Arjan van Rooij

Eindhoven University of Technology

j.w.v.rooij@tm.tue.nl
Draft, version: ! "une #$$%
Work in progress! Please do not cite/ quote.
Engineering &ontractors in the &hemical 'ndustry. The
Develo(ment of Ammonia )rocesses, *$+*%$.
'n *#%, ,runo -aeser, a .erman o/server of the chemical industry, remar0ed: 1'm 2ergleich 3u
dem, was die 4tic0stoffindustrie heute darstellt, war sie *56% noch ein recht 07mmerliches
)fl8n3chen91

'ndeed, the nitrogen fertiliser industry grew tremendously in these years. ,A4:;s
develo(ment of an ammonia synthesis (rocess was a crucial innovation that made this growth
(ossi/le. Ammonia, a chemical com(ound of nitrogen and hydrogen, is the crucial intermediate
for the (roduction of nitrogen fertilisers. ,A4:;s successful develo(ment of a large scale
ammonia synthesis (rocess o(ened u( an entirely new technological field and had a far+reaching
commercial im(act on the com(any. 't is one of the most im(ortant innovations of the twentieth+
century chemical industry. 'n *#%, when -aeser made his remar0s, several other com(anies
/esides ,A4: had develo(ed ammonia (rocesses. 4ome of these firms were engineering
contractors, com(anies that s(ecialised in the engineering and construction of chemical (lants.
These contractors /uilt many (lants and the nitrogen fertiliser industry too0 off.
The develo(ment of ,A4:;s ammonia (rocess is one of the /est documented innovation
successes of the chemical industry.
#
4ur(risingly little has /een written on the (rocesses that

,. -aeser <*#%=. Stickstoffindustrie. Dresden > ?ei(3ig: 2erlag von Theodor 4tein0o(ff. )reface, no (age
num/er. The @uote can /e translated as: com(ared to what the nitrogen industry is today, it loo0ed li0e a
withering little (lant in *56%.
#
The most im(ortant studies are: ?. :. Aa/er <*B=. The Chemical Industry, !""#!$"% International
&ro'th and Technological Change. CDford: &larendon )ress. E%+*B. F. A((l <*E#=. The Aa/er+,osch
)rocess and the Develo(ment of &hemical Engineering. -. :. :urter, Ed. ( Century of Chemical
)ngineering. Gew Hor0: )lenum, #*+!5. .. )lum(e <**$=. *ie I.&. +ar,enindustrie (&. Wirtschaft, Technik
und Politik. ,erlin: Dunc0er > Aum/lot. #$5+#%5. A. 4. Travis <**E=. Aigh )ressure 'ndustrial &hemistry:
The :irst 4te(s, *$*+*5, and the 'm(act. A. 4. Travis, A. .. 4chrIter, E. Aom/urg > ). ". T. Forris, Eds.
*eterminants in the )-olution of the Chemical Industry, !""#!$!. .e' Technologies, Political
+rame'orks, /arkets and Companies. Dordrecht, ,oston > ?ondon: Jluwer Academic )u/lishers, 5+#. A.
.. 4chrIter <#$$%=. Ein Technologietransfer hat 3wei 4eiten. Kum Technologieaustausch 3wischen
Deutschland und Gordeuro(a <*#$+*5*=. R. )etri, Ed. Technologietransfer aus der deutschen
Chemieindustrie 0!12#!3"4. ,erlin: Dunc0er > Aum/lot, E+$. The account of &arl ,osch, the ,A4:
were develo(ed in the wa0e of this /rea0through however. 4ometimes these alternative
technologies are characterised as ;imitations;: sim(le co(ies of ,A4:;s (rocess. 't is argued that
the other ammonia (rocesses develo(ed in the *$s and ;#$s were only slight variations of the
technology of ,A4:, that the 0nowledge of the .erman com(any (layed a crucial role, and that
,A4: manufactured the largest amounts of ammonia. The (rocesses develo(ed in the wa0e of
the .erman /rea0through were far less im(ortant.
5
This article see0s to adjust the em(hasis commonly (laced on ,A4:. 'nstead of
focussing on ,A4:, ' ta0e u( an industry (ers(ective that eDamines the diffusion of technology
across different firms and countries. This will ma0e it (ossi/le to weigh the wor0 and the
im(ortance of ,A4:;s followers /etter, and will ma0e it (ossi/le to com(lement what is already
0nown of engineering contractors. 4everal studies have tried to give an overview of the activities
and im(ortance of engineering contractors. These authors have argued that the im(ortance of
engineering contractors lies in the develo(ment and diffusion of technology across the industry.
4tudies of engineering contracting have also claimed that engineering contractors had their
origins in wor0 for the American (etroleum industry at the /eginning of the twentieth century and
widened their sco(e to the chemical industry only after the 4econd -orld -ar.
%

Ammonia is a good eDam(le of engineering contractors diffusing technology across the
chemical industry and also shows that these com(anies were already active in the chemical
industry in the *#$s. Engineering contractors were crucial for the ta0e off of the nitrogen fertiliser
industry. EDtensive research in trade journals, hand/oo0s and technical encyclo(aedias forms the
/asis of this article. 't also draws on several com(any studies and general histories of the
chemical industry. This collage of sources results in a more com(rehensive (icture of the
develo(ment of ammonia synthesis technology.
This article has three (arts. 'n the first section, ,A4: and its early followers are central.
These followers included large chemical com(anies in the United 4tates and .reat ,ritain, the
governments of these countries, and the :rench government. The second (art of the article
engineer leading the develo(ment effort <see /elow=, is still authoritative: &. ,osch <*LL=. The
Develo(ment of the &hemical Aigh )ressure Fethod During the Esta/lishment of the Gew Ammonia
'ndustry. Go/el ?ecture, Fay #, *5#. .o,el 5ectures. Including Presentation Speeches and 5aureates6
7iographies. Chemistry !11#!8. Amsterdam: Elsevier for the Go/el :oundation, *B+#%. 4ee also
htt(:66www.no/el.se6chemistry6laureates6*56/osch+lecture.(df. Alwin Fittasch, who develo(ed the catalyst
for ,A4:;s (rocess, is also often @uoted: A. Fittasch <*!=. &eschichte der (mmoniaksynthese.
-einheim: 2erlag &hemie.
5
)articularly )lum(e **$, o(. cit. ###. 4chrIter #$$%, o(. cit. E%.
%
). A. 4(it3 <*EE=. Petrochemicals% The 9ise of an Industry. Gew Hor0: -iley. R. ?andau > G. Rosen/erg
<**#=. 4uccessful &ommerciali3ation in the &hemical )rocess 'ndustries. G. Rosen/erg, R. ?andau > D. &.
Fowery, Eds. Technology and the Wealth of .ations. 4tanford: 4tanford University )ress, B5+*. ". J.
4mith <**E=. )atents, )u/lic )olicy and )etrochemical )rocesses in the )ost+-orld -ar '' Era. 7usiness
and )conomic :istory #B, %5+%*. ?andau > Rosen/erg;s article gave rise to a num/er of similar studies,
for instance: A. Arora > G. Rosen/erg <**E=. &hemicals: A U.4. 4uccess 4tory. A. Arora, R. ?andau > G.
Rosen/erg, Eds. Chemicals and 5ong#Term )conomic &ro'th% Insights from the Chemical Industry. Gew
Hor0: -iley 'nterscience, B+$#. A. Arora > A. .am/ardella <**E=. Evolution of 'ndustry 4tructure in the
&hemical 'ndustry. A. Arora, R. ?andau > G. Rosen/erg, Eds. Chemicals and 5ong#Term )conomic &ro'th%
Insights from the Chemical Industry. Gew Hor0: -iley 'nterscience, 5B*+%5.
#
focuses on engineering contractors, how they entered ammonia and their im(ortance for the
chemical industry. Got only the ammonia synthesis (rocesses of engineering contractors were
crucial for the chemical industry /ut also the technologies contractors develo(ed for the su((ly of
intermediates..
BASF, the Development of Ammonia Synthesis Technology and the First World War.
Although it was well+0nown /y the /eginning of the twentieth century that ammonia was a
com(ound of hydrogen and nitrogen, synthesising ammonia was /elieved to /e im(ossi/le. :rit3
Aa/er, a .erman chemist wor0ing for the Technische Aochschule Jarlsruhe started researching
this su/ject in *$5. 4iD years later he had develo(ed a method that wor0ed on la/oratory scale.
Ae interested ,A4: in the (rocess, one of the large .erman dyestuffs manufacturers and
o(erating eDtensive research facilities, where &arl ,osch was (ut in charge of a team of chemists
and engineers that scaled u( Aa/er;s (rocess. ,osch and his colleagues confronted many
(ro/lems. 4ynthesising ammonia involved high (ressure and high tem(erature, an un0nown
territory in chemical technology, that made e@ui(ment design very difficult. The first converters,
the (art of the ammonia (lant where hydrogen and nitrogen reacted and formed ammonia,
fre@uently /lew u( and ,osch also had to find suita/le, non+lea0ing, com(ressors ca(a/le of
achieving the desired (ressure. 'n addition, Aa/er;s (rocess was catalytic, meaning that its yield
and s(eed could /e increased in the (resence of a (articular su/stance. ,osch (ut Alwin
Fittasch in charge of finding a suita/le catalyst and over the course of several years, Fittasch
tested numerous materials. 'n *$ a suita/le catalyst was found /ut research continued. ,y
*#, #.!$$ su/stances had /een tested in L.!$$ eD(eriments.
!
,osch and his team (rogressed @uic0ly and /uilt a small (ilot (lant in *. Two years
later the first industrial ammonia synthesis (lant in the world /egan (roduction at C((au, near
,A4:;s head@uarters in ?udwigshafen. The technology /ecame 0nown as the Aa/er+,osch
(rocess.
Ammonia was an im(ortant intermediate for the (roduction of nitrogen fertilisers. The
town gas and co0e industries (roduced limited @uantities of ammonium sul(hate, a nitrogen
fertiliser, on the /asis of ammonia /oth industries had to eDtract from their gas. &hilean nitrate
had /een availa/le as a fertiliser (roduct since the nineteenth century. :ood (roduction rested on
fertilisers, it was /elieved, and as the world (o(ulation increased, many eD(ected the de(letion of
natural resources. 'n a famous address to the ,ritish Association for the Advancement of 4cience
in E*E, -illiam &roo0es (redicted that the de(osits of &hilean nitrate would /e eDhausted /y
*#. &roo0es (leaded for a technological solution: the unlimited @uantities of nitrogen in the air
would have to /e ta((ed to manufacture fertilisers and secure food (roduction. 4everal
!
4ee the literature on the Aa/er+,osch (rocess mentioned a/ove.
5
alternative routes were develo(ed around *$$ /ut ,A4:;s Aa/er+,osch led to an a/undant and
chea( source of ammonia and o(ened u( a new field of chemical technology.
L
The Aa/er+,osch (rocess was an im(ortant /rea0through for another reason as well.
&hilean nitrate and ammonia were also intermediates for the (roduction of ammunition and
eD(losives. Foreover, ,ritish and American com(anies controlled the &hilean nitrate industry and
this was a worrying (ers(ective for .ermany in a climate of increasing international tension.
4hortly after the out/rea0 of the :irst -orld -ar, the ,ritish navy /loc0ed .erman har/ours and
cut off the im(orts of &hilean nitrate. -ith financial assistance of the government, ,A4:
develo(ed a (rocess for the oDidation of ammonia to nitric acid, and /uilt a large ca(acity for this
(roduct still during the war. Gitric acid was vital for the (roduction of ammunition /ecause it led to
ammonium nitrate, an eD(losive. <4ee also figure .= ,A4: also /uilt a second, and very large
ammonia (lant in ?euna, near Ferse/urg in the middle of .ermany, to secure (roduction of
ammonia /ecause of the high demand for ammonia and /ecause the site at C((au, close to the
:rench /order, was vulnera/le to air attac0s. The .erman government funded an im(ortant (art
of the ?euna wor0s.
B
:igure . Ammonia as an intermediate for the (roduction of fertilisers and eD(losives.
E
Ammonia
Ammoniumsul(hate
Gitricacid
Ammoniumnitrate
-ithsul(huric
acid
:ertilisers:
ED(losivesandammunition:
(mmonia in the ;nited States.
L
A((l *E#, o(. cit. #*, %L. Travis **E, o(. cit. 5. :. A. Ernst > F. 4. 4herman <*#B=. The -orld;s
'norganic Gitrogen 'ndustry. Industrial < )ngineering Chemistry *<#=, *L+#$%. There *L. T. ). Aughes
<*B!=. Das 1technologische Fomentum1 in der .eschichte. Kur entwic0lung des Aydrierverfahrens in
Deutschland E*E+*55. J. Aausen > R. R7ru(, Eds. /oderne Technikgeschichte. JIln: Jie(enheuer >
-itsch. Criginally (u/lished as Technological Fomentum in Aistory: Aydrogenation in .ermany E*E+*55.
)ast and )resent *L*, %%, $L+5#.
B
)lum(e **$, o(. cit. ##+#B. A. .rossmann > ). -eic0sel <*5$=. *ie Stickstoffindustrie der Welt.
,erlin: Allgemeiner 'ndustrie+2erlag. *B+$B. ". A. "ohnson <#$$#=. Die Facht der 4ynthese <*$$+*#!=. -.
A/elshauser, Ed. *ie 7(S+% eine ;nternehmensgeschichte. F7nchen: ,ec0, B+##$. There LE+E.
E
'n the early *5$s, ammonium nitrate was miDed with clay or marl and this yielded a nitrogen fertiliser. 'n
the United 4tates ammonium nitrate was also directly used as a fertiliser, /ut usually with a lower nitrogen
content com(ared to when ammonium nitrate was used as an intermediate for the (roduction of eD(losives
and ammunition. This again underlines the (ossi/le dual use of ammonia.
%
,A4:;s activities, and the .erman government;s involvement, aroused much interest in other
countries. 'n *#, the .eneral &hemical &o., one of the largest American chemical com(anies,
also /egan wor0ing on ammonia synthesis. Two years later the ,ureau of 4oils, the research unit
of the de(artment of agriculture, started research on the synthesis of ammonia and other
(rocesses which could (rovide nitrogen. Researchers from the ,ureau of 4oils were wor0ing on
nitrogen fertilisers in general since *. The out/rea0 of the :irst -orld -ar triggered a (u/lic
de/ate on ammonia regardless of the neutral (osition of the United 4tates at that time and
regardless of the secure su((ly of &hilean nitrate. 'n *L the federal government funded some
research /ut it too0 another year /efore it organised a coordinated effort. The federal government
confiscated ,A4:;s (atents in *E after the United 4tates had entered the war.
*

'n *B, the (rojects of the ,ureau of 4oils and .eneral &hemical reached the (ilot (lant
stage. The ,ureau of 4oils /uilt a small eD(erimental unit, which was started in Arlington
<2irginia= in August *B, /ut they had trou/le finding a suita/le catalyst. 'n A(ril of the same
year, .eneral &hemical started an ammonia synthesis (ilot (lant, (ro/a/ly in 4hadyside <Gew
Hor0=. .eneral &hemical encountered many technical difficulties as well and a((roached the
government for su((ort. The government and .eneral &hemical agreed that an ammonia (lant
should /e /uilt on the /asis of .eneral &hemical;s (rocess. The government funded the
construction of this (lant, which was named Gitrate )lant M, and later assigned thirty chemists
and engineers form the Army to the (roject.
$
'n August of *L, the government had already
initiated research on the oDidation of ammonia to nitric acid. The ,ureau of 4oils wor0ed on this
(roject, together with the 4emet+4olvay &om(any, a firm that s(ecialised in the engineering and
construction of co0e oven (lants. The 4olvay )rocess &om(any, the American arm of the 4olvay
grou( that o(erated a large soda (lant at 4yracuse <Gew Hor0=, esta/lished the 4emet+4olvay
&om(any in *$#. 4emet+4olvay /uilt a (ilot (lant e@ui((ed with an eD(erimental nitric acid
(rocess at 4yracuse near the soda (lant. The co0e industry su((lied the necessary ammonia.

After the government and .eneral &hemical concluded their contract, wor0 (rogressed
@uic0ly. Gitrate )lant M was /uilt at 4heffield <Ala/ama= and (roduced the first ammonia on L
4e(tem/er *E. Cnly one, the smallest, of the three foreseen units wor0ed at that time,
however, and the catalyst .eneral &hemical had develo(ed (roved to /e com(letely unsuita/le.
The e@ui(ment also failed fre@uently. The converters were of (oor @uality, and the valves and
*
A. -igglesworth <*#B=. The Gitrogen 'ndustry in the United 4tates. =ournal of the Society of Chemical
Industry, Chemistry and Industry %L<5=, 55+5%. There 5%. -. Aaynes <*%!=. (merican Chemical
Industry. >olume II% The World War ?ne Period% !1#!11. Gew Hor0: D. van Gostrand. EB, *+*L. R. C. E.
Davis <*%*=. :orty Hears of :ertili3er Research. Chemical < )ngineering .e's #B<B=, %$+%#. There %$+
%. D. &. Fowery > G. Rosen/erg <**E=. Paths of Inno-ation. Technological Change in 1"th#Century
(merica. &am/ridge: &am/ridge University )ress. B!.
$
Aaynes *%!, o(. cit. EB, *B. ,. -aeser <*##=. *ie 5uftstickstoffindustrie. /it ,esonderer
7er@cksichtigung der &e'innung -on (mmoniak und SalpetersAure. ?ei(3ig: Ctta 4(amer. #L+#B.

-aeser *##, o(. cit. #$+#. -. Aaynes <*!%=. (merican Chemical Industry. >olume I% 7ackground
and 7eginnings. Gew Hor0: D. van Gostrand. #B5.
!
(i(es lea0ed fre@uently so that the desired (ressure could not /e reached. The (lant did not
reach the stage of continuous o(erations.
#
Cnly two months after Gitrate )lant M had /een started, the warring (arties agreed u(on
an armistice in Govem/er *E. -ithin the American administration different o(inions eDisted as
to what to do with the (lant. The government could also not reach agreement with .eneral
&hemical, and therefore Gitrate )lant M closed in "anuary **. 'n "une, the American
government sent a commission of eD(erts to ins(ect ,A4:;s (lant at C((au, now under :rench
control, and the information this commission gathered /ecame availa/le for American com(anies.
'n the s(ring of **, the government also esta/lished the :iDed Gitrogen Research ?a/oratory
<:GR?=. The ,ureau of 4oils; ammonia research grou( moved to this new organisation. Among
other research (rojects, the :GR? continued to wor0 on an ammonia synthesis (rocess,
(articularly on its /asic design, the catalyst, and the e@ui(ment. 'n *#% they started a small
eD(erimental unit with a ca(acity of half a ton of ammonia (er day. The :GR? made its
technology, 0nown as the ;American (rocess;, availa/le to (rivate com(anies /ut those firms had
to do the wor0 necessary to /uild a (lant. Fathieson Al0ali -or0s was the first to use :GR?
0now+how when they decided to /uild an ammonia (lant in *##.
5

.eneral &hemical continued to wor0 on ammonia as well. 'n ** they esta/lished the
Atmos(heric Gitrogen &o. together with 4olvay )rocess, interested in the field through the wor0
of the 4emet+4olvay &o. on nitric acid. Foreover, .eneral &hemical and the American 4olvay
grou( merged into Allied &hemical > Dye in *#$, with the Atmos(heric Gitrogen &o. /ecoming a
su/sidiary of the new firm. The (ro/lems with the ammonia (rocess were wor0ed out after **
and a small (lant started at 4yracuse in *#. Allied develo(ed into a major manufacturer of
ammonia and nitrogen fertilisers on the /asis of this technology and started a large (lant at
Ao(ewell <2irginia= in *#E.
%
Through the efforts of the ,ureau of 4oils and .eneral &hemical, Aa/er+,osch ammonia
technology entered the United 4taes. The eDam(le of .eneral &hemical is interesting for a
num/er of reason. The com(any started wor0 on ammonia /efore the :irst -orld -ar, and even
/efore ,A4:;s (lant started (roduction, showing that there were other (ioneering com(anies as
well. The (ro/lems .eneral &hemical faced, finding suita/le e@ui(ment designs and a suita/le
catalyst, were the same (ro/lems ,A4: faced. ,A4:;s (atents hel(ed little here /ecause they
were nationalised only in *E, when wor0 had already /een done for a num/er of years. 'n
addition, there was not one (atent covering the entire Aa/er+,osch (rocess /ut over #$$. Gone
#
-aeser *##, o(. cit. ##$. Aaynes *%!, o(. cit. $+$%. Ammonia. Chemical < )ngineering .e's *!$,
#E<5B=, 5$%+5$*. There 5$%+5$!.
5
Aaynes *%!, o(. cit. #$+##. A. ,. ?am/ <*#$=. The :iDed Gitrogen Research ?a/oratory. Chemical <
/etallurgical )ngineering #<#=, *BB+*B*. R. 4. Tour <*##=. The .erman and American 4ynthetic
Ammonia )lants. Chemical < /etallurgical )ngineering, (art : #L<L=, #%!+#%EN (art #: #L<B=, 5$B+5N (art
5: #L<E=, 5!*+5L#N (art %: #L<*=, %+%!N (art !: #L<$=, %L5+%L!. There (art , #%!+#%L. The ;American
)rocess; for Gitrogen :iDation. Chemical < /etallurgical )ngineering *#%, 5$<#%=, *%E. -. Aaynes <*%E=.
(merican Chemical Industry. >olume I>% The /erger )ra. Gew Hor0: D. van Gostrand. EL.
%
-aeser *##, o(. cit. ##5+##%. Aaynes *%E, o(. cit. EL.
L
of these (atents contained crucial details as the materials of construction, nor the com(osition of
the catalyst.
!
Cnly research could overcome these (ro/lems and when the Atmos(heric Gitrogen
&o., .eneral &hemical;s successor, had develo(ed a((ro(riate e@ui(ment designs, engineering
wor0s had to /e found which could manufacture them. Ammonia synthesis was a com(letely
novel field.
&reat 7ritain and +rance.
The American government chose to coo(erate with (rivate com(anies in the develo(ment of
ammonia synthesis technology /ut the ,ritish government was more active. 'n *5 the ,ritish
government initiated research on ammonia, and right at the out/rea0 of the :irst -orld -ar
confiscated ,A4:;s (atents. 4everal years of wor0 led to little results, and at the end of the war,
the government tried to interest (rivate com(anies in the (roject. They a((roached ,runner
Fond, a large chemical com(any that would merge into 'm(erial &hemical 'ndustries <'&'= in
*#L. ,runner Fond hesitated at first /ut re(resentatives of the com(any visited C((au in A(ril
and Fay **. They met with fierce o((osition from ,A4: em(loyees and ,runner Fond could
gather little information. An un0nown thief then stole the final version of the ,ritish re(ort.
Although little (ractical information came out of the visit to C((au, it /olstered ,runner Fond;s
confidence in the Aa/er+,osch (rocess, and the com(any decided to ta0e over the government;s
ammonia (roject, including ,A4:;s ,ritish (atents. At the end of ** ,runner Fond started, and
soon confronted (ro/lems, the design of the e@ui(ment /eing the /ottle nec0. 'n *#$, the
Atmos(heric Gitrogen &o. disclosed its (rocess to ,runner Fond as ,runner Fond was a large
shareholder of the former 4olvay )rocess &om(any. ,runner Fond also hired two engineers who
claimed to have wor0ed in ,A4:;s ammonia (lants. Through their various efforts, ,runner Fond
solved the technical (ro/lems, and started a (ilot (lant in *#, followed /y an industrial (lant at
,illingham three years later.
L
The eD(eriences of ,runner Fond in develo(ing an ammonia (rocess were similar to
those of the ,ureau of 4oils and .eneral &hemical in the United 4tates. 'nterestingly, the visit of
,runner Fond engineers to ,A4:;s (lant at C((au did not reveal much useful information /ut
was crucial in ma0ing the decision that an ammonia (rocess could /e develo(ed. The in(ut for
this develo(ment (roject was original research wor0 and, at a later stage, the eD(erience and
0nowledge of two .erman engineers.
!
A. Arora <**B=. )atents, ?icensing, and Far0et 4tructure in the &hemical 'ndustry. 9esearch Policy #L,
5*+%$5. There 5*#+5*%.
L
-aeser *##, o(. cit. !5+B#. ,. -aeser <*5#=. *ie 5uftstickstoffindustrie. /it 7er@cksichtigung der
chilenischen Industrie und des Bokereistickstoffs. ?ei(3ig: Ctto 4(amer. #*. -. ". Reader <*B$+*B!=.
Imperial Chemical Industries% ( :istory. ?ondon: CDford University )ress. Two volumes. 2ol. , *B$, 5!+
5LB.
B
,A4:;s Aa/er+,osch (rocess also aroused the interest of :rench chemical com(anies.
4aint .o/ain, one of the largest firms in the industry, tried to sway ,A4: to license Aa/er+,osch
in *5 /ut failed. Together with Juhlmann, another large :rench chemical com(any, and several
other firms, 4aint .o/ain esta/lished the 4ociOtO d;Etudes de l;A3ote in ** with the aim to
ac@uire ammonia and nitrogen fertiliser technologies. This society (ersuaded the :rench
government to hel( them gain access to ,A4:;s Aa/er+,osch (rocess. 'n com(arison to the
,ritish and American governments, the :rench too0 a much more straightforward a((roach: in
** they forced ,A4: to license its (rocess under the treaty of 2ersailles. The :rench
government (ressured ,A4: to assist in the engineering of an ammonia (lant in :rance and let
(rivate :rench com(anies run it. 'n *#% the government changed its mind, and decided for state
eD(loitation through the Cffice Gational 'ndustriel de l;A3ote <CG'A=, a com(any s(ecifically
esta/lished for that (ur(ose. Ammonia was (roduced for the first time in *#B /ut in the mean
time the government had also changed its mind with res(ect to the technology. CG'A;s (lant at
Toulouse did not use the Aa/er+,osch (rocess, /ut with technology develo(ed /y ?uigi &asale.
Ae was (art of another force that was ma0ing itself felt in ammonia and the nitrogen fertiliser
industry: engineering contractors. These com(anies will /e the su/ject of the neDt section.
B
Ta/le . ?arge com(anies and governments in ammonia.
Company/
organisation
Process Start of
research
Pilot
Plant
First indstrial
plant
,A4: Aa/er+,osch +*$5 <Aa/er=
+*$* <,A4:=
* *5
.eneral &hemical6
Allied &hemical
Allied &hemical *# *B +*# <small (lant=
+*#E <large (lant=
,ureau of 4oils6 :GR? American )rocess *% *B *##
,runner Fond6 '&' '&' *5 </y ,ritish
government
*# Turn of the year
*#5+*#%
4ources: see teDt.
B
-aeser *##, o(. cit. %$+%#. -aeser *5#, o(. cit. 5, !. :irst &om(lete ?ist of ?icenses of &asale
Ammonia )rocess. Chemical < /etallurgical )ngineering *#%, 5<#=, E5#. :rance is 'ncreasing Aome
4u((ly of Gitrogen+&arrying )roducts. Chemical < /etallurgical )ngineering *#!, 5#<B=, E*5. :. Ullmann.
)nCyklopAdie der technischen Chemie. ,erlin: Ur/an > 4chwar3en/erg. 4econd edition, $ volumes, *#E+
*5#. 2ol. , *#E, 5BL.
E
!ngineering Contractors in Ammonia.
After the end of the :irst -orld -ar ended, demand for ammunition and eD(losives fell, /ut the
use of nitrogen fertilisers grew, and continued to grow, with the eDce(tion of the economic crisis
of the *5$s. <4ee gra(h .= 'nterest in ammonia synthesis remained high therefore, and /y the
early *#$s, not only governments and large chemical com(anies involved themselves in
ammonia /ut also smaller com(anies and even individual engineers. Engineering contractors
entered ammonia and develo(ed further alternative Aa/er+,osch (rocesses.
.ra(h . -orld nitrogen fertiliser use, *$!6$L P *5E65*
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Fertiliser year
"
i
l
l
i
o
n

t
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n

n
i
t
r
o
g
e
n
4ource: ?ong+Term Trends of -orld :ertili3er &onsum(tion. /onthly 7ulletin of (gricultural and )conomic
Statistics *L#, <#=, .
Gote: the source for these statistics is the :AC. :ertilisers years ran from "uly in one year to "uly in the
following year.
The ammonia (rocess of Allied and the :GR? were not the only (rocesses to come out of the
American ammonia research (rojects of the :irst -orld -ar. ?ouis ?. "ones had wor0ed on the
develo(ment of a nitric acid (rocess at 4emet+4olvay during the war, and on ammonia synthesis
thereafter. Together with &harles &. ,rown, who wor0ed (art+time for 4emet+4olvay, he
esta/lished the Gitrogen Engineering &or(oration <GE&= in the early *#$s. GE& was more or
less a consulting engineering venture, aimed at engineering ammonia (lants for various clients.
The American com(any Fathieson Al0ali -or0s granted GE& its first (roject. 'n *##, Fathieson
had decided to /uild an ammonia (lant anneD the (roduction of chlorine at Giagara :alls <Gew
*
Hor0= with the American (rocess of the :GR? /ut Fathieson turned to GE& to get the (roject of
the ground. The (lant started (roduction in *#L. American &yanamid, a large (roducer of
calcium car/ide that wanted to diversify, ac@uired GE& three years later. The ac@uisition ena/led
the &hemical &onstruction &o. <&hemico=, an engineering contractor and already owned /y
American &yanamid, to engineer and construct ammonia (lants. Together with Juhlmann and
other com(anies, American &yanamid also esta/lished the Aydro Gitro A. in 4wit3erland in *#E
to sell licenses on the GE& ammonia (rocess, (ro/a/ly in Euro(e. Juhlmann secured its entry
into ammonia and fertilisers in this way. 't hired GE& in the same year for an ammonia (lant at
?ille, that started (roduction in *5$. GE& and Juhlmann develo(ed a close relationshi( at that
time, and were active in develo(ing technologies related to ammonia synthesis.
E
'n :rance, 'taly and .ermany, (rivate interests also got involved with ammonia synthesis
during the :irst -orld -ar and thereafter. 'n :rance, .eorges &laude started wor0ing on an
ammonia (rocess in *B. :ollowing ?inde, &laude had tried to se(arate air into its com(onents
/y cooling to low tem(eratures <li@uefaction of air= since E*L. &laude esta/lished Air ?i@uide in
*$# and /uilt a num/er of oDygen (lants in :rance and other countries in the following years. 'n
ammonia, &laude aimed at using (ressures of u( to $$$ atmos(heres, much higher than those
used in other (rocesses. This increased the mechanical design (ro/lems even further, and
&laude had to develo( s(ecial com(ressors to reach the (ressure he desired. 'n *#$ a (ilot
(lant was /uilt, followed /y an industrial installation a year later. ?i0e GE&, &laude decided to
license his (rocess to other com(anies. 'n **, Air ?i@uide and 4aint .o/ain esta/lished the
4ociOtO de la .rande )aroisse A3ote et )roduits &himi@ues for the develo(ment and eD(loitation
of the &laude ammonia (rocess. .rande )aroisse started to license other com(anies after the
first industrial (lant was in o(eration.
*
'n 'taly, ?uigi &asale /egan research on ammonia synthesis at the university of Turin in
*L. 'n *#$ he /uilt a (ilot (lant, followed /y a (lant on an industrial scale a year later. &asale
develo(ed his own catalyst and converter design. 'n *#, Ammonia &asale was esta/lished in
4wit3erland with the intention to license the &asale ammonia (rocess. Ammonia &asale su((lied
the technology for the CG'A (lant at Toulouse after the :rench government had decided in *#%
not to use ,A4:;s Aa/er+,osch (rocess. A :rench su/licensor of &asale, and a series of
su/contractors, /uilt the CG'A (lant. ,A4: did not (rovide such assistance, although it was
o/liged to on (a(er, ma0ing the transfer of technology very difficult.
#$
E
-aeser *5#, o(. cit. !E+L$, L$. Aaynes *%!, o(. cit. %L and note on that (age. Aaynes *%E, o(. cit.
%%+%!, EL, *$ and note on that (age. Reader, o(. cit. vol. #, *B!, $. 4tate archives Faastricht <the
Getherlands=, com(any archives D4F B.#L65%, inventory num/er BE#: ?etter &hemico to Aoe0, E Farch
*LE.
*
-aeser *#%, o(. cit. B!+BL. -aeser *5#, o(. cit. . A. ?. Thomson, ). .uillaumeron > G. &.
U(degraff <*!#=. Ammoia 4ynthesis at $$$ Atmos(heres. The )resent Day &laude )rocess. &hemical
Engineering )rogress %E<*=, %LE+%B!. There %LE, %B$. "" Dears of Inspiration% The (ir 5iquide (d-enture.
01""14. htt(:66www.$$ans.airli@uide.com6en6. Accessed #L "une #$$5.
#$
-aeser *5#, o(. cit. %+%#. Gew 'talian )rocess for the Fanufacture of 4ynthetic Ammonia. Chemical
< /etallurgical )ngineering *#$, #5<*=, *%!. htt(:66www.casale.ch6ammonia6 Accessed # Fay #$$5.
$
,y using different catalysts, varying the design of the e@ui(ment and /y changing the
(ressure and tem(erature, GE&, &laude and &asale develo(ed alternative ammonia synthesis
(rocesses. 'n outline though, these (rocesses followed Aa/er+,osch. ,A4:;s (rocess consisted
of three /asic ste(s. A miDture of hydrogen and nitrogen was first (roduced <synthesis gas=, this
miDture was com(ressed, and finally synthesised into ammonia. ,A4:;s followers did not change
this configuration, and this is often used as an argument to classify these followers as imitators.
#
This ignores, however, the necessary wor0 that needed to /e done /efore these ;imitations;
wor0ed on an industrial scale. Research was a/ove all needed to find a suita/le catalyst, and
varying the (ressure and tem(erature meant s(ecific e@ui(ment design (ro/lems and also
influenced the economics of the (rocess. 4olving these (ro/lems re@uired a lot of wor0.
##
Two other im(ortant ammonia synthesis (rocesses were develo(ed in the *#$s.
.iacomo :auser, an 'talian consulting engineer, /uilt a small (ilot unit in *#. Ae interested
Fontecatini in his (rocess, an 'talian firm esta/lished in EEE to eD(loit a co((er mine /ut that
had entered the chemical industry in the *$s and that (ursued further eD(ansion. Fontecatini
/uilt the first :auser ammonia (lant and started it in *#5. Fontecatini /uilt several more in 'taly
in the *#$s /ut in *#! also decided to license the :auser (rocess. The com(any licensed
directly, and esta/lished the 4A Ammonia@ue 4ynthOti@ue et DOrivOs <A4ED= in ,russels in *#L.
Evence &o((Oe, a large engineering contractor in the field of co0e oven (lants and related
installations, was the second major shareholder of A4ED. Fontecatini and &o((Oe intended
A4ED to manufacture nitrogen fertilisers in ,elgium, and to engineer and construct :auser
ammonia (lants.
#5

'n .ermany too, ,A4:;s mono(oly in ammonia technology was challenged. ,etween
*L and **, the 4wedish chemist ".-. &eder/erg researched ammonia catalysts. Ais wor0
continued in the la/oratories of Gors0 Aydro in the following two years. Gors0 Aydro was a
Gorwegian com(any that manufactured fertilisers with the so+called arc (rocess. -ith this
technology, nitrogen and oDygen reacted at high tem(erature to form nitric oDide, this com(ound
was then (rocessed into diluted nitric acid, and this acid was finally used to manufacture
fertilisers. The arc (rocess consumed a lot of electricity /ut Gors0 Aydro had chea( hydroelectric
(ower availa/le. The Aa/er+,osch (rocess threatened the arc (rocess, and Gors0 Aydro
therefore su((orted the wor0 of &eder/erg /ut also wor0ed on diversifications and was
develo(ing the arc (rocess further. 'n *#, Gors0 Aydro sto((ed the wor0 on ammonia
synthesis /ecause management felt that an im(roved arc (rocess would /e a/le to com(ete.
#
)lum(e **$, o(. cit. ###. 4chrIter #$$%, o(. cit. E%. This is argument is also strongly (resent in the
.erman technical literature: see -aeser *##, *#% and *5# o(. cit. and Ullmann, o(. cit. vol. , *#E,
%$#+%#, and (articularly %$#.
##
E. Aom/urg > A. van Rooij <#$$%=. Die 2or+ und Gachteile enger Gach/arschaft. Der Transfer deutscher
chemischer Technologie in de Giederlande /is *!#. R. )etri, Ed. Technologietransfer aus der deutschen
&hemieindustrie <*#!+*L$=. ,erlin: Dunc0er > Aum/lot, #$+#!. There ##!+##B.
#5
4tate archives Faastricht <the Getherlands=, com(any archives D4F B.#L6 $5A inv.no. #%B!: Recueil des
Actes et Documents Relatifs auD 4ociOtO &ommerciales, Acte *L, Decem/er *#L. ;llmann, o(. cit. vol. ,
*#E, 5BL. The /ontecatini Concern and its (cti-ities. <ca. *%E=. Filano: Fontecatini. !+L, #+#%.

&eder/erg, however, interested the .ewer0schaft der 4tein0ohlen3eche Font &enis, a .erman
colliery located at Aerne+4odingen, three years later. Font &enis and :riedrich Uhde, a .erman
engineer who had esta/lished an engineering contracting com(any in *#, develo(ed an
ammonia (rocess. 'n *#L Uhde /uilt a (ilot (lant at Font &enis, and an industrial (lant started
(roduction two years later. Font &enis and others esta/lished the .asverar/eitungsgesellschaft
<.A2E.= around *#L to licence the technology to other com(anies while Uhde engineered and
constructed the (lants.
#%
The wor0 of &laude, &asale, :auser and GE& and Uhde, made a su/stantial num/er of
ammonia (rocesses availa/le /y the middle of the *#$s. <4ee also ta/le #.= Fost histories of
ammonia have u( till now focused on ,A4:;s radical innovation and have neglected the wor0 of
engineering contractors. Aistories of engineering contracting, on the other hand, have neglected
ammonia. These studies argue that the roots of engineering contracting can /e found in the
American (etroleum industry and that engineering contractors started to wor0 for the chemical
industry only after the 4econd -orld -ar.
#!
The eDam(le of ammonia shows, however, that
engineering contractors already entered the chemical industry in the *#$s. This confirms the
results of an earlier study /y myself and Ernst Aom/urg. -e tried to show that engineering
contracting has much older and much more diverse roots than suggested in the literature. 'n
areas li0e /eet sugar, sul(huric acid, distillation and co0e for instance, s(ecialised su((liers
emerged in the second half of the nineteenth century. These com(anies had a /ac0ground in
engineering and e@ui(ment manufacture or were esta/lished with the s(ecific (ur(ose of
engineering and constructing installations for the (rocess industries. Around *$$, civil and
electrical engineering contractors also /ranched out.
#L
:rom this (ers(ective, ammonia is another eDam(le of an early form of engineering
contracting. The com(anies involved were s(ecifically set u( for engineering and constructing
ammonia (lants. Their methods ena/led the entry into the fertiliser industry of com(anies which
would otherwise have /een una/le to do so.
#B
The conse@uences of this (ractice will /e the
su/ject of the neDt section.
Ta/le #. Ammonia (rocesses of engineering contractors.
Process Start of
research
Pilot
plant
#ndstrial
plant
$icensing company Contry !sta%lished
#%
-aeser *5#, o(. cit. %*+!. A. .ieseler, Ed. <**L=. >on der *ruckersch'ArCe Cum :igh#Tech#
)ngineering. *ie ;hde#Story. E2 years )ngineering 'ith Ideas. ;hde !1 # !!3. Dortmund, Uhde+.m/A.
5+!. :or Gors0 Aydro see: .rossmann > -eic0sel *5$, o(. cit. LE+L*, L$+L5, 4chrIter #$$%, o(. cit. *$.
#!
?andau > Rosen/erg **#, o(. cit. 4mith **E, o(. cit.
#L
A. van Rooij > E. Aom/urg <#$$#=. 7uilding the Plant. ( :istory of )ngineering Contracting in the
.etherlands. Kut(hen: -al/urg )ers. &ha(ters # and 5.
#B
:or a com(any case study see: A. van Rooij <#$$%=. 7uilding Plants. /arkets for Technologies and
Internal Capa,ilities in *S/6s .itrogen +ertiliser 7usiness. Amsterdam: A0sant. Dissertation Eindhoven
University of Technology. &ha(ter 5.
#
&laude *B *#$ *# .rande )aroisse :rance **
&asale *L *#$ *# Ammonia &asale 4wit3erland *#
:auser *#$ *# *#5 Fontecatini 'taly *#!Q
A4ED ,elgium *#L
GE& *! R *#L Aydro Gitro 4wit3erland *#E
Uhde+Font
&enis
*L *#L *#E .asverar/eitungs+
gesellschaft
<.A2E.=
.ermany ca. *#L
4ource: A. van Rooij <#$$%=. 7uilding Plants. /arkets for Technologies and Internal Capa,ilities in *S/6s
.itrogen +ertiliser 7usiness. Amsterdam: A0sant. Dissertation Eindhoven University of Technology. Ta/le
5.#.
The #mportance of !ngineering Contractors in Ammonia.
Although ,A4:;s followers cannot /e called mere imitators, the @uestion remains if the ammonia
(rocesses develo(ed /y engineering contractors were at all im(ortant for the chemical industry. A
reason to dou/t this im(ortance can /e found in ca(acity figures for the different (rocesses. 'n
*#B, almost B5S of all ammonia was manufactured with the Aa/er+,osch (rocess. 'n *5L, this
(ercentage had declined s(ectacularly /ut still almost a third of all ammonia came from ,A4:
(lants. <Ta/le 5.= These (lants were now (art of '. :ar/enindustrie, the conglomerate which
resulted form the merger of ,A4:, ,ayer, Aoechst and several smaller .erman chemical
com(anies in *#!.
#E

As these figures indicate, the (lants at ?euna and C((au were eDtremely large and '.
:ar/en dominated the industry com(letely. The second largest com(any in *#B was '&'. -hile
'. :ar/en had ca(acities installed of %!$.$$$ tons of nitrogen (er year, '&';s (lant in ,illingham
had a ca(acity of only %.%$$ tons: '&' was roughly 5 times smaller than '. :ar/en9 ,y this
measure the .erman com(any;s dominance also declined /ut in *5L it was still a/out five times
larger than the second and third largest firms.
Ta/le 5. &a(acity of ammonia synthesis (rocesses in *#B and *5L.
Process Capacity
)ercentage of total ca(acity
*#B *5L
Aa/er+,osch B#,B# 5#,B%
&asale ,L# %,!
&laude !,5L L,%!
:auser %,5# $,L!
'&' #,55 $,*E
AG& #,$L L,$E
#E
4ee )lum(e **$, o(. cit.
5
:GR? ,5 $,##
GE& $,%B 5,B
Font &enis + %,LB
Cther + $,$$
Total <tons G6 year= LE.E!$ 5.%!#.%
4ources: :. Ullmann. )nCyklopAdie der technischen Chemie. ,erlin: Ur/an > 4chwar3en/erg. 4econd
edition, *#E+*5#. 2ol. , *#E, %%+%!. ". D. ,reslauer <*5L=. -orld Gitrogen 'ndustry 4urvives
'nternational &rises. Chemical < /etallurgical )ngineering %5<!=, #E#+#E!. Ta/le , #E5+#E%.
Aistorians have often used such ca(acity figures to claim a crucial role for Aa/er+,osch in the
develo(ment of the nitrogen industry and down(lay the im(ortance of other ammonia
(rocesses.
#*
Although ca(acity figures clearly indicate the enormous si3e of '. :ar/en in
com(arison to its com(etitors, they therefore also indicate that many com(anies o(erated (lants
at much smaller ca(acities. Using ca(acity figures as a measure of the im(ortance of engineering
contractors in the nitrogen fertiliser industry might /e flawed therefore. :rom a technology
diffusion (ers(ective, the num/er of (lants is also a /etter measure than ca(acity figures. -hen
loo0ing at the num/er of (lants, it /ecomes clear that engineering contractors sold many (lants.
Cf the 5* ammonia (lants in o(eration in *#B, only two used the Aa/er+,osch (rocess. 'n *5L
the num/er of ammonia (lants had risen to $! and only four used Aa/er+,osch. <Ta/les % and
!.=
#*
:or instance: Aa/er *B, o(. cit. *L. 4chrIter #$$%, o(. cit. E%+EB.
%
Ta/le %. Gum/er of ammonia (lants (er (rocess in *#B.
Process Plants
Gum/er )ercentage of total
&laude 5 55,55
&asale 5 55,55
:auser ! #,E#
:GR? 5 B,L*
Aa/er+,osch # !,5
'&' #,!L
Allied &hemical #,!L
GE& #,!L
Total 5* $$
4ource: :. Ullmann. )nCyklopAdie der technischen Chemie. ,erlin: Ur/an > 4chwar3en/erg. 4econd
edition, *#E+*5#. 2ol. , *#E, %%+%!.
Ta/le !. Gum/er of ammonia (lants (er (rocess in *5L.
Process Plants
Gum/er )ercentage of total
&asale # #$,$$
GE& # #$,$$
:auser # #$,$$
&laude * E,$
Font &enis E B,L#
Aa/er+,osch % 5,E
'&' 5 #,EL
:GR? 5 #,EL
Allied &hemical # ,*$
Cther 5 #,EL
$$
4ource: ". D. ,reslauer <*5L=. -orld Gitrogen 'ndustry 4urvives 'nternational &rises. Chemical <
/etallurgical )ngineering %5<!=, #E#+#E!. Ta/le , #E5+#E%.
Ta/les % and ! also show the most im(ortant engineering contractors. &laude and &asale had
entered the field of ammonia first and had esta/lished a lead over their com(etitors, ena/ling
them to /e the most successful licensors in *#B. 'n *5L, however, :auser and GE& had also
esta/lished themselves as im(ortant (rocesses. Fany (lants used the :auser (rocess although
Fontecatini, a com(any with interests in fertiliser manufacture, /ac0ed this technology.
A((arently the 'talian com(any thought that it could safely license its technology without /eing
hurt in its /usiness. Fontecatini reserved the 'talian mar0et for itself /ut neglected eD(orts. A
!
4wedish firm /ought the first license for instance while Fontecatini also esta/lished a com(any in
the Getherlands, a large and growing mar0et, instead of eD(orting fertilisers. Fontecatini did not
license other 'talian firms however.
5$
The contrast /etween Fontecatini and '. :ar/en, and ,A4: /efore, is interesting. As the
fertiliser mar0et grew, Fontecatini started to license while '. :ar/en eD(anded its (lants at
C((au and ?euna. Cccasionally, '. :ar/en did license. Cf the four Aa/er+,osch (lants in *5L,
two /elonged to '. :ar/en while CG'A;s (lant is also ta0en as a Aa/er+,osch (lant. The fourth
(lant was licensed to the Gorwegian com(any Gors0 Aydro. At the end of *#L, Gors0 Aydro
finally lost its confidence in the arc (rocess and decided to /uild an ammonia synthesis (lant. The
com(any contracted GE& for this (roject /ut at the end of *#B reached an agreement with '.
:ar/en. The .erman com(any agreed to let Gors0 Aydro use the Aa/er+,osch (rocess /ut at
the same time attained control over the out(ut of the Gorwegian (lant.
5
:or '. :ar/en this was
crucial: they licensed their technology /ut wanted to remain in com(lete control over the
(roduction of fertilisers. 'n the second half of the *5$s, '. :ar/en also /uilt ammonia (lants for
five "a(anese com(anies /ut again remained in control of fertiliser (roduction, at least until the
out/rea0 of the 4econd -orld -ar. '. :ar/en had reached a limit in its eD(orts to "a(an /ecause
the mar0et was saturated and /ecause of cartel agreements.
5#
The ca(acities of '. :ar/en;s (lants at C((au and ?euna say something of the /usiness
strategy of this com(any: it wanted to /uild large (lants and eDtended these (lants if eD(orts
mar0ets grew. '. :ar/en dominated the nitrogen fertiliser industry, and aimed to do so. This
dominance should not /e used to down(lay the im(ortance of the ammonia (rocesses
engineering contractors develo(ed. Fany com(anies o(erated (lants at much smaller ca(acities
than '. :ar/en and they relied on engineering contractors for the technology they needed. The
num/er of ammonia (lants (er (rocess gives a /etter indication of the im(ortance of engineering
contractors in the nitrogen fertiliser industry than the ca(acities of these (lants.
5$
+auser#/ontecatini Processes and Plants in the World up to *ecem,er $st, !2!. <*L$=. Filan. ).
)uy(e, .. ,eauche3 > F. "ongsma <*B*=. >an kiem tot korrel. .ederlandse Stikstof /aatschappiF ..>.
!1!#!E!. Jlooster3ande: Duerinc0+Jrachten.
5
Arc )rocess is .iving -ay to Ammonia 4ynthesis. Chemical < /etallurgical )ngineering *#*, 5L<E=,
%E+%E5. 4ee 4chrIter #$$%, o(. cit. for an analysis of the motives of '. :ar/en and Gors0 Aydro.
5#
A. Judo <#$$$=. Dominance through &oo(eration: '... :ar/en;s "a(an 4trategy. ". ?esch, Ed. The
&erman Chemical Industry in the T'entieth Century. Dordrecht: Jluwer Academic )u/lishers, #%5+#E5.
There #B#+#BL, #E#+#E5.
L
The &ole of Synthesis 'as and the Technology to "anfactre it.
Ta/les % and ! (oint to a large mar0et for ammonia (lants in the *#$s and, (articularly, in the
*5$s. The develo(ment of several ammonia synthesis was im(ortant for the creation of this
mar0et /ut the s(ar0 for the wide+s(read diffusion of ammonia (lants and the ta0e+off of the
nitrogen fertiliser industry came from a com(lementary technology. Again engineering contractors
were crucial in its develo(ment.
A crucial ste( in the manufacture of ammonia was the (roduction of hydrogen and
nitrogen <synthesis gas=. ?i0e oDygen, nitrogen could /e manufactured /y li@uefaction of air.
?inde develo(ed this technology at the end of the nineteenth century, followed later /y &laude
and others.
55
'n the early *#$s, a chea( su((ly of hydrogen was seen as a crucial factor for
ammonia synthesis. 4everal o(tions were availa/le. Aydrogen could /e manufactured /y
electrolysis of water, a method that yielded very (ure hydrogen /ut used very large amounts of
electricity. Electrolysis was only via/le therefore at sites where chea( hydroelectric (ower was
availa/le. ,A4:, and many of the com(anies that /uilt an ammonia (lant in the early *#$s, used
water gas. This gas resulted from (assing steam over hot co0e and was widely used in the town
gas industry. The (urification of the raw gasses was vital however.
&o0e oven gas, availa/le in a/undance at co0e oven (lants, also contained hydrogen.
&o0e was manufactured /y dry distillation of /ituminous coal /ut this (rocess also (roduced a
gas containing ammonia, hydrogen and several other chemicals. &laude started research on a
(rocess to se(arate hydrogen from co0e oven gas in *$5. Ae used cooling, a technology which
he 0new from his wor0 on the li@uefaction of air. &laude was awarded a (atent in *$! /ut his
wor0 gained momentum when he started research on ammonia synthesis in *B. At that time
&laude tried another method first /ut soon switched /ac0 to cooling. The first installation using
this (rocess started (roduction in *##.
5%
?inde was also interested in manufacturing hydrogen and started research in *$*. ?inde
also used cooling /ut wor0ed with water gas and /uilt installations at com(anies that used
hydrogen for the hardening of fats and oils, for instance manufacturers of soa(. ,A4: also
ac@uired a ?inde (lant to manufacture hydrogen for ammonia synthesis /ut later su/stantially
changed and im(roved the (rocess. 'n *% ?inde started develo(ment of a (rocess to se(arate
hydrogen from co0e oven gas. 'n *# a (ilot (lant started and the first industrial (lant o(ened in
*#!6#L.
5!
55
:or ?inde see: &eschichte der &esellschaft f@r 5inde6s )ismaschinen (.#&. Wies,aden. <*#*=.
-ies/aden: .esellschaft f7r ?inde;s Eismaschinen. :or &laude see: The (ir 5iquide (d-enture #$$#, o(. cit.
5%
-aeser *5#, o(. cit. %#+%5. ). .uillaumeron <*%*=. ?i@uefaction for 4e(arating Aydrogen :rom &o0e+
Cven .as. Chemical )ngineering <"uly *%*=, $!+$.
5!
-aeser *##, o(. cit. %#*, %5%. -aeser *5#, o(. cit. %B. :or the first (lant see also: :. A. :. )allemaerts
<*#*=. 4ynthetic Ammonia )lant at Cstend. Industrial < )ngineering Chemistry #<=, ##+#*
B
There were many co0e oven (lants in the *#$s, (articularly in Euro(e. Through the wor0
of &laude and ?inde, co0e oven gas was soon viewed as an interesting source of hydrogen.
4everal other engineering contractors and engineering wor0s followed the eDam(le of ?inde and
&laude and develo(ed (rocesses to eDtract hydrogen from co0e oven gas. As ty(ically not very
technologically ca(a/le firms, the availa/ility of technology through engineering contractors gave
co0e com(anies an o(tion to start large scale manufacture of fertilisers. The mar0et for nitrogen
fertilisers was growing <see gra(h , a/ove= so many co0e com(anies decided to enter the
fertiliser industry. ,y *#! the eD(ansion of ammonia ca(acity was (rimarily /ased on co0e oven
gas <see ta/le L= and this trend continued in the following years. The nitrogen fertiliser industry
too0 off, fuelled /y hydrogen from co0e oven gas.
'n the develo(ment of the nitrogen industry, engineering contractors (layed a crucial role.
They develo(ed ammonia (rocesses they did not want to 0ee( (ro(rietary /ut sold to many
com(anies in stead. Cther engineering contractors develo(ed technology to eDtract hydrogen
from co0e oven gas, o(ening u( a large mar0et for ammonia (lants. Engineering contractors
ena/led the nitrogen fertiliser industry to ta0e off.
Ta/le L. 4ources of hydrogen for ammonia (lants under construction around the world in
a((roDimately *#!.
Sorce of hydrogen (m%er of plants
&o0e oven gas *
-ater gas 5
Electrolysis #
Cther #
4ource: :. A. Ernst > F. 4. 4herman <*#B=. The -orld;s 'norganic Gitrogen 'ndustry. Industrial <
)ngineering Chemistry *<#=, *L+#$%. There ta/le 5, **.
!ngineering Contractors and the Chemical #ndstry.
The activities of engineering contractors have /een scarcely noticed in the historical literature on
the develo(ment of ammonia technology. Fost studies analyse this story from the (ers(ective of
,A4:. The government+run (rojects of the :irst -orld -ar and the wor0 of engineering
contractors have received far less attention, and their im(ortance has /een down(layed. This
article has tried to re+adjust this /y ta0ing u( an industry (ers(ective, focussing on the diffusion of
ammonia technology across countries and firms.
Through an industry (ers(ective it is clear that it was not ,A4: /ut its followers that
ena/led the develo(ment of a large scale nitrogen fertiliser industry. )articularly engineering
contractors (layed a crucial role as they made ammonia synthesis (rocesses availa/le to many
com(anies. ?inde and &laude o(ened u( a mar0et for these (rocesses when they develo(ed
methods to eDtract hydrogen from co0e oven gas. ?inde and &laude, and the many alternatives
E
develo(ed /y engineering wor0s and other com(anies, gave o(erators of co0e oven (lants an
o((ortunity to diversify. There were many co0e oven (lants and, as the mar0et for fertilisers was
growing, many chose to enter the fertiliser industry. &o0e com(anies had the necessary raw
materials in a/undance /ut ty(ically lac0ed the technological ca(a/ilities to develo( their own
fertiliser (rocesses, ma0ing engineering contractors an interesting source of technology. As a
result, the nitrogen fertiliser industry too0 off: /etween *#B and *5L, ca(acity increased more
than five+and+a+half times to well over three million tons of nitrogen (er year. <4ee ta/le 5,
a/ove.=
The im(ortance of engineering contractors for the fertiliser industry has /een clouded /y
loo0ing at ca(acity figures. The si3e of ,A4:, and later '. :ar/en, was enormous, effectively
dwarfing all other fertiliser manufacturers. Fany of the new entrants into the fertiliser industry
ac@uired technology from engineering contractors to su((ly domestic mar0ets and conse@uently
/uilt much smaller (lants than '. :ar/en. ,A4:, and later '. :ar/en, was largely focused on
eD(orts, and /uilt its installations as large as (ossi/le.
The act of ma0ing technology availa/le had far reaching conse@uences. 't /ro0e the
original innovator;s mono(oly. ,y the early *5$s the effects were also /eing felt on the mar0et.
)rices fell as the su((ly of fertilisers increased and many countries closed their /orders for
im(orts to (rotect their industry. '. :ar/en was (articularly hurt. A very large (art of its turnover
came from fertilisers and the .erman mar0et was not large enough to a/sor/ all inland
(roduction.
5L
'. :ar/en /ecame the driving force to esta/lish an international nitrogen fertiliser
cartel. These efforts succeeded in *5$ /ut the cartel sta/ilised only after *5#, remaining in
(lace until the out/rea0 of the 4econd -orld -ar.
5B
The effects of the wides(read diffusion of
ammonia technology /y engineering contractors were softened to some eDtent in this way.
5L
4ee )lum(e **$, o(. cit. ##5+#%5.
5B
:or the history of this cartel see: R. ?achmann+Fosse <*%$=. *ie Stickstoffindustrie und ihre
internationale Bartellierung. K7rich: ?ang. Dissertation, Universit8t K7rich. A. .. 4chrIter <**=.
)rivatwirtschaftliche Far0tregulierung und 4taatliche 'nteressen(oliti0. Das internationale 4tic0stoff0artell
*#*+*5*. A. .. 4chrIter > &. A. -urm, Eds. Politik, Wirtschaft und internationale 7eCiehungen% Studien
Cu ihrem >erhAltnis in der Geit C'ischen den Weltkriegen. Fain3: )hili(( von Ka/ern, B+5B.
*