the amount of flow the control valve can handle under
a given pressure drop across the control valve.
/hour at about
30C flowing through the fully opened control valve at a pressure drop of 1kg/
across the control.
The following relationship between
&
The flow coefficient is determined by the manufacturer for various types & sizes of
valves by actual experiments with water. The flow coefficient for 100% valve
opening is termed as
(or
(or
.
There are output variables
The definition of PI controller includes the proportional gain in the integral
term, so we can write as follows:
The adjustments of this controller are:
(i) The proportional band which is adjusted through
(ii) The integration gain which is adjusted through
.
(d) I to P Convertor
The current-to-pressure converter, or simply I/P converter, is an important element
in process control. Often, when we
want to use the low-level electric
current signal to do work, it is easier
to let the work be done by a
pneumatic signal. The I/P converter
gives us a linear way of translating
the 4~20-mA current into a 3~l5 psig
signal. There are many designs for
these converters, but the basic
principle almost always involves the
use of a nozzle/flapper system. Figure
7.6 illustrates a simple way to
construct such a converter. Notice
that the current through a coil
produces a force that will tend to pull the flapper down and close off the gap. A
high current produces a high pressure so that the device is direct acting.
Adjustment of the springs and perhaps the position relative to the pivot to which
they are attached allows the unit to be calibrated so that 4 mA corresponds to 3
psig and 20 mA corresponds to 15 psig.
(e) Self-regulation process
A significant characteristic of some processes is the tendency to adopt a specific
value of the controlled variable for nominal load with no control operations. The
control operations may be significantly affected by such self-regulation.
As an example, consider the control of
liquid temperature in a tank, as shown
in figure. The controlled variable is the
liquid temperature
. This temperature
depends on many parameters in the
process, for example, the input flow rate
via pipe , the output flow rate via
pipe , the ambient temperature
, the
steam temperature
, inlet
temperature