Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO PHOTONIC CRYSTAL:
Photonic Crystals are periodic nanostructures that are designed to affect the motion of
photons in the same way as the periodic potential in a semiconductor crystal affects the
electron motion. Generally, PCs are composed of periodic dielectric, metello-dielectric
nanostructures, which have alternative lower and higher dielectric constant materials in one,
two and/or three dimensions to affect the propagation of electromagnetic waves inside the
structure. As a result of this periodicity, the transmission of light is absolutely zero in certain
freuency ranges which is called as Photonic !and Gap "P!G#. !y introducing the defects
"point defects or line defects or both# in these periodic structures, the periodicity and thus the
completeness of the P!G are entirely bro$en which allows to control and manipulate the
light. %lectromagnetic wave propagation in periodic media is first studied by &ord 'ayleigh
in ())).*hese structures are +ne ,imensional "(,# Photonic Crystals "(,PCs# which has a
P!G that prohibits the light propagation through the planes.
-n (.)/, 0ablonovitch and 1ohn have proposed 2,PCs and 3,PCs, which have a periodic
dielectric structure in two dimensions and three dimensions, respectively. *he periodic
dielectric structures e4hibit a P!G. !oth of their proposals are concerned with higher
dimensional "2, or 3,# periodic optical structures. 'esearchers all around the globe has
reported many PC based devices li$e optical interleavers add-drop filters , multiple4ers and
demultiple4ers , power splitters , mach-zehnder interferometer , band pass filters etc. *hese
devices usually have very low size, low weight, low cost, high spectral selectivity and good
lifetime as compared with their conventional counterparts.
'obinson 5. and 6a$$eeran '. have investigated various cavity based band pass filter using
2-, photonic crystals. *hey observed the normalized transmission spectra of suare cavity
based PC!P7.7or 2(82( suare lattice, the wavelength of the first reduced P!G ranges from
(29(nm to()3: nm and for second ranges from /(; nm to /3/ nm without introducing
defects, as reported in. +ptical filters are receiving great consideration now a day because
they can be used in wavelength division multiple4ing "<,=# applications. -n this paper, a
novel design of 2-, photonic crystal based band pass filter with suare cavity is proposed
1
and analyzed for optimized performance. *he photonic band gap "P!G# has been calculated
by plane wave e4pansion "P<%# method. *he device is ultra compact with the overall wafer
size being (2>m 8(2>m. *he concept of !eranger?s perfectly matched layer has been utilized
for boundary conditions. *he designed structure is simulated and analyzed by $eeping the
number of AP=& layers eual to (:. 7urther the performance of designed band pass filter is
analyzed by varying the radius of coupling rods and scatterer rods. *his photonic crystal
structure is designed, simulated and analyzed by using opti7,*, simulation software using
official license.
1.2 PHOTONIC BAND GAP:
!ecause of periodicity in structure of photonic crystal the transmission of light is absolutely
zero in certain freuency ranges which is called as Photonic band gap, i.e. a photonic band
gap "P!G# crystal is a structure that could manipulate beams of light in the same way
semiconductors control electric currents. A semiconductor cannot support electrons of energy
lying in the electronic band gap. 5imilarly, a photonic crystal cannot support photons lying in
the photonic band gap. !y preventing or allowing light to propagate through a crystal, light
processing can be done.
7igure (.(- photonic band gap
2
1.3 WORKING OF PHOTONIC BAND GAP:
-n a photonic crystal light entering the perforated material will reflect and refract off
interfaces between glass and air. *he comple4 pattern of overlapping beams will lead to
cancellation of a band of wavelengths in all directions leading to prevention of propagation of
this band into the crystal. *he resulting photonic band structure can be modified by filling in
some holes or creating defects in the otherwise perfectly periodic system.
3
Chapter-2
TYPES AND FABRICATION OF PHOTONIC CRYSTAL
PCs are classified mainly into three categories according to its nature of structure periodicity,
that is, +ne ,imensional "(,#, *wo ,imensional "2,#, and *hree ,imensional "3,# PCs.
2.1 ONE DIMENSIONAL PC:
-n (,PCs, the periodic modulation of the refractive inde4 occurs in one direction only while
the refractive inde4 variations are uniform for other two directions of the structure. *he P!G
appears in the direction of periodicity for any value of refractive inde4 contrast i.e. difference
between the dielectric constant of the materials. -n other words, there is no threshold for
dielectric contrast for the appearance of a P!G. 7or smaller values of inde4 contrast, the
width of the P!G appears very small and vice versa. @owever, the P!Gs open up as soon as
the refractive inde4 contrast is greater than one "n(/n2 A (#, where n( and n2 are the
refractive inde4 of the dielectric materials. A defect can be introduced in a (,PCs, by ma$ing
one of the layers to have a slightly different refractive inde4 or width than the rest.
7igure 2.( +ne dimensional PC
4
2.2 TWO DIMENSIONAL PC:
PC structure"s# that are periodic in two different directions and homogeneous in third
direction are called 2,PC which is shown in 7igure (."b# and 2"b#. -n most of the 2,PCs, the
P!G occurs when the lattice has sufficiently larger inde4 contrast. -f the refractive inde4
contrast between the cylinders "rods# and the bac$ground "air# is sufficiently large, 2, P!G
can occur for propagation in the plane of periodicity perpendicular to the rod a4is.
Generally, 2,PCs consist of dielectric rods in air host "high dielectric pillars embedded in a
low dielectric medium# or air holes in a dielectric region "low dielectric rods in a connected
higher dielectric lattice# as shown in 7igures 3"a# and 3"b#. *he dielectric rods in air host give
P!G for the *ransverse =agnetic "*=# mode where the % field is polarized perpendicular to
the plane of periodicity. *he air holes in a dielectric region give "*ransverse %lectric# *%
modes where @ field is polarized perpendicular to the plane of periodicity.
7igure 2.2 *wo dimensional PC
2.3 THREE DIMENSIONAL PC:
A 3,PCs is a dielectric structure which has periodic permittivity modulation along three
different a4es, provided that the conditions of sufficiently high dielectric contrast and suitable
periodicity are met, a P!G appears in all directions. 5uch 3, P!Gs, unli$e the (, and 2,
ones, can reflect light incident from any direction. -n other words, a 3, P!G material
5
behaves as an omnidirectional high reflector. As an e4ample, 7igure 9 depicts the 3,
woodpile structure. ,ue to the challenges involved in fabricating high-uality structures for
the scale of optical wavelengths, early PCs are performed at microwave and mid-infrared
freuencies B(., 2:C. <ith the improvement of fabrication and materials processing methods,
smaller structures have become feasible, and in (... the first 3,PC with a P!G at
telecommunications freuencies is reported B2(, 22C. 5ince then, various lattice geometries
have been reported for operation at similar freuencies B23, 29C. <aveguide and the
introduction of intentional defects in 3,PCs has not progressed as rapidly as in 2,PCs, due
to the fabrication difficulties and the more comple4 geometry reuired to achieve 3, P!Gs.
7igure 2.3 *hree dimensional PC
2.4 FABRICATION OF PHOTONIC CRYSTAL:
@igh inde4 contrast photonic nanostructures are characterized by dimensions that are of the
order of, and typically smaller than the wavelength of light for which they are designed.
*he fabrication process is based on the following stepsD
&ithographic patterning of the structures using deep EF or electron beam lithography.
Pattern transfer to the design layer, typically by dry etching of the device layer.
!uried o4ide removal to achieve vertically symmetric structures, such as free standing
membranes.
6
All three technological steps are subGect to variations dependent on particular material
system.
7igure 2.9 !loc$ diagram for fabrication of a 2-, photonic crystal
2.4.1 DRY ETCHINGD
After lithographic patterning of the photonic devices, the pattern has to be transferred from
the photosensitive resist to a high-inde4 device layer, i.e. silicon, by highly anisotropic
etching.
2.4.2 BURIED OXIDE REMOVAL:
'emoving the bottom cladding layer creates vertically symmetric structures where no
polarization mi4ing occurs, and moreover, it results in an increase of the vertical inde4
contrast. *he latter increases the optical field confinement and reduces propagation loss due
to radioactive or evanescent lea$age into the substrate. *he buried o4ide is typically removed
by isotropic wet etchingH in 5+- devices, the process involves the use of buffered
hydrofluoric acid "!@7# to selectively remove the silica cladding with the etching rate of
about /: nm/min.
2.5 FABRICATING PHOTONIC CRYSTAL USING FOCUS ION BEAM ETCHING:
@aving simulated photonic crystal structure cavities we began fabrication via focused ion
beam etching "7-!# our aim being to create a suspended membrane with the I6odaI cavity
described previously. +ther groups have performed fabrication with 7-! in diamond of
different $ind of photonic crystal structures, some group performed also a measure of a J
7
factor of J K L3L. @ere we try different approach in order to fabricate the I6odaI Cavity. -n
the first fabrication step, the diamond crystal is undercut by turning side-on and etching to
obtain a 2::nm thic$ slab attached to the bul$ "a suspended slab#. -n this stage the use of
platinum deposition, as described before, is crucial in order to obtain precise structures. <e
needed to etch the membrane first, because if we had made the photonic crystal structure
first, at the stage in which we etch the membrane some sputtering could have filled the holes.
-n order to etch the membrane we mounted the sample on a stage, and then tilted it to .:M.
After we covered the 6F-centre array zone with silver, in order to protect the implanted 6F-
swe etched a thin membrane of 2::nm according to the results of the simulation shown
previously.

7igure 2.L- 5econdary electron image of the sample
-n 7ig.(.3 "a# we can see a top view of the membrane and in (.3 "b# we can see an image of
the same membrane tilted by 9LM. After we made the membrane we repositioned the sample
horizontally and finally we etched the he4agonal air hole array with cavity formed from three
filled holes. 7ig. 3.9 shows two views, tilted 9LM at different magnifications, of the resulting
structure. !oth were secondary electron images ta$en with 7-! after the etching. -n 7ig. 3.9
"a#, we can see the photonic crystal cavity etched in the membrane. *his is more evident in
7ig. 3.9 "b# where we have a scan over a larger area which shows the size of the cavities
compared to the suspended membrane. -n the top view, we can observe the cavity and notice
some imperfections in it due to the 7-! techniue which creates deposits of etched material
during the scanning. -n 7ig. (("b# we can see an image ta$en with a confocal microscope, in
8
which blue colour means low intensity and red colour means high intensity. !ecause there is
no "or less# etch damage in these regions. *his is an encouraging because it means that if
there were an 6FNcentre in the cavity we might be able to see it. <e performed some
measurement of the spectrum of the light emitted from the cavity region. Enfortunately we
were not able to see any enhancement of the signal as we might e4pect from a cavity
resonance, but Gus a broad emission as shown in 7ig. (2. At this stage we decided to ta$e a
step bac$ and to perform a preliminary study about the real possibility of coupling a single
6FNcentre to a larger structure etched in the diamond with 7-!. *his motivated our studies
of the solid immersion lens as will be discussed in the ne4t section.
"a# "b#
7igure 2.;- 5econdary electron image of a etched membrane in the diamond sample. a# a top
view of the etched membrane. b# 9LM *ilted view of the etched membrane.
*here were an 6FNcentre in the cavity we might be able to see it. <e performed some
measurement of the spectrum of the light emitted from the cavity region. Enfortunately we
were not able to see any enhancement of the signal as we might e4pect from a cavity
resonance, but Gus a broad emission as shown in 7ig. (2. At this stage we decided to ta$e a
step bac$ and to perform a preliminary study about the real possibility of coupling a single
6FNcentre to a larger structure etched in the diamond with 7-!. *his motivated our studies
of the solid immersion lens as will be discussed in the ne4t section.
9
O
"a# "b#
7igure 2./ 5econdary electron image of a etched photonic crystal structure in the diamond
sampleD a# *ilted view of the cavity ta$en with 7-! at different tilt P magnitude.b# &arger
image of the membrane and the cavities.
10
Chapter-3
DESIGN OF A NOVEL 2-D PHOTONIC CRYSTAL SUARE CAVITY
BASED BAND PASS FILTER
3.1 INTRODUCTION:
@ere we are designing a band pass filter for electromagnetic waves for which we are ta$ing
use of a 2-, photonic crystal, we are ma$ing a waveguide and a suare cavity inside it by
introducing line defect, the four scatterer rods are situated on four corners of the suare
cavity, so it is a application of photonic crystal as a filter. -n selecting a particular freuency
band there is a big role of scatterer and coupling roads of the photonic crystal, in our 2-,
photonic crystal due to interaction of reflected waves from rods inside crystal having
different phases causes the cancellation of waves which are outside a particular freuency
band.
*he designed band pass filter can behave as a wavelength selective narrow band pass filter
with the introduction of scatterer rods at all the four corners of suare cavity. *his filter is
useful for wavelength division multiple4ing "<,=# applications. 7urther the analysis of this
photonic crystal based band pass filter "PC!P7# is done by varying the radius of coupling
rods and scatterer rods. A good wavelength selective nature with bandwidth about (: nm and
center wavelength of pass band (.9/:( >m is achieved. *he normalized transmission
spectrum of this filter is obtained using finite difference time domain "7,*,# method.
3.2 DESIGN PARAMETERS:
A 2-, rectangular lattice is designed with number of dielectric rods in z direction K 2( and
number of dielectric rods in 4 direction K 2(. *he lattice constant "a# is eual to L9:nm. *he
cross-section of dielectric rods is circular. *he radius of the rods is :.()L8a which is
appro4imately eual to :.(>m. *he wafer dimensions areD length K (2>m and width K (2>m.
*he refractive inde4 of dielectric rods is 3.9; "permittivity Qr K ((../#.*hese rods are
surrounded by air "refractive inde4K(#. *hus there is high inde4 contrast ratio between rods
and air. 7igure ( shows the proposed structure of two dimensional photonic crystal suare
cavity based band pass filter
11
!oth point and line defects are utilized to design this band pass filter. As observed from
figure ( that there are two in-lines uasi waveguides and a resonant suare cavity placed
between them consisting of three rings.
7igure 3.( Photonic crystal suare cavity based band pass filter
*his resonant suare cavity possesses dielectric scatterer rods at all the four corners which
provide high spectral selectivity. *he coupling rods are positioned between the in-line uasi
waveguide and resonant cavity. A Gaussian modulated continuous wave signal is inGected by
vertical input plane at the input port and the output is observed by placing the observation
point at the output port. *he analysis of this photonic crystal based band pass filter "PC!P7#
is done by varying the radius of coupling rods and scatterer rods.
3.3 SIMULATION AND RESULTS:
A 2-, 32 bit simulation is performed to obtain the response of this filter. *he simulation
runs for L::: time steps "result finalized#. *he result shown is of transverse electric "*%#
polarization. *he normalized transmission spectrum of output port is obtained using
freuency fast fourier transform "77*# calculations of the field by finite difference time
domain "7,*,# method. 7igure 2 shows the normalized transmission spectrum when the
radius of the coupling rods K :.(>m and scatterer rods K :.(2>m. *he normalization has been
done with respect to input plane.
12
7igure 3.2 *he normalized transmission spectrum
7irst, one of the important design parameter i.e. the radius of the coupling rods is varied
$eeping all other parameters same. !y doing so, some other pass bands are also observed
with lesser 77* values. *he desire to achieve greater elevating heights and to operate at
higher temperature led to the development of the belt incorporating polyester and steel cable
reinforcing elements. *his has resulted in general change in high capacity buc$et elevator
engineering.
R!"#$% &' ()* +&$,-#./ 0&"% #. 12 N&02!-#3*" (0!.%2#%%#&. 4!-$*
5.56 5.2178
5.57 5.4943
5.59 5.4943
5.1 5.4943
5.11 5.3563
5.12 5.3563
5.13 5.28:4
*able 3.( 'adius of the coupling rods and normalized *ransmission value of the suare
cavity based band Pass filter
-t is evident from table - that as we increase or decrease the radius of coupling rods in the
vicinity of calculated value i.e. :.(>m, the normalized transmission value decreases. *he
13
ma4imum value is :.9.93 for coupling rod radius K :.(>m.-t is also observed that if we
further increase the coupling rod radius then this filter does not shows the freuency selective
property and other bands along with maGor pass band are also observed. !ut it is further
possible to increase the transmission efficiency by varying the radius of the scatterer rods,
wafer dimension etc. -n the second part of analysis, the other design parameter, i.e. radius of
the scatterer rods is varied by $eeping all other parameters same. *he output result is
summarized in table --.
R!"#$% &'
%+!((*0*0 N&02!-#3*" C*.(*0 ;!4*-*./()
0&"% #. 12 (0!.%2#%%#&. 4!-$* #. 12
5.57 5.8172 5.4416
5.1 5.4943 5.4815
5.12 5.1449 5.4651
5.14 5.5378 5.4996
*able 3.2 'adius of the scatterer rods, normalized transmission value and center wavelength
of the suare cavity based band pass filter
-t is observed that the center wavelength for scatterer rod radius :.:)>m, :.(>m, :.(2>m, and
:.(9>m is (.99(/>m, (.9L(:>m, (.9/:(>m and (.9../ >m respectively. *his shows that the
centre wavelength of the bands shifted into higher wavelength when the radius of the
scatterer rods is increased. A good normalized transmission value is achieved for scatterer rod
radius K :.(2>m. *he bandwidth is about (:nm.
Chapter-9
14
APPLICATIONS OF PHOTONIC CRYSTAL
*he ability to control and manipulate the spontaneous emission by introducing defects in
PCs, and related formation of defect state within P!G has been used for designing the optical
devices for different applications that are directed towards the integration of photonic
devices.
4.1 BRAGG MIRRORS:
%arliest e4ample of photonic crystal initial applications include mirrors for vcsels "vertical
cavity surface emitting lasers# consists of alternating uarter wavelength optical thic$ness
high and low refractive inde4 materials.
7igure 9.( !ragg mirror
4.2 PHOTONIC WAVEGUIDES:
<or$ is currently being done on harnessing the effects of photonic crystals for use in the
construction of waveguides with very low dispersion and loss over much longer distances
than conventional waveguides. *o this end two designs of waveguide have emerged. -n the
first, a standard photonic structure with the reuired band gap is constructed. @owever, the
path along which the light is to be guided contains none of the defects needed to create the
forbidden region. -n this way, light is confined within the waveguide. *his form of
15
waveguide has some very interesting properties such as the ability to guide the light around
sharp corners that is not possible through conventional methods. *his effect has been used to
create waveguide splitters that can split a beam of light with the resultant beams being
transmitted in opposite directions to each other.
*he second consists of two types of fibers where photonic effects are used for guidance. +ne
where the refractive inde4 of the core is higher than the surrounding cladding, the other where
the core inde4 is lower such as the fibers which have a hollow core. 7igure 2 shows a cross-
section of such a fiber, and shows demonstrates how propagation occurs. *he method used
for the construction of such fibers has already been outlined in the section on the +ptical
'egime. As well as the continuing wor$ in constructing these fibers, wor$ is also being
conducted into how the they achieve their specific effect. B), 1. Canning, 2:::C <hile the
high inde4 fiber has been found to behave much li$e the standard fiber, and can be e4plained
in terms of step-inde4ing. -t is the low inde4 core fiber that where guidance is achieved by
conditions allowed only by photonic crystal structures.
7igure 9.2 &eft we have a schematic of a cross-section through a photonic crystal fiber,
while right we have a side view of the photonic fiber with diffraction assisted
. propagation illustrated.
-n the low refractive inde4 core guidance occurs because of the cladding periodicity which is
achieved through the method of construction. *his periodic structure leads to conditions that
use diffraction effects similar to does found in diffraction gratings to ensure that only modes
16
that meet the !ragg conditions R K " 2.n.S.sinT #/m are permitted to propagate along the fibre.
+nly single-mode behaviour is allowed because an angular photonic band gap is generated by
the structure which is used to prevent the propagation of additional modes. *hese band gaps
are controlled by the physicals properties of the fibre and so fibres can be constructed to
specific reuirements in much the same way as tradition fibre are today.
4.3 PERFECT REFLECTORS:
+mni directional mirrors have many applications, such as the walls of laser cavities.
=etallic mirrors are freuently used, however, at freuencies in the optical regime they have
large dissipative losses. *his problem can be addressed through the use of photonic crystals
as proposed by 0ablonovitch. A 3, photonic crystal behaves as an omnidirectional reflector
with little or no loss. @owever, as has been outlined earlier in this report the fabrication of 3,
structures for the reuired wavelengths has many serious problems that have yet to be
overcome.
<or$ has also been conducted to use (, photonic crystals in their place B., ,. 6. Chigrin et
al, properties for reflection of freuencies in the optic regime. *hey are constructed from a
series of layers that change from high to low refractive inde4 giving the periodic structure
common to all photonic crystals. -n order to perform as an onmidirectional reflector the
resultant structure must be designed so that the highest reuired reflection is the same
freuency as the upper limit of the forbidden band gap. *his gap is controlled by the relative
refractive indices of the materials used in it construction. *his has been demonstrated by
B.,,. 6. Chigrin et al, (...C using a lattice of (. layers of 6aAl7 "nK(.39# and Un5e "nK2.)#
with total reflection occurring over the range ;:9 to ;3).
4.4 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES:
+ne of the hopes of photonic crystals is that they can produce new high efficiency light
sources. *he internal uantum efficiency of a standard &%, is very high, sometimes as high
as .../V. @owever, this light cannot be efficiently removed from the device. *otal internal
reflection traps a high proportion of the light inside the crystal. *he e4ternal efficiency of
&%,s is typically 2-9V.
*here are a number of methods which can be used to increase this, with photonic crystals
providing one of the most promising. !y using a photonic crystal as the active material in the
17
&%, we can forbid all modes for photons e4cept those which would normally escape the
crystal. As spontaneous emission in other modes is forbidden, all the energy will then go into
those modes which can escape. -n this way we can have &%,s which actually ta$e advantage
of the high internal uantum efficiency.
4.8 PHOTONIC CRYSTAL LASERS:
-t has been speculated that photonic crystals can be used to produce lasers with an e4tremely
low lasing threshold. *his would allow lasers to operate at much higher efficiencies and with
much less power being lost as heat. @igh efficiency lasers would be very useful in the
photonic circuitry, or any application which involved a large number of lasers in a small
space.
As mentioned earlier, photonic crystals have the property of suppressing spontaneous
emission inside the photonic bandgap. -t is forbidden for photons to propagate inside the
photonic bandgap, and hence it is forbidden for atoms in the crystal to emit photons with
these energies. -n order for lasing to occur, a defect must be introduced into the material. *his
defect produces a freuency inside the bandgap at which photons can propagate. *his defect
should also be directional so that photons are permitted to propagate only in the desired
direction of the beam. *he energy which is pumped into the crystal may then only be emitted
by spontaneous or stimulated emission in a single direction. &asing action will then occur,
without any losses due to unwanted spontaneous emission.
7igure 9.3 Photonic crystal laser
+ne method which has been proposed is to use artificial opals. +pal consists of tiny spheres
of silica with a refractive of around (.9L. *hese spheres are arranged in an f.c.c. structure.
*his structure produces a periodic modulation in refractive inde4 and hence a photonic
crystal. *he space between the silica spheres can be filled with a laser die, to form the
18
amplifying medium of the laser. *he use of photonic crystals, and in particular artificial opals
soa$ed in laser die, should allow the production of low threshold lasers, and be a maGor
advantage in a range of technologies.
4.: INTEGRATED PHOTONIC CIRCUITS:
7or a long time it has been hoped that photonics would follow electronics and create
integrated photonic circuitry. *he increase in data rates in optical communications produces a
considerable drive for ma4imum miniaturisation of photonic devices. @owever, there has
been little success in this area, both because of the large size of various components and the
difficult in guiding light around tight corners. -n both these areas it should be possible to gain
considerable improvements through the use of photonic crystals. Photonic crystal waveguides
should allow for the introduction of much sharper corners than traditional optic fibres, and
the high efficiencies of &%,s and lasers based on photonic crystals reduce the heat produced
by these devices and allows them to be pac$ed into a smaller space.
7igure 9.9 +ptical integrated circuits
Although, much research is on going, this area is still fairly speculative, and it is reasonable
to say that it shall be some time before integrated photonic circuitry is produced. @owever,
when it is,photonic crystals are li$ely to play a central role.
19
4.6 FUTURE DIRECTIONS:
*he applications of photonic crystals in future are supposed to e4tend for-
a# ,esign of ultra compact lasers with almost zero threshold current.
b# *erahertz all-optical switch for routing data along the internet.
c# Collective switching of two-level atoms from ground to e4cited state with low intensity
applied laser fields leading to all-optical transistor action.
d# Eltra-small beamsplitters, =ach-Uehnder interferometers, and functional micro-optical
elements such as wavelength add-drop filters leading to compact photonic integrated
circuits.
e# 5ingle atom memory effects for possible uantum computer applications.
4.6.1 ALL OPTICAL TRANSISTOR:
=icro-photonic all-optical transistor may consist of an active region buried in the
intersection of two wave-guide channels in a 3, P!G material. *he two-level
systems"WatomsX# in the active region are coherently pumped and controlled by laser beams
passing through the wave guides. -n addition, the 3, P!G material is chosen to e4hibit an
abrupt variation in the photon density of states near the transition freuency of the atoms.
7igure 9.L All optical transistor
*his leads to atomic Wpopulation inversionX through coherent pumping, an effect which is
forbidden in ordinary vacuum. *he inversion threshold is characterized by a narrow region of
20
large differential optical gain "solid curve in the inset#. A second, Wcontrol laserX allows the
device to pass through this threshold region leading to strong amplification of the output
signal. -n ordinary vacuum, population inversion is unattainable "dashed curve in the inset#.
4.6.2 ALL OPTICAL ROUTER:
Artist?s depiction of an electro-actively tunable P!G routing device. @ere the P!G material
has been infiltrated with an optically anisotropic material "such as a liuid crystal# e4hibiting
a large electro-optic response. <hen a voltage is applied to the electro optically tunable P!G,
the polarization state "yellow arrows# can be rotated, leading to corresponding shifts in the
photonic band structure.
7igure 9.; All optical router
*his allows light from an optical fiber to be routed into one of several output fibers.
4.6.3 OPTICAL COMPUTING:
<ith optical integrated circuits and optical transistor technology being rendered possible by
photonic crystals, uantum computing with localized light is a very promising technology for
the future. -mmense parallelism, unprecedented speeds, superior storage density, minimal
crosstal$ and interference are some of the advantages that one gets while migrating towards
optical computing
21
CONCLUSION
-n photonic crystals light localization occurs in carefully engineered dielectrics. Photonic
!and Gap formation is a synergetic interplay between microscopic and macroscopic
resonances. (-, and 2-, photonic crystals are easy to fabricate. Plane, line or point defects
can be introduced into photonic crystals and used for ma$ing waveguides, microcavities or
perfect dielectric mirrors by localization of light. Applications of photonic crystals includeY
photonic crystal fibers, lasers, waveguides, add drop filters, all-optical transistors, amplifiers,
routers photonic integrated circuits, optical computing.
22
REFERENCES
23
B(C
Anderson, !. ,. +., and 1. !. =oore, WA perfectly matched anisotropic absorber for use
as an absorbing boundary condition,X -%%% *rans. Antennas and Propagation, vol. 93,
no. (2 pp.
B2C
%li. 0ablonovitch., I-nhibited spontaneous emission on solid-state physics and
electro-nics,I Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. L) "2:#, pp. 2:L.-2:;2, (.)/.
B3C
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