CHAPTER 1

Air Pollution:
Origin, Fate and Effects of Pollutants
Air Pollution
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this topic the students should be able
to;
recognize the importance of monitoring and
control of air pollution
implement the various rules and regulations implement the various rules and regulations
stipulated in the EQA 127 pertaining to the
monitoring and control of air pollution
apply the air pollution standards to monitor and
control air pollution
understand the impact of emission on human
health
Air Pollution
Indoor
Regional
Global Global
Stratospheric
Sources
Effects
Treatment
Air Pollution and Public Opinion
Problems in many urban areas in late
1800s and early 1900 due to coal use
1000s of deaths attributed to air pollution
episodes in London episodes in London
large number of pollution sources
restricted air volume
failure to recognize problem
water droplets of certain size
Photochemical smog: CO+NO
x
+HC+light
American Air Pollution Standards
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) promulated under the 1970
Clean Air Act (CAA).
Criteria pollutants Criteria pollutants
Primary standards designed to protect
human health with an adequate margin
of safety.
Secondary standards are intended to
prevent environmental and property
damage.
A primary pollutant is an air pollutant emitted directly from a source.
A secondary pollutant is not directly emitted as such, but forms when
other pollutants (primary pollutants) react in the atmosphere.
Examples of a secondary pollutant include ozone, which is formed
when hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) combine in the
presence of sunlight; NO2, which is formed as NO combines with
oxygen in the air; and acid rain, which is formed when sulfur dioxide or
nitrogen oxides react with water.
Air Pollution Standards
LAW/REGULATIONS AND
STANDARDS SETTING
The Environmental Quality Act 1974
sets standards for emission sources sets standards for emission sources
The EQA controls pollution through :
Licensing
Regulations, order, guidelines
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ACT 1974
(AMMENDMENT 2001)
Control of Industrial Emissions
Environmental Quality (Clean Air)
Regulations 1978
Environmental Quality (Compounding of
Offences) Rules 1978;
Control of Motor Vehicle Emissions
Motor Vehicles (Control of Smoke & Gas Motor Vehicles (Control of Smoke & Gas
Emission) Rules 1977
Environmental Quality (Control of Lead
Concentration in Motor Gasoline)
Regulations 1985
Environmental Quality (Control of
Emission From Diesel Engines) Regulation
1996
Environmental Quality (Control of
Emission From Petrol Engines) Regulation
1996
Malaysian Air Pollution Index (API)
The ambient air quality measurement in
Malaysia is described in terms of Air Pollutant
Index (API). The API is developed in easily
understood ranges of values as a means of
reporting the quality of air instead of using the reporting the quality of air instead of using the
actual concentration of air pollutants. This index
also reflects its effect on human health ranging
from good to hazardous and also can be
categorized according to the action criteria as
stipulated in the National Haze Action Plan
Malaysia : API
The air pollutant index scale and terms used in describing the air quality levels are
as follows :
LAWS APPLICABLE TO
OPEN BURNING
Section 29A EQA (Amendment 1998)
Section 29AA EQA (Amendment 2001)
Environmental Quality (Prescribed
Activities)(Open Burning) Order,
2000 2000
Environmental Quality (Delegation
of Powers)(Investigation of Open
Burning) Order, 2000
Environmental Quality
(Compounding of Offences)(Open
Burning) Rules, 2000
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ACT
1974 (AMMENDMENT 2006)
EQA SECTION 29A
No person shall allow or cause open
burning on any premises
Maximum fine RM 500,000 Maximum fine RM 500,000
Maximum jail term 5 years
Or Both
Malaysia : Ambient Air Quality
Standard
Six criteria pollutants, namely Carbon Monoxide ,
Nitrogen Dioxide, Ozone, Sulphur Dioxide and Particulate
Matter (PM10) were monitored continuously at 52
locations while lead concentrations was measured once in
every six days at two locations.
The ambient air quality standard in Malaysia addressed in
terms of major pollutants including ground level ozone,
The ambient air quality standard in Malaysia addressed in
terms of major pollutants including ground level ozone,
carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, total
suspended particulate (TSP), particulate matter below 10
microns (PM10), and lead. The averaging time, which
varies from 1 to 24 hours for the different air pollutants in
the MAAQS, represents the period of time over which
measurements is monitored and reported for the
assessment of human health impacts of specific air
pollutants.
Malaysian Ambient Air Quality
Guideline
Malaysia Unhealthy Days
Malaysia Air Quality Status
Malaysia Air Quality Status
Malaysia Air Quality Status
Air Pollution Standards
Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs)
National Emission Standards for Hazardous
Air Pollutants (NESHAPs) 1970 CAA
Risk-based approach used asbestos, arsenic,
benzene, beryllium, mercury, vinyl chloride benzene, beryllium, mercury, vinyl chloride
and radionuclides
Maximum Achievable Control Technology
(MACT) standards 1990 CAA
189 chemicals from 174 categories of
industrial sources being established
Control of Criteria Air Pollutants
A geographic area that meets or does better than
the primary standard is called an attainment
area; areas that don't meet the primary standard
are called nonattainment areas. are called nonattainment areas.
Although EPA has been regulating criteria air
pollutants since the 1970 CAA was passed,
many urban areas are classified as
nonattainment for at least one criteria air
pollutant. It has been estimated that about 90
million Americans live in nonattainment areas.
Air Pollutants & Sources
Carbon Monoxide
produced by the incomplete
burning of carbon-
containing fuels, such as
petrol, coal and wood.
Ozone
produced by the reaction of
oxygen gas with free atoms of
oxygen which are formed from
the reactions between nitrogen
oxides and hydrocarbons in
sunlight.
produced by petrol- or
diesel-burning engines and
coal/oil furnaces.
Nitrogen oxides
Major Air
Pollutants
Text in here
produced by burning of
fossil fuels (e.g. fuel oil and
coil). A large proportion is
produced by power stations
and metal smelters which
burn sulphur-containing
coal, and also by the
manufacturing industries
which burn fuel oil.
petrol, coal and wood.
Particulates
produced by refuse
incineration, factories, diesel
vehicles, construction sites,
and coal/charcoal burners.
Particulates are solid or
liquid particles which are so
small that they remain
suspended in the air for a
long period of time.
sunlight.
Hydrocarbons
Sulphur dioxide
formed from the
evaporation of materials
such as petrol, diesel and
solvents when exposed to
air.
Carbon Monoxide
Most abundant air
pollutant
Produced by incomplete
combustion
insufficient O
2
insufficient O
2
low temperature
short residence time
poor mixing
Major source (~ 77%) is
motor vehicle exhaust
Carbon Monoxide
Colorless and odorless
When inhaled, binds to hemoglobin in
blood to form carboxyhemoglobin,
reducing the oxygen carrying capacity reducing the oxygen carrying capacity
brain function reduced, heart rate
increased at lower levels
asphyxiation occurs at higher levels
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon Monoxide
Typical Levels
busy roadways: 5 50 ppm
congested highways: up to 100 ppm
bars: up to 30 ppm
Vehicle emission rates: Vehicle emission rates:
Model year Hydrocarbons
(grams/km)
Carbon
monoxide
(grams/km)
Precontrol (before 1968) 6.59 52.2
1996-2003 0.155 2.11
2004-2006 0.0777 1.06
Malaysia : CO
Carbon Monoxide: Trends in
Levels
Air quality still an issue:
Increasing vehicle population
Increasing travel per vehicle
1980: average 9,500 miles/year 1980: average 9,500 miles/year
1995: average 11,800 miles/yr
Vehicle miles of travel: Increase of 3.1%/ yr
Departures from Federal standards
Greater use of light trucks (including SUVs)
Oxides of Nitrogen (NO
x
)
Primarily NO and NO
2
NO
3
, N
2
O, N
2
O
3
, N
2
O
4
,
N
2
O
5
are also known
to occur
Thermal NO
x
created
by oxidation of
atmospheric N
2
when
T > 1000 K
Fuel NO
x
from
oxidation of N in fuel
Oxides of Nitrogen (NO
x
)
NO has few health effects, but is oxidized
to NO
2
NO
2
irritates lungs and promotes
respiratory infections respiratory infections
NO
2
reacts with hydrocarbons in presence
of sunlight to produce smog
NO
2
reacts with hydroxyl radicals to
produce nitric acid acid precipitation
Malaysia : NO
2
Hydrocarbons
Harmful Effects of Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons in air by themselves alone
cause no harmful effects. However, they
undergo chemical reactions in the undergo chemical reactions in the
presence of sunlight and nitrogen oxides.
They form photochemical oxidants leading
to photochemical smog. This causes
irritation in the eyes and lungs leading to
respiratory diseases.
Photochemical Smog
hydrocarbons + NO
x
+ sunlight
photochemical smog (oxidants)
primary
oxidants
produced:
ozone (O
3
)
formaldehyde
peroxyacetyl
nitrate (PAN)
Photochemical Smog
Photochemical Smog
Ozone: Health Effects
Increased incidents of respiratory distress.
Repeated exposures to ozone:
Increased susceptibility to respiratory
infection
Lung inflammation
Aggravation of pre-existing respiratory
diseases such as asthma.
Decreases in lung function and increased
respiratory symptoms such as chest pain and
cough.
Malaysia : Ozone
Ozone: Environmental Effects
Ozone also affects
vegetation and ecosystems
reductions in agricultural and
commercial forest yields
($0.5 billion/yr in US alone) ($0.5 billion/yr in US alone)
reduced growth and
survivability of tree seedlings
increased plant susceptibility
to disease, pests, and other
environmental stresses
(e.g., harsh weather).
http://www.ncl.ac.uk/airweb/ozone/greece.jpg
Ozone Revised Standards
In 1997, the 1-hour ozone standard of 0.12
parts per million (ppm) was replaced with
a new 8-hour 0.08 ppm standard.
Areas that do not meet the new 8-hour Areas that do not meet the new 8-hour
standard will not be designated
"nonattainment" until this year.
Sulfur Oxides (SO
x
)
SO
2
, SO
3
, SO
4
2
formed during
combustion of fuel
containing sulfur
H
2
S released is
converted to SO converted to SO
2
10 Tg/yr natural
sources
75 Tg/yr
anthropogenic
sources
http://www.epa.gov/oar/aqtrnd97/brochure/so2.html
Sulfur Dioxide: Health Effects
High concentrations of SO
2
can result in
temporary breathing impairment.
Longer-term exposures to high concentrations of
SO
2
, in conjunction with high levels of PM,
include respiratory illness, alterations in the include respiratory illness, alterations in the
lungs' defenses, and aggravation of existing
cardiovascular disease
Short-term exposures of asthmatic individuals to
elevated SO
2
levels may result in reduced lung
function.
Manmade SO
2
Emissions
US SO
2
emissions pie.
50% of electricity produced in US comes from coal.
S
fuel
+ O
2
SO
2
Sulfur Dioxide: Environmental
Effects
Acid Rain
Decreased Visibility
http://www.epa.gov/oar/vis/rockymtn.html
Malaysia : SO
2
Particulate Matter
Solid or liquid particles with sizes from
0.005 100 m
General term is aerosols
Dust originates from grinding or crushing
Fumes are solid particles formed when Fumes are solid particles formed when
vapors condense
Smoke describes particles released in
combustion processes
Smog used to describe air pollution
particles
Health Efffects of Particluate
Matter
Impact depends on particle size, shape
and composition
Large particles trapped in nose
Particles >10 m removed in Particles >10 m removed in
tracheobronchial system
Particles <0.5 m reach lungs but are
exhaled with air
Particles 2 4 m most effectively
deposited in lungs
Particulate Matter
PM-2.5 (1997)
< 2.5 m diameter
PM-10 (1987)
< 10 m diameter
Original standards did not account for size
larger particles that were not problematic
dominated
Similar sources, but
tend to be more
toxicologically active
particles
EPA estimates new
standard will save
15,000 lives/yr
< 10 m diameter
fuel combustion
(45%)
industrial processing
(33%)
Transportation
(22%)
Particulate Matter: Revised
Standards
Two new PM-2.5 standards
15 micrograms per cubic meter (g/m
3
) and
65 g/m
3
, respectively, for the annual and 24- 65 g/m , respectively, for the annual and 24-
hour standards. In addition, the form of the
24-hour standard for PM-10 was changed.
Beginning in 2002, EPA will designate areas
as nonattainment that do not meet the new
PM-2.5 standards.
Malaysia : PM
10
Malaysia : PM
10
Particulate Matter: Health
Effects
Inhalable PM includes both fine and coarse
particles.
Coarse particles
aggravation of respiratory conditions, such as
asthma. asthma.
Fine particles
increased hospital admissions and emergency
room visits for heart and lung disease
increased respiratory symptoms and disease
decreased lung function
premature death
Particulate Matter:
Environmental Effects
Decreased visibility
Damage to paints and
building materials
http://www.epa.gov/oar/vis/bryce.html
Lead
Sources:
gasoline (historical)
metals processing
Highest air Pb Highest air Pb
concentrations
in the vicinity of
nonferrous and ferrous
smelters, and battery
manufacturers.
Lead: Health Effects
Accumulates in the blood, bones, and soft
tissues.
Adversely affects the kidneys, liver, nervous
system, and other organs. system, and other organs.
Excessive exposure to Pb may cause
neurological impairments, such as seizures,
mental retardation, and behavioral disorders.
May be a factor in high blood pressure and
subsequent heart disease.
Effects of Air Pollution