Chap 07x PDF

ECE 5700
Di i l C l S Digital Control Systems

Chapter 7 p
Dr Bradley J Bazuin Dr. Bradley J. Bazuin
Western Michigan University
College of Engineering and Applied Sciences
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
1903 W. Michigan Ave.
Kalamazoo MI, 49008-5329
Stability Analysis Techniques y y q
Stabilityy
Bilinear Transformation
Routh-Hurwitz Criterion Continuous Time
Jurys Stability Test Discrete Time
Root Locus
Nyquist Criterion Nyquist Criterion
Bode Diagram
Interpretation of the Frequency Response
Closed-Loop Frequency Response
ECE 6950
Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the course textbook: C.L. Phillips and H.T Nagle,
Digital Control System Analysis and Design, Prentice Hall, 1995, ISBN: 0-13-309832.
2
Comments
Poles provide an absolute means to define system stability p y y
Continuous and discrete definitions are easy and clear
MATLAB will usually provide the poles and zeros
Wh d i i t t h i t t bilit th t When designing systems, techniques to assess stability that
use variables are required
Routh-Hurwitz and Nyquist-Frequency Response Methods
Continuous time methods to be reviewed
Design techniques to assess discrete time stability are also
required required
Jurys Stability Test
Bilinear transformation of z-domain transfer function for
f t ti frequency testing
ECE 6950 Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the course textbook: C.L. Phillips and H.T
Nagle, Digital Control System Analysis and Design, Prentice Hall, 1995, ISBN: 0-13-309832.
3
Poles of the Characteristic Equation q
For the standard closed-loop feedback system model p y
( ) 0 1 = + z GH
Stable if: all poles are inside the unit circle
Marginally stable: one or more poles on the unit circle
Unstable: any pole outside the unit circle Unstable: any pole outside the unit circle
4
Proof for repeated roots p
Characteristic Equation q
The partial fraction expansions are of the normal form
( ) ( ) ( ) 0
1 1
=
+ N n
n
p z p z p z L
( ) ( ) k k f k f k k
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
N
N
n
n
n
n n
p z
z k
p z
z k
p z
z f k
p z
z f k
p z
z k
z C

+ +

+ +
=
+
+
L L
1
1
1
2
1
2 2
1
1
( )
k
N N
k
n n
k
n
n
k k
p k p k p k k p k k p k k c + + + + + + =
+ +
L L
1 1 1
1
1 2 1 1
For the highest order term
If unbounded the derivatives are also unbounded but
( )
k
n
k
n
k
n
n
k
n
k
p
k
k p k k k c

= =
1
1
1
1
lim lim lim
If unbounded, the derivatives are also unbounded, but
Th i h d i i b d d 0
( ) [ ] ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0
2
1 1
lim lim
2
1
0
1
1
=
+

=
+

n k
k
n
n
n
n
k
p n k k
k n
k
dk
k c d
L
L
The numerator is a constant, the denominator is unbounded 0
5
Discrete GH Equivalent q
For a sampled system, the characteristic equation is found p y , q
based on the input to the sampler.
Figure 7-2
( ) ( ) G G
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) s E s G s E
s G
s G s G
s E
OP o
1
*
1
*
2
2 1
1 1
=
+ +

=
( )
( )
( )
( ) z
G
G G z E
z G
o
OP
= =
2 1
2
( ) ( ) z G z q
OP
=1
( )
( )
( )
G z E
OP
+
2 1
2
( ) ( ) q
OP
( ) ( ) 0
2
1
2
2 1
=
+
+ = z
G
G G
z q
6
Example 7.1: Figure 7-3 (1) p g ( )
From example 5.2 p
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) s R
s H G s G s G
s G s G
s C
*
*
2
*
2
*
1
2
*
1
1

+ +

=
Using the open-loop method of Fig. 7-3b
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) z H G z G z G z q
2 2 1
1 + + =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) s E s G s H s G s E s E
i
*
1 2 1
*
1
=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) z E z HG z G z E z E
i 1 2 1 1
=
( )
( ) ( )
( ) z HG
z G z E
z E
i
2
1
1
1+

=
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
N
N
n
n
n
n n
p z
z k
p z
z k
p z
z f k
p z
z f k
p z
z k
z C
+ +

+ +
=
+
+
L L
1
1
1
2
1
2 2
1
1
( ) G
2
( ) ( ) ( ) z E z G z E
o 1 2
=
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
z G z G z E
o 2 1

=
7
( ) ( ) z HG z E
i 2
1+
Using the open-loop response g p p p
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) z HG
z G z G
z E
z E
z G
i
o
OP
2
2 1
1+

= =
( ) ( ) z G z q
OP
=1
( )
( ) ( ) z G z G
( )
( ) ( )
( )
0
1
1
2
2 1
=
+
+ =
z HG
z G z G
z q
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 1
2 1 2
= + + = z G z G z HG z q( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
The open-loop transfer function is useful in a number of
applications root locus frequency response methods etc
8
applications root locus, frequency response methods, etc.
State Space p
The characteristic equation for state space is defined as q p
( ) 0 = = A I s z q
9
Bilinear Transformation
Where you might have heard of it before. y g
A method of transforming an analog filter into a discrete
digital filter implementation.
Commonly used by MATLAB
The conversion is exact at one frequency and warped for all
other frequencies.
Useful for Butterworth Filters where there is one cutoff frequency
Otherwise the exact frequency should be carefully selected . q y y
10
Bilinear Transformation (2) ( )
Used in this text, transformation from the z plane to the w , p
plane
w
T
+
2
1
1 2
=
z
w
Relationship between the w and s planes on the s plane jw axis
w
T
z

=
2
1
1 + z T
w
Relationship between the w- and s-planes on the s-plane jw axis
1
1 2
1
1 2
+
=
+
=
=
jwT
jwT
e z
w
e
e
T z
z
T
w
jwT
( )
( )
( )
2
tan
2
2
cos 2
2
sin 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
wT
T
j
wT
wT
j
T
e e
e e
T
w
T
jw
T
jw
T
jw
T
jw
w
=
=
+
11
Bilinear Transformation (3) ( )
Relationship between s-plane jw and w-plane w
w
p p j p
w
( )
2
tan
2
wT
T
j w
w
=
For wT small or w small with respect to the sampling rate
w j
wT
T
j w
w
=
2
2
At one half the sampling rate, w=2/2T
=
= j j
T
j w
w
tan
2 2
tan
2
At one quarter the sampling rate, w=2/4T

j
T
j
T T
j
w
2 2 2
j j
T
j w
w
2
tan
2 2
tan
2
=
=

12
T
j
T
j
T T
j w
w
4 2 4

Mapping s- to z- to w-planes pp g p
See Figure 7-4 am page 241. g p g
13
Using BT Results g
Transform the z-domain characteristic equation to the w- q
plane.
Perform s-plane stability computations using the w-plane
h t i ti ti characteristic equation.
14
Routh-Hurwitz Criterion
Stability computation for s-plane characteristic equations. y p p q
See Dorf 6.2 for a complete description with examples.
Procedure Description
Table 7-1 on p. 243
15
Example 7.2 (1) p ( )
Open Loop System p p y
( )
( ) 1
1 1
+
=

s s s
e
s G
sT
OP
( )
( ) ( )
T T T
z e T e z e T z z

+ +
2
1 1 1 1 1
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
T
OP
e z z
z e T e z e T
z
z
s s
Z
z
z
z G

+ +
=
2 2
1
1 1 1
1
1 1
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
00468 . 0 00484 . 0 1 1 +
=
+ +
=

z e T e z e T
z G
T
T T T
OP
Bilinear Transform
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 9048 . 0 1 1

z z e z z
T
OP
w
w
w
T
w
T
z

+
=

+
=
05 . 0 1
05 . 0 1
2
1
2
1
( )
+
+
=
9048 0
05 . 0 1
1
05 . 0 1
00468 . 0
05 . 0 1
05 . 0 1
00484 . 0
w w
w
w
w G
OP
2
16

9048 . 0
05 . 0 1
1
05 . 0 1 w w
Example 7.2 (2) p ( )
( )
+

+
00468 . 0
05 0 1
05 . 0 1
00484 . 0
w
w
( )
( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) w w w + + 20 20 00468 0 20 00484 0
( )

+

=
9048 . 0
05 . 0 1
05 . 0 1
1
05 . 0 1
05 . 0 1
05 . 0 1
w
w
w
w
w
w G
OP
( )
( ) ( ) [ ] ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) w w w w
w w w
w G
OP
+ +
+ +
=
20 9048 . 0 20 20 20
20 20 00468 . 0 20 00484 . 0
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
w w w w
w G
OP

=
+
=
00016 . 0 1872 . 0 8065 . 3 20 0002 . 0 1903 . 0
2
2
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) w w w w
OP
+ + 8065 . 3 8096 . 3 9033 . 1 9048 . 1 2
2
( ) ( ) 0 1 = + = w G K w q
OP
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 00016 . 0 1872 . 0 8065 . 3 8065 . 3 8096 . 3
2 2
= + + = w w K w w w q
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 8065 . 3 1872 . 0 8065 . 3 00016 . 0 8096 . 3
2
= + + = K w K w K w q
17
Example 7.2 (3) p ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 8065 . 3 1872 . 0 8065 . 3 00016 . 0 8096 . 3
2
= + + = K w K w K w q
1
st
term
( ) ( ) ( ) q
0 00016 . 0 8096 . 3 > K
2
nd
term
0 00016 . 0 8096 . 3 > K
810 , 23 < K
2 term
0 1872 . 0 8065 . 3 > K
3 . 20 < K
3
rd
term
0 8065 . 3 > K
18
0 > K
Numerical Pain
The algebra involved in this process is excessive! g p
Getting the algebra right was tough today .
I used MATLAB convolutions to work through the math
and finally got it close to the book and finally got it close to the book.
I found an ibilinear.m file but its forward and inverse trasnforms
differed (ibilinear followed by bilinear did not result in the original differed (ibilinear followed by bilinear did not result in the original
input)
Ibili did id h l i l f G( ) Ibilinear.m did not provide the texts polynomial for G(w)
19
Jurys Stability Test y y
Testing in the z-domain g
Form the Array as shown in Table 7-2
The even rows are the flipped versions of the previous odd
Compute the rest of the array
Conditions:
Q(z=1)>0 Q(z=1)>0
(-1)^n x Q(z=-1)>0
a
n
>abs(a
0
)
abs(b
0
)>abs(b
n-1
)

abs(m
0
)>abs(m
2
) (
0
) (
2
)
20
Example 7.3 repeated (1) p p ( )
Using the last example
( )
( ) ( ) 9048 0 1
00468 . 0 00484 . 0 +
=
z
z G
OP g p
( ) ( ) 9048 . 0 1 z z
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0
9048 . 0 1
00468 . 0 00484 . 0
1 1 =

+
+ = + =
z z
z
K z G K z Q
OP
( ) ( ) 0 00468 0 00484 0 9048 0 9048 1 1
2
= + + + = + = K z K z z w G K z Q( ) ( ) 0 00468 . 0 00484 . 0 9048 . 0 9048 . 1 1 = + + + = + = K z K z z w G K z Q
OP
( ) ( ) 00468 . 0 9048 . 0 00484 . 0 9048 . 1
2
+ + = K z K z z Q
( ) ( ) 00468 . 0 9048 . 0 1 00484 . 0 9048 . 1 1 1
2
+ + = K K Q
( ) 0 00468 . 0 00484 . 0 1 > + = K K Q
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
0 > K
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 00468 . 0 9048 . 0 1 00484 . 0 9048 . 1 1 1 1
2 2
+ + = K K Q
( ) ( ) 00468 . 0 00484 . 0 9048 . 1 9048 . 0 1 1 1
2
+ + + = K K Q
( ) ( ) 00016 . 0 8096 . 3 1 1
2
= K Q
23810 < K
21
( ) ( ) Q
Example 7.3 repeated (2) p p ( )
Using the last example g p
( ) ( ) 00468 . 0 9048 . 0 00484 . 0 9048 . 1
2
+ + = K z K z z Q
0 2
a a >
00468 . 0 9048 . 0 1 + > K
34 . 20
00468 . 0
9048 . 0 1
=
< K
The same as the previous result. p
22
Example 7.4 (1) p ( )
Example 7.2 at T=1 sec p
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 3679 1
2642 . 0 3679 . 0
1
1 1

+
=

+ +
=

z z
z
e z z
e T e z e T
z G
T
T T T
OP
( ) ( )
2642 0 3679 0 + z
( ) ( ) 0
3679 . 0 3679 . 1
2642 . 0 3679 . 0
1 1
2
=
+
+
+ = + =
z z
z
K z G K z Q
OP
( ) 2642 . 0 3679 . 0 3679 . 0 3679 . 1
2
+ + + = K z K z z z Q
( ) ( ) 2642 . 0 3679 . 0 3679 . 0 3679 . 1
2
+ + = K z K z z Q
( ) ( ) 2642 . 0 3679 . 0 1 3679 . 0 3679 . 1 1 1
2
+ + = K K Q
( ) 0 2642 0 3679 0 1 K K Q
0 > K
( ) 0 2642 . 0 3679 . 0 1 > + + = K K Q
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 2642 . 0 3679 . 0 1 3679 . 0 3679 . 1 1 1 1
2
+ + = K K Q
n
( ) ( ) ( ) 2642 0 3679 0 7358 2 1 1 K Q
n 38 . 26
7358 . 2
= < K
23
( ) ( ) ( ) 2642 . 0 3679 . 0 7358 . 2 1 1 = K Q
1037 . 0
Example 7.4 (2) p ( )
Example 7.2 at T=1 sec p
( ) ( ) 2642 . 0 3679 . 0 3679 . 0 3679 . 1
2
+ + = K z K z z Q
0 2
a a >
2642 . 0 3679 . 0 1 + > K
39 . 2
3679 . 0 1
=
< K 39 . 2
2642 . 0
< K
39 . 2 0 < < K
Longer sample period, slower sample rate becomes
unstable more quickly with gain.
24
Example 7.5 (1) p ( )
Characteristic Equation Given q
( ) 20 . 0 05 . 1 8 . 1
2 3
+ = z z z z Q
( ) 20 . 0 1 05 . 1 1 8 . 1 1 1
2 3
+ = Q( )
05 . 0 =
Q
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
( ) ( ) 2 0 05 1 8 1 1 1
20 . 0 1 05 . 1 1 8 . 1 1 1 1 1
2 3 3
+ = Q
( ) ( )
05 . 4
2 . 0 05 . 1 8 . 1 1 1
=
=
a a >
0 3
a a >
20 . 0 1 >
25
Example 7.5 (2) p ( )
Characteristic Equation Given q
( ) 20 . 0 05 . 1 8 . 1
2 3
+ = z z z z Q
1 8 . 1 05 . 1 20 . 0
96 . 0 59 . 1 69 . 0
69 . 0 59 . 1 96 . 0
20 . 0 05 . 1 8 . 1 1

2 0
b b >
69 . 0 96 . 0 >
The system is stable!
roots([1 -1.8 1.05 -0.2])=
26
[0.8000, 0.5000, 0.5000]
Root Locus
Locus of possible poles for a given transfer function with a p p g
selectable gain constant.
( ) ( ) z G K z Q
OP
+ =1
See Dorf 7 for a complete description with examples.
P d D i ti Procedure Description
Table 7-3 on p. 250
27
Root Locus for Discrete Systems y
The plotting is identical, the stability bounds differ! p g , y
Unit circle considerations
Poles move to zeros
MATLAB rlocus function provides plots!
28
Example 7.7 (1) p ( )
Function Provided
( )
( )
( ) ( ) 368 . 0 1
717 . 0 386 . 0

+
=
z z
z
z G
= , 717 . 0 zeros
368 . 0 , 1 = zeros
Connect the dots
Asymptotes
Sketch the general shape Sketch the general shape
29
Example 7.7 (2) p ( )
Compute breaks on the real axis p
( ) [ ]
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
368 . 0 1
717 . 0 386 . 0
368 . 0 1
717 . 0 386 . 0
368 . 0 1
386 . 0
0

+

= =
z z
z
z z
z
z z dz
z G d
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 717 . 0 1 717 . 0 368 . 0 368 . 0 1 0 + + = = z z z z z z
dz
z G d
( ) [ ]
1
2
= z
d
z G d
( )
( ) 717 . 0 717 . 0 368 . 0 368 . 0
1 717 . 0 717 . 0 368 . 0 368 . 0 1
+ + +
+ + + z
dz
( ) [ ]
3488 . 1 434 . 1 1
2
+ = z z
dz
z G d
t ([ 1 1 434 1 348856]) [ 2 0819 0 6479]
30
roots([-1 -1.434 1.348856]) = [-2.0819, 0.6479]
Example 7.7 (3) p ( )
Jury Stability y y
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) 368 . 0 1
717 . 0 368 . 0
1 1

+
+ = + =
z z
z
K z G K z Q
OP
( ) 717 0 368 0 368 0 368 0 368 1
2
K K Q( ) 717 . 0 368 . 0 368 . 0 368 . 0 368 . 1
2
+ + + = K z K z z z Q
( ) ( ) 2638 . 0 368 . 0 368 . 1 368 . 0
2
+ + + = K z K z z Q
( ) ( )
0 2638 . 0 368 . 0
2638 . 0 368 . 0 1 368 . 1 368 . 0 1 1
2
> + =
+ + + =
K K
K K Q
0 > K
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 1041 0 736 2
0 2638 . 0 368 . 0 368 . 0 368 . 1 1
2638 . 0 368 . 0 1 368 . 1 368 . 0 1 1
2
> =
> + + + =
+ + + =
K
K K
K K Q
736 . 2 1041 . 0 < K
27 26 K
31
0 1041 . 0 736 . 2 > = K
27 . 26 < K
Example 7.7 (4) p ( )
Jury Stability y y
a a >
( ) ( ) 2638 . 0 368 . 0 368 . 1 368 . 0
2
+ + + = K z K z z Q
0 2
a a >
2638 . 0 368 . 0 1 + > K
39 . 2
2638 . 0
368 . 0 1
=
< K
39 . 2 0 < < K
32
Example 7.7: MATLAB p
Root Locus
1.5
System: sysd
Gain: 2.39
Pole: 0.242 +0.967i
Damping:
Overshoot (%):
Frequency (rad/sec):
clear
A
x
i
s
0.5
1
System: sysd
Gain: 0.196
Pole: 0.648 +0.00464i
Damping:
Overshoot (%):
System: sysd
Gain: 15
Pole: -2.09
Damping:
Overshoot (%):
clear
close all
clc
numd=0 368*[0 1 0 717]
I
m
a
g
i
n
a
r
y

A
-0.5
0
Frequency (rad/sec): Frequency (rad/sec): numd 0.368 [0 1 0.717]
dend=conv([1 -1],[1 -0.368])
sysd=tf(numd,dend,-1)
rlocus(sysd)
Real Axis
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
-1.5
-1
rlocus(sysd)
33
Real Axis
PD control of a marginally stable system. T= 1 sec g y y
( )
( )
2
10 1 1
s
s K
s
e
s G
sT
+
=

( )
( )
=
1 10
10
1 1 10 1
Z K
z s
Z K
z
z G( )

+ =
=
3 2 3
10
s s
Z K
z s
Z K
z
z G
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )

+ +
=

+
+
=
2
2
3
2
2
1
1
2
1 10
1 2
1
1
10 1
z
z
T
z T
K
z
z z T
z
z T
K
z
z
z G

( )
( ) ( )
2 2
1
5 . 10
5 . 9
5 . 10
1
5 . 9 5 . 10

=
z
z
K
z
z
K z G
( )
( )
( )
2
1
9048 . 0 5 . 10

=
z
z K
z G
34
Example 7.8 (2) p ( )
Compute breaks on the real axis p
( ) [ ]
( )
( )
( )
3 2
1
9048 . 0 5 . 10
2
1
5 . 10
0
= =
z
z
z
dz
z G d
( ) [ ]
( ) ( ) ( )
2 3
1 9048 0 5 10 2 1 5 10 0
z G d ( ) [ ]
( ) ( ) ( )
2 3
1 9048 . 0 5 . 10 2 1 5 . 10 0 = = z z z
dz
( ) [ ]
( ) [ ] 19 21 5 . 10 5 . 10 1 0 + = = z z z
dz
z G d
( ) [ ] G d
Break Points @z=1 and z=0.809
( ) [ ]
( ) [ ] 5 . 8 5 . 10 1 0 + = = z z
dz
z G d
Break Points @ z 1 and z 0.809
35
Example 7.8 (3) p ( )
Jury Stability y y
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2
1
9048 . 0 5 . 10
1 1

+ = + =
z
z K
K z G K z Q
OP
( ) 9048 0 5 10 5 10 1 2
2
K K Q( ) 9048 . 0 5 . 10 5 . 10 1 2
2
+ + = K z K z z z Q
( ) ( ) 5 . 9 1 2 5 . 10
2
+ + = K z K z z Q
0 > K
( ) ( )
0 5 . 9 5 . 10
5 . 9 1 1 2 5 . 10 1 1
2
> =
+ + =
K K
K K Q
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 5 9 1 1 2 5 10 1 1 1
2 2
> + + K K Q
2 . 0 < K
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 5 . 9 5 . 10 4
0 5 . 9 1 1 2 5 . 10 1 1 1
> =
> + + =
K K
K K Q
2 . 0
20
4
= < K
36
20
Example 7.8 (4) p ( )
Jury Stability y y
a a >
( ) ( ) 5 . 9 1 2 5 . 10
2
+ + = K z K z z Q
0 2
a a >
5 . 9 1 1 > K
1 5 . 9 1 > K
0 > K 210 0
2
< K 0 > K 210 . 0
5 . 9
= < K
Combining conditions
2 . 0 0 < < K
g
37
Example 7.8: MATLAB p
Root Locus
0.8
1
clear
close all
clc
r
y

A
x
i
s
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
System: sysd
Gain: 0.0363
Pole: 0.804 - 9.3e-010i
Damping: 1
Overshoot (%): 0
Frequency (rad/sec): 0.218
T=1
num=[0 10 1]
den=[1 0 0]
I
m
a
g
i
n
a
r
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
System: sysd
Gain: 0.199
Pole: -0.991
Damping: 0.00284
Overshoot (%): 99.1
sys=tf(num,den)
sysd=c2d(sys,T,'zoh')
Real Axis
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
-1
-0.8
[numd,dend]=tfdata(sysd,'v')
rlocus(sysd)
38
Nyquist Criterion yq
Contour Plots of the characteristic equation q
Reference input contour: the jw axis and a semicircle enclosing
the right-half-plane
See the Nyquist path in Figure 7-12 See the Nyquist path in Figure 7-12
See Dorf Notes Chap10
R.C. Dorf and R.H. Bishop, Modern
Control Systems, 9
th
ed., Prentice Hall,
2001 ISBN 0-13-030660-6
39
2001. ISBN 0 13 030660 6
Nyquist Criterion Background yq g
Concepts originally developed by H. Nyquist in 1932 p g y p y yq
called, The Nyquist Stability Criterion.
This all starts by going back to the characteristic equation
f f db k t of feedback systems:
( )
( )
( ) ( ) s H s G
s G
s T
GH
+
=
1
Focusing on the denominator and characteristic equations:
( ) ( ) s H s G + 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) s H s G s L s F + = + = 1 1
What Nyquist proposed was a mapping of contours from
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) s H s G s L s F + = + = 1 1
the s-plane to the plane.
40
Nyquist Criterion: Step 1 yq p
The result that this all get us are: g
(Dorf p. 501, 10th ed.) If a contour in the s-plane encircles Z zeros
and P poles of F(s) and does not pass through any poles or zeros of
F(s) and the traversal is in the clockwise direction along the ( ) g
contour, the corresponding contour in the F(s)-plane encircles the
origin N=Z-P times in the clockwise direction.
1. If the contour encloses an unmatched zero or a pole, the mapping p pp g
will encircle 0,0. The direction describes whether it is a zero or pole.
2. If we build a contour that encircles the entire s-plane right half-
plane, encirclements of the origin in the -plane provides information
th t t bilit ! on the system stability!
3. Zeros in are the poles of ; therefore, encirclements can provide
information on the stability of a system based on a frequency domain
(jw) structure (jw) structure.
41
Nyquist Criterion: Step 2 yq p
What if we just plotted the open-loop system? j p p p y
If we build a contour that encircles the entire s-plane right half-
l i l t f ( 1 0) i th l id i f ti
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 = = s F s H s G s L
plane, encirclements of (-1,0) in the -plane provides information
on the system stability!
Nyquist stability criterion
A feedback system is stable if and only if the contour in the -
plane does not encircle the (-1,0) point when the number of poles p ( ) p p
of in the right-hand s-plane is zero (P=0).
A feedback system is stable if and only if, for the contour , the
number of counterclockwise encirclements of the (-1,0) point is
equal to the number of poles of with positive real parts.
42
Nyquist for Discrete Systems yq y
For a discrete system, we have repetition in jw. y , p j
Only useful to plot ws/2>w>-ws/2
The new contour plot should follow a RHP band
Generating Nyquist plots in the z-domain
Map the Nyquist Contour to the z-domain Map the Nyquist Contour to the z domain
Counter-clockwise around the unit circle (excluding z=1)
43
Example 7.10 p
Given the z-domain open-loop transfer function p p
( )
( ) ( ) 368 . 0 1
264 . 0 368 . 0

+
=
z z
z
z G
1
1.5
Root Locus
1.5
2
Nyquist Diagram
0
0.5
m
a
g
i
n
a
r
y

A
x
i
s
0
0.5
1
m
a
g
i
n
a
r
y

A
x
i
s
-1
-0.5
I
m
-1.5
-1
-0.5
I
m
44
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
-1.5
Real Axis
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0
-2
Real Axis
Nyquist Diagram Stability Margins yq g y g
From Dorf:
The gain margin is the increase in the system gain when the phase
=-180 degrees that will result in a marginally stable system with
intersection of the or point on the Nyquist diagram. p yq g
The phase margin is the amount of phase shift of the GH(jw) at
unity magnitude that will result in a marginally stable system with
intersection of the or point on the Nyquist diagram. p yq g
These margins are based on the gain and phase of L(s) or
GH(s), the open loop or loop gains.
45
Nyquist Diagram Stability Margins yq g y g
For Nyquist plots, intersecting the (1,0)
point defines marginal stability. Therefore,
if gain (or loss) is applied to G(s)H(s) can the
contour plot be driven to intersect 1? If so,
h i h h i i i h there is that much gain margin in the
system before it become unstable.
Alternately, If we look at a circle of radius
(i i h 1 0) f bl one (intersecting the 1,0), for stable
systems, the angle between where the
contour crosses the circle and (-1,0) defines
the phase margin to stability In other the phase margin to stability. In other
words, that open loop transfer function is
phase margin degrees away from being
unstable
R.C. Dorf and R.H. Bishop, Modern
Control Systems, 9
th
ed., Prentice Hall,
2001. ISBN 0-13-030660-6
unstable.
46
Bode Diagram g
Plotting the frequency response of the system g q y p y
For instructions on how:
Table 7.5
Dorf Chapter 8 section 2
See Dorf Notes 8_2
If you work with frequency responses, you must be able to
draw back of the envelope Bode Diagrams!!!
47
Frequency Response Methods q y p
The gain and phase plot of the open-loop transfer function g p p p p
can directly provide gain margin and phase margin
information
The phase where the gain is 1 The phase where the gain is 1
180-the phase is the phase margin
The gain where the phase is -180 degrees
1/gain is the gain margin
Nichols Plot
Plots the gain vs phase
Bode is gain vs freq and phase vs freq
Nichols takes freq and plots the gain & phase point and then goes to c o s es eq d p o s e g & p se po d e goes o
the next frequency
48
Nichols Plot of Example 7.10 p
Nichols Chart
20
30
40
Nichols Chart
nichols(sysd)
0
10
20
System: sysd
Gain (dB): -0.0232
Phase (deg): -150
n
-
L
o
o
p

G
a
i
n

(
d
B
)
nichols(sysd)
[Gm,Pm,Wg,Wp] = margin(sysd)
Gm =
2.3944
Pm =
30 3847
-20
-10
System: sysd
Gain (dB): -7.47
Phase (deg): -180
O
p
e
n
30.3847
Wg =
1.3250
Wp =
0.7718
-225 -180 -135 -90
-30
Open-Loop Phase (deg)
49

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Di i l C l S Digital Control Systems

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