'DER'1 and

repair
of
subsidence
damage
BY JEFFERY
SMITH
CHARTERED
CIVIL ENGINEER
PUBLISHED
BY
THE CAMDEN
CONSULTANCY
The
prospect
of
subsidence
can
haunt
the
building
owner
-
like
the
fear of
a
serious
illness
U
ACTION
CHECKLIST
for
underpinning
a
typical
3 bedroom
house
OWNER CONSULTANT
Check
signs
of
building
movement
(cracks etc.)
If subsidence
suspected
ask
professional
for confirmation
-

Contact
Insurance Co. ask about consultant for
investigation
Obtain
quotation
from consultant for
investigation
Appoint
consultant for
investigation
Prepare preliminary report
and submit
to insurance
If
neighbours property
is involved let them know
Monitor active
movement of the
building
Prepare
final
report
for owner and submit to insurance
Consider
carrying
out the work with owner and
insurers

Send invoice for consultant's
investigation
fee to
insurers
Obtain estimate of
fees/time
charges
from consultant
Appoint
consultant
(or specialist contractor)
for
underpinnIng
Brief consultant on
working
conditions
(such
as
availability
of
access
and additional
repairs
or alterations
required)
Obtain
approval
to increase
mortgage
to
cover insurance excess
Check
approvals required (eg neigljbours,
tree
preservation
orders,
listed
building approval)
Prepare drawings
and
specification
for
underpinning
scheme
Arrange party
wall
agreement
if
necessary
Contact
potential
tenderers
and
prepare
list for
approval
Obtain
insurer's
approval
of
proposed
work
and tender list
and details of how
payments
are to
be made to the
contractor
Obtain insurer's
approval
of
cost of furniture
storage
and rent of alternative accommodation
Send out documents
and receive
tenders;
report
on
tenders With
recommendations to owner and insurers
Approve
tender and
sign
contract
Submit
Building
Notice to Local
Authority
Clear areas affected
by
the work and if
necessary
move
to alternative
accommodation
Prepare
condition
survey
of
buildings,
walls, terraces and fences
adjacent
to
the work and
agree accuracy
with
neighbours
Obtain and
approve
contractor's detailed work
programme
arid
check
arrangements
with
neighbours
Inspect underpinning
works and issue insurers with
interim
certificates for
payment
Monitor condition of
building
for
4-8 weeks after
completion
of
underpinning
and before
start of
superstructure
repairs
Inspect
and
approve completion
of works and issue
penultimate
certificate to
insurers for
payment
==
Obtain
invoice for consultant's fees and
submit for
payment by
insurer
Inspect
after maintenance
period
and
issue final certificate
Obtain excess from
mortgagees
and use
(with
final
payment by
installers)
to
complete
payments
to
contractor
UNDERPINNING and
repair
of subsidence
damage
BY JEFFERY SMITH
CHARTERED CIVIL ENGINEER
PUBLISHED BY
THE CAMDEN CONSULTANCY
2 ST. MARTINS
BAYHAM STREET
LONDON NWI OBD
1994 EDITION ISBN
1
898521
00 X
III
In
1905
part
of
Winchester Cathedral was
found to be
subsiding
and, as a
result,
it was
leaning
outwards to a
dangerous degree.
An
eminent
engineer called;
investigation
began.
The
problem
was found to be a
bed of
peat
through
which
the foundation was
punching (see page 12).
Underpinning
was
prescribed
-
but how?
Excavation
through
the
peat
would lead to
ground
water
rushing
in
from
the
gravel
beds below.
The first
stage
of
underpinning
would
have to be done
underwater. William
Walker, the
diver,
was
called on to do the
work,
using bag
after
bag
of underwater
concrete to seal the
gaps
where
the water
came In so that
traditional
underpinning
could
proceed.
From time to
time
the eminent
engineer
would don a
diving
suit
and
gurgle
down to
inspect
diver Bill's
work. Satisfaction
waajronounced,
Diver
Bill
had to
stay
for six
rs
since it was
found
that
just
about all ofWinchester
Cathedral
needed
underpinning.
Once the
Cathedral had
been
put right
the
Archbishop
of
Canterbury
led a
service of
thanksgiving,
mentioning
diver
Bill and the
King
shook his hand.
Photograph:
John
Crook/Dean and
Chapter
of
Winchester
-
U!
Bill the diver
CONTENTS
Chapter
I: Introduction.
How this book can
help
WHAT IS SUBSIDENCE AND WHO IS
AFFECTED
The
buildings
and
types
of
damage
that are
dealt with I
The
people
who have to tackle subsidence
problems
1
WHAT HAPPENS IN A TYPICAL CASE OF
SUBSIDENCE
How the
parties
involved can
protect
their
interests I
The
sequence
of events and the time
required
2:
preliminary
stages, carrying
out the work
ESSENTIAL PRECAUTIONS
Actions that can be taken 3: to avoid
subsidence and similar
damage,
to minimise
the effect of subsidence if it
occurs,
to avoid
recurrent
problems
WHERE TO START
Sources of advice 4:
general
advice,
independent
advice,
advice from
specialist
contractors
The client's role 5
Chapter
2:
Identifying
the causes of foundation
failure and
checking safety
RECOGNISING THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN
SETTLEMENT AND SUBSIDENCE
Settlement 6: flexible
buildings,
brittle
buildings, engineered buildings, parts
that
are
vulnerable to differential settlement
Subsidence 6: defects that can be mistaken
for subsidence
RECOGNISING
THE CONDITIONS THAT ARE
PRONE TO GROUND
MOVEMENT
Vulnerable soil
types
11:
clay, peat
and
river
deposits,
made
ground
Other conditions that can lead to subsidence
14:
leaking
drains,
mining
subsidence,
mine
shaft
collapse,
swallow holes
RECOGNISING THE DAMAGE
THAT
TREES
CAN CAUSE
Damage
caused
by
tree roots themselves t5
Removal of
ground
moisture
by
tree roots 15
Recovery
of
ground
moisture after removal
of trees 17
INVESTIGATING FOUNDATION FAILURE
The evidence that will be
required
17
Movement
investigation
17
Substructure and
soil
investigation
21
Deciding
whether subsidence has occurred 21
SEEING THAT THE BUILDING IS SAFE
Types
of
damage
that could lead to
collapse
22
Ways
to secure the
stability
of the
building
22
iv
Chapter
3:
Deciding
the method of
repair
Chapter
4:
Making
an
insurance claim
DECISIONS THAT HAVE TO BE
MADE 25
HOW THE
SUBSTRUCTURE CAN BE
REPAIRED
25
The
principles
of
underpinning
25
Types
of
underpinning
25:
traditional, mass
concrete,
pier
and
beam,
piling,
other
specialised
methods.
Precautions to be taken
during
underpinning
29
Extent of
underpinning
30:
assessing
how
much of
the
building
to
underpin,
effect of
partial underpinning
HOW THE SUPERSTRUCTURE
CAN BE
REPAIRED 31
The
principles
of
superstructure repair
31
Types
of
superstructure repair
31: stitch
bonding,
RC beam or lintel
bonding,
resin
bonding, strapping
and
tying
ASSESSING THE COST OF REPAIRS 33
Investigation
costs 33
Underpinning
costs 33
Superstructhre repair
costs 34
Other
costs,
fees
and
expenses
to
allow for 34
V
WHY
MAKE A CLAIM? 38
WHAT IS COVERED BY
INSURANCE
POLICIES 35
Insurance of houses and
other
buildings
35
NHBC insurance
35
The excess on
an insurance
policy
35
Liability
for
damage
to
neighbouring
property
36
Specific
limitations of cover
36:
heave,
landslip,
floor
slabs,
betterment
Uninsured
buildings
37
FOLLOWING THE
CLAIMS PROCEDURE 37
Notifying
the insurers 37
The insurer's initial
response
39
The formal
agreements
37
The method of
payment,
V.A.T. 38
NEGOTIATING FOR MAXIMUM
REIMBURSEMENT 39
How
disputes
over
liability
can arIse 39: tree
roots,
external
works and
outhuildings,
adjacent
properties, leaking
drains,
extent of
damage
Dealing
with the insurer's
representatives
40
Partial
underpinning
and insurance 40
Alternative
accommodation 41
DISPUTES WITH
INSURANCE COMPANIES 41
Appeal
to the
company's management
41
Other
appeal
and
arbitration
procedures
41
CONTINUING INSURANCE COVER
AFTER
UNDERPINNING 41
Effect of
premium policies
on rates 41
Conditions
imposed
after
underpinning
41
WHO
PAYS FOR DAMAGE CAUSED
BY
TREES? 42
Trees
on the same site as the
building
42
Trees on
adjacent
sites and in the
pavement
42
Chapter
5: The
approvals
that are needed
Chapter
6:
Getting
the work done
BUILDING CONTROL APPROVAL
44
Building
notice or
deposit
of
plans
44
Inspections
and
completion
certificates 44
Underpinning
defined as a material
alteration
44
Building
Control's
liability
for defective
foundations 45
Fees for
Building
Control
45
APPROVAL
OF NEIGHBOURING
OWNERS 48
Party
wall
agreements
45: in
London,
outside
London.
OTHER APPROVALS
47
Tree
preservation
orders
47
Planning
and historic
building approval
47
Noise
(Control
of Pollution
Act)
47
Rubbish
skip
license 47
Access 47
Protection of
underground
services 48
SELECTION
OF CONSULTANTS 49
Experience
49
References
49
PREPARING THE
DOCUMENTATION SO
The
drawings
50
The
specification
50
The
prelims
and
preamble
50
OBTAINING COMPETITIVE
TENDERS 50
Selection of contractors
50
Inviting
tenders 53
Standard forms of contract
54
The contract
agreement
54
SUPERVISING
THE WORK AND AGREEING
VARIATIONS 55
Supervision
of the work
55
Variations to the contract 55
Method
of
payment
55
COMPLETION
OF THE CONTRACT 55
GUARANTEES AND
WARRANTIES 56
Value of a
guarantee
56
Insurance backed
guarantees
56
Negligence
claims 56
RECORDS 57
References 57
Useful
addresses 57
Subject
index 58
FIGURES
1
(a-c) Typical
crack
patterns
caused
by
defects
other than subsidence
7-8
2(a-cI)
Typical
cracking
due to subsidence
9-10
3 Main
areas where shrinkable
clays
occur 11
4 How
a foundation can
punch
through
a
layer
of
good
soil when there
is a softer
layer
beneath 12
5
Plasticity
index
13
6
Dessication of soil
by
a tree
13
7
Precautions to be
taken to
protect
underpinning
when
ground
heave
is a
possibility
18
8
Techniques
for
monitoring
the width and
extent of cracks 19
9
Method of
recording
crack
survey
findings
20
10
Examples
of soil
investigation
techniques
22
11
Types
of
underpinning
29,
(a) traditional,
(b)
mass
concrete,
(c) pier
and
beam,
(d) pile
and
beam
12
Strengthening superstructure adjacent
to
underpinning
to
prevent
distortion 30
13
Underpinning
a
stepped footing
30
14
Superstructure
strengthening
methods 32
15
Typical
insurance
policy wordings
38
16 Cross
section of roots under
the
microscope
39
17
Application
of
Inner London
party
wall
legislation
to
ground
under a
party
wall 46
18
Contract
drawing showing partial
underpinning
of a house 51
19
Parts of a
specification
and
schedule of rates
for
underpinning
52
vi'
TABLES
-
I Action check
list for
underpinning
a
typical
3
bedroom house
2
Sequence
of events and
time
required
for
underpinning
of a three
bedroom house 3
3
Plasticity
index and
shrinkage
classification
13
4 Tree
types
-
water
demands,
heights
and
risks to
buildings
16
5(a-b)
Damage
and
movement clasifi cation
2324
6
Depths
of
different
types
of
underpinning
25
7
Typical
costs for
underpinning
a 3
bedroom
house in
1993,
34
8
Underpinning
consultants
49
Chapter
1: INTRODUCTION
-
HOW THIS BOOKLET
CAN HELP
What is
subsidence and who
is affected?
The
buildings
and
types
of
damage
that are dealt with
'Subsidence'
of a
building
is the failure
of its foundations due
to the
ground
on which it
is built
subsiding extensively
or
unevenly. 'Underpinning'
describes the
various methods
of
supporting
the
building
where a foundation has
failed or where foundations
need to
be
strengthened
to take an increased load,
for
example
if extra
storeys
are to
be added
or if loads are concentrated
by widening openings
in
ground
and
basement
storeys.
This booklet looks at subsidence
of domestic scale
buildings
and at the
repairs
needed
when
these
buildings
have suffered
subsidence. It is not
a treatise. What it
attempts
is
a
summary
of advice and current
practice
that could be relevant
and
helpful
when
subsidence is
suspected.
Basic issues are
sometimes
repeated
in the
text
-
for the
benefit of those
who
'dip'
into the book.
The
people
who have to
tackle subsidence
problems
The information
given
here is intended both for the
building
owner who has become
aware,
because of cracks
or
badly
fitting
doors that
there
may
have been subsidence,
and for the
professional
called
in to
advise,
perhaps
with
little
previous
experience
of
subsidence.
The owner
may
not
wish to be drawn in to the technical
details but a
general
understanding
of the
options
will allow
the issues to be
squarely
faced and the
necessary
actions to be taken.
Professionals will be familiar
with the
general
procedures
involved but
may
not
have recent
experience
of an
underpinning
contract.
This booklet will refresh
their memories
and most will find some
nuggets
of informa-
tion that can
help
avoid mistakes or save time.
WHAT
HAPPENS IN A TYPICAL
CASE OF SUBSIDENCE
Like serious illness,
subsidence
is
something any building
owner
can
justifiably
feel
afraid of. If it
is extensive it is
likely
to
disrupt
the use of the
building
-
at least for a
short time. In extreme,
and
fortunately
rare
cases,
it can even lead to
damage
that can
not be
repaired
at a
reasonable cost
and,
just possibly,
to demolition of the
entire
building.
Subsidence is
costly
to deal with and will
require
time and
energy being spent
on
things
that
normally
make no demands.
How the
parties
involved can
protect
their
interests
Knowing
the issues and
how the
problems
can be resolved,
which
they
almost
always
can
be,
is
reassuring.
There
are
many
ways
in which
the
parties
involved in a
case of
subsidence
can
protect
their interests.
Whether affected as owner,
neighbour,
tenant,
purchaser
or
professional
advisor
certain issues should
always
be
considered
by
those
involved before
repairs
are started
and,
if
things
do
go wrong
at
any stage,
there are
often
ways
of
limiting
the
damage
and
recovering
the situation.
page
1
Underpinning: Chapter
1
Introduction How
this book can
help
Key
issues are
discussed in each
chapter
of
this booklet
Chapter
1:
says
how to
get
advice without
unnecessary
expense;
Chapter
2:
looks at
whether
underpinning
is
really needed;
Chapter
3:
describes the
techniques
that are now
available;
Chapter
4: is about
the all
important
question
of
insurance claims and
appeals;
Chapter
5: lists
the official
approvals
that will
(or may)
be
needed;
Chapter
6: deals
with the
work,
with contract
conditions and
with
guarantees.
The
sequence
of events and
the time
required
Preliminary stages:
In an
underpinning operation
the
preliminary
stages
are
likely
to
move
slowly. They
will
take
anything
from six months to
two or three
years.
Even
when
owners and
professionals
act
promptly
it takes
time to see
what needs to be
done,
to
arrange
the finance and
to set
up
a
contract for the
work.
Delays
are
particu-
larly
annoying
when
they
hold
up
other
repair
and redecoration
work or
possibly
the
sale of the
property.
One
way
to cut down on
unnecessary delays
is to
keep
an action
check
list
(an
example
is
given
on the
inside of the
front
cover)
and
follow it
through
to
ensure letters
have arrived and
someone deals with
the next
step
in a
reasonable time.
Three
golden
rules
for
getting
quicker
results are
1.
Speak
to
someone on the
phone
before
sending
them a letter
-
you
can
then be
more sure
that the letter is
going
to the
right person
and
very
often
they
will
give
you
a
good
idea what to
say
in the letter.
2. Send
letters
by
fax
followed
by
a
copy
sent
through
the
post.
The
fax will
get
there
faster
and its arrival
will be recorded. The
copy
will serve
as a
reminder.
3. When
writing
to chase
action,
spell
out the
sequence
of events that
have led to
the
letter
having
to be
sent,
in case
previous
letters
have
gone
astray
or staff have
changed.
Carrying
out the work
The
underpinning operation
itself is
not
likely
to
be
protracted.
The
contract will
penalise
a
contractor who is
responsible
for
delays.
Table 2
gives
a
reasonable
timescale
for the
partial
underpinning
of a three
bedroom house.
The most
likely delay
to
the
work
programme
is an
unnecessarily
long
interval
between the
underpinning
work
and
superstructure
repairs,
particularly
if
they
are
under
separate
contracts.
There
may
also
be
delays
because excavation
reveals the
need for
additional work
and finance for
that
work has to be
approved.
The
worst
thing
that is
remotely likely
to
occur is that
the work
is
stopped
in
the
middle, either because
all the
necessary
approvals
have not
been
obtained from
the
authorities and the
neighbours
or
because the
contractor
goes
out of
business. A
performance
bond could
be considered
for
underpinning
contracts
where such
delays
are
likely
to lead to
heavy
expenses (a
performance
bond
is an
insurance that covers
the cost if the
contractor
fails to
carry
out the
contract);
alterna-
tively building
insurers
may
undertake to meet
exceptional
costs
resulting
from
delays.
page
2
Underpinning: Chapter
1 Introduction How this book can
help
TABLE 2
Sequence
of events and
the time
required
for
underpinning
of a three bedroom house
EVENTS MONTHS
0 3 6 12 15 18 21
Contact insurance
company
and
appoint
consultant U
Initial
investigation
and consultants
report.
Insurers to be asked to
accept liability.
Consultant monitors movement
Report
on movement and remedial solutions
Consultant
prepares drawings
and
specification
Consultant obtains tenders
Sub-structure
repairs (underpinning)
Period allowed for initial settlement after
repairs
Superstructure repairs
ESSENTIAL PRECAUTIONS
To avoid subsidence: this booklet
does not deal with the
precautions against
subsidence
that are built into the foundation
design
of new
buildings
but there are
certain
elementary precautions
that owners of
existing buildings
should be aware of
that will reduce the risk of subsidence.
1. If trees
(particularly
certain
species
of
tree)
are
allowed to
grow large
and close to
buildings
on
clay
soils there is an increased risk of subsidence. Trees that threaten to
cause subsidence should be cut back rather than cut down and owners of trees on
adjacent land, including
the
highway authority,
can be asked to reduce the bulk of
threatening
trees as
they
can be held
responsible
for the
damage they
do.
(see chapters
2 and
4)
2. Alterations to
existing buildings,
even internal
alterations,
can lead to a
concentration of load that
eventually
causes subsidence.
3.
If
ground
levels are lowered it
may
be
necessary
to
underpin
beforehand as
exposed
or shallower foundations are more vulnerable to subsidence.
Normally building
control
approval
is needed for
any
alteration that affects
loading.
If
additional foundations are needed
they
will have been a condition of
Building
Regulation approval,
however
minor
changes may
have been made or new
heavy equip-
ment
may
have been installed without
anyone realising
that sections of the foundations
were
being
overloaded. As a
general
rule the load on a sound
existing
foundation
should not be increased
by
more than 10% and
any
alteration that affects the loads on
an
existing loadbearing
structure should
go
before
building
control and if
necessary
be
checked
by
a structural
engineer. (In
a case, such as an
agricultural building,which
is
exempted
from
building
control an
engineer
should be asked for
approval).
To minimise the effect of subsidence if it occurs: this booklet deals with the
repair
of
buildings
that have suffered from subsidence. Where subsidence is
progressive
the
sooner it is dealt with the better.
Superstructure damage resulting
from subsidence can
page
3
Underpinning: Chapter
1 Introduction How this
bi can
help
be more
expensive
to
repair
than the
underpinning
of the failed
foundations. It is not
wise to treat
subsidence
experimentally
-
by making
a
repair
that
may
or
may
not do
the
job.
If
a foundation fails for a second time the
whole of the
superstructure
repairs
may
have to be
repeated.
Chapter
4 deals with
insurance, It is an essential
precaution
to
have a
good up-to-date
insurance
policy
with a
company
that steers
through
and
pays
for all
the
necessary
repairs.
Non-domestic
buildings
are often not insured for
subsidence.
Outbuildings
and
boundary
walls,
etc. are sometimes not insured
for subsidence.
To avoid recurrent
problems:
besides
continuing
to take the
necessary precautions
to
avoid
subside)ice,
such as
cutting
back
trees,
and
making
sure that a
really
effective
remedial scheme is
implemented
the most
important
precaution
to
take is to ensure
that a full
insurance
cover,
including
cover for
subsidence,
is reinstated after the build-
ing
has been
repaired.
If
possible
an
undertaking
on future insurance
should be
obtained before
any
offer of
payment
on a subsidence
claim is
accepted.
WHERE TO START
Sources of advice
Three sorts of advice
may
be needed.
(a)
General advice in the
form of
publications,
lists of firms
and standard
procedures.(b)
Independent
advice in the form of
professional expertise
or the
experience
of
those who have
already
suffered
subsidence
damage. (c) Specialist
advice from
those involved in a
particular type
of
repair
work.
(a)
General advice: is
available from the
Building
Research Establishment who have
publications
on
underpinning
(see references)
Tel: Watford
(0923)
894040.

The Local
Authority Building
Control
Department
who
may
have
knowledge
of other
subsidence
repair
In the area.

The National
House-Building
Council
for houses built
by
their members Tel: 0494
434477.

The Institution of Civil
Engineers, particularly
for
large
scale
problems concerning soils, eg. landslip.
Tel: 071 222
7722.

The
Royal
Institution of Chartered
Surveyors
can
give
names of
members in
any
area Tel: 071 222 7000.

The
Royal
Institute of British Architects can
give
names of
architects in
any
area. Tel: 071 580 5533.

The Institution
of Structural
Engineers
can
give
names
of
eiiiheers
in
any
area. Tel:
071
235 4535

The
House-Builders Federation can
give
names of local
contiactors. Tel: 071 580 5588

The British Cement
Assodation
for
advice on concrete foundfin
design
Tel: Fulmer
(0753)
662727.
(b) tndependent
advice: When
choosing
a
professional
person
to
go
to
for
independent
advice
give
preference
to those who have both
previous experience
of
underpinning
contracts
and
good
references from the
clients for whom
they
worked on
those
contracts. If the
job
is small and the
repair
work has no
particular
aesthetic
implications
it can be
handled
by
a
building
surveyor.
For
larger jobs
and work on
listed
buildings you
will
probably
need both an architect
and a structural
engineer;
however
insurers are reluctant
to
pay
for the services of
more than one
consultant. If there is
not much
superstructure repair,
or where it is
largely structural,
a
structural
engineer
is
likely
to be able to
handle the
job.
You
may
choose an
individual
consultant,
with whom
you
feel an
affinity.
Alternatively
you
may
want the
backing
of a
large consultancy
behind the
person you
deal with.
page
4
Underpinning: Chapter
1 Introduction How this book can
help
The consultant's terms of
engagement
should be in
writing
and it should be made
quite
clear what fee will be
paid
and
what other advice will be needed. The insurance will
pay
reasonable
professional
fees but
they may
have views on
the
appointment
of
consultants,
particularly
if more than one consultant is involved. Some insurers
insist
on
appointing
the
consultant. Not all
suitably qualified
consultants
belong
to the
professional
institutions listed above.
(C)
Advice from
specialist
contractors: Firms that
specialise
in
underpinning
and
repair
work can
often
give
more informed advice than
independent
consultants. The
drawback
is that
they
are not in a
position
to set
up competitive tendering
or to
advise
between the offers made
by
firms
using
different
techniques.
Also
they may
not know
much about
superstructure repair (particularly
if a historic
building
is
involved).
Discussion with
specialist
firms before
specifications
and
drawings
are
prepared
can
open
the
way
to the inclusion of alternative solutions.
The Federation of
Piling
Specialists
can recommend firms with relevant
experience
and
equipment.
Tel: 071 831 7581
The British Telecom Yellow
Pages Directory
lists firms that claim to
specialise
in
underpinning.
Although
the local names are useful
care must be taken to ensure that
firms on such lists are
capable
of
doing
the
job.
Take
up
references.
Arrange
for
Independent
assessment of
competitive
tenders and never hand over
money
in advance
of the work
being
done.
The client's role
Appointing
consultants or
specialists
and
leaving
them to
get
on with it is
likely
to lead
to
problems.
However conscientious such
people
are
they
cannot read a client's mind.
They
should
always
work to a written brief from the client. It need be no more than a
letter in the first
place
but it should make
clear:

The
amounts,
methods and times of
payment

What the
person
or
firm is
required
to do

What time is available
for the work and what
special
conditions are involved

What insurances are
required
The initial brief can be
developed by
the client and consultant
or
specialist together.
The client can
say
what use of the
building
and access is
required during
the work.
The
independent
consultant
may
be asked to
negotiate
the insurance claim on the
building.
The
specialist
should
be able to
say
how
long
each
phase
of the work is
likely
to take.
As the work
goes
ahead the client should
make sure to
keep
well informed about
progress,
major
decisions and costs
-
without
wasting people's
time with
unnecessary
interference.
Page
5
Chapter
2: IDENTIFYING
THE CAUSES OF FOUNDATION
FAILURE
AND
CHECKING SAFETY
Recognising
the distinction between
settlement and subsidence
Settlement
Some movement of the
ground
on which a
building
is
built is to be
expected
and this
is
called settlement. The
building
can
cope
with this. There is an
inter-action between a
building
and the soil
which
supports
it.
Slight
settlement of the soil is normal and
should not
damage
the
building.
Flexible
buildings
Even when an old
building
has distorted
noticeably
it
may
still be
quite
sound.
Pre-1914
buildings
were
usually
built with
lime
mortar,
which
dampness
causes to
re-hydrate, allowing
the lime
mortar to 'heal' and create new
bonding
across cracks.
The
quaintness
of some old
buildings
is a result of this
"flexibility"
as,
for
example,
when the
masonry
of a
terrace of
cottages
rolls
up
and down.
Brittle
buildings
Modern
brickwork is laid in
stronger
cement mortar however
this is brittle.
Foundations have therefore
to be more
rigid
and
deeper.
Moreover it is now
recognised
(though only
after
many failures)
that suitable
superstructure
jointing
has to be
provided
so that
thermal and other
movement,
including
movement due
to minor
foundation
settlement,
do not
cause
cracking.
Engineered
buildings
Large, engineer
designed buildings
are
beyond
the
scope
of this booklet
but some of
the
techniques deriving
from such
buildings
have been
applied
to
more modest
structures. There
are
many
houses that use
engineer-designed
structural elements
including
timber
or steel
frames,
precast
concrete
panels
and
foundations. Such houses
can look
very
much like
more
traditionally
built
housing
but
may
need
special
solutions
that take account of
the
original design
principles.
Subsidence
Parts that are
vulnerable to
subsidence: Whereas a whole
building
can settle
in one
piece
and not be
damaged,
subsidence occurs
when one
part
of a
building
settles much
more than other
parts
and as a result the
superstructure
cracks It is
quite
common for
some
parts
of the house
to be less well
founded than the rest of
the
house,
in
particular,
such
things
as
porches,
bay-windows
or
extensions. These
parts
can
break
away
from
the
body
of a
building
which is
itself unaffected.
page
6
Underpinning: Chapter
2
Identifying
the causes of foundation failure and
checking safety
Defects that can be
mistaken for subsidence:
Cracking
in brickwork caused
by
subsidence
usually
follows distinctive
patterns.
However
cracking
caused
by
certain
superstructure
defects can sometimes be mistaken for subsidence. Lack of wall
movement
joints, spreading
of
rafters,
failure of lintels over
openings
and
sulphate
damage
to mortar and insufficient movement
joints
are instances.
Figure
1
shows
typical
crack
patterns
caused
by
some
common defects other than subsidence.
Figure
2 shows
typical cracking
due to subsidence.
FIGURE la
Internal
cracking
not caused
by
subsidence
Cracking
on the line of a flue
page
7
Cracking
where
plaster bridges
from a wall
background
to a caused
by
action of
lintel
background
flue
gasses
on
mortar
Underpinning: Chapter
2
Identifying
the causes
o1Tundation failure and
checking safety
FIGURE lb
External
cracking
not
caused
by
subsidence
Long-standing
differential
settlement crack
between main
building
and extension
FIGURE Ic
Lack of wall
movement
joints
page
8
Opening up ofjoints
at
every
4th course in brickwork
caused
by
corrosion
of wail ties
Failure of brick
arch causes
cracking
above
opening
Spreading
of roof
timbers
causing
cracks at roof
level
Tilting
of
lintel
causing
brick
cracking
at
opening
General
cracking
ofjoints
in
damp
masonry
caused
by
sulphate
action on mortar
While
clay
brickwork tends to
expand
soon after
construction,
calcium silicate
brickwork contracts and will cause
cracking
unless
suitable movement
joints
are
provided
-
modern
clay
brickwork also
requires
movement
joints
but
they
can be
more
widely spaced apart
depending
on the brick
type
and wail
location
Constant width
vertical cracks
due to initial
expansion
and,
to a lesser
extent,
on-going
thermal
movement
(in
a terrace of houses
one or
two end
houses can be affected more than
the
othrs)
Underpinning: Chapter
2
Identifying
the causes of foundation failure and
checking safety
FIGURE 2a
Internal
cracking
caused
by
subsidence
Figure
2b
Typical
crack
patterns
due to subsidence
page
9
Vertical cracks
beside
bay
window.
The tree roots have desiccated
clay
beneath the shallow foundations of the
bay

Diagonal
cracks
,'
(wider
at the
top)
on
"
both corner facades.
Tree roots have desiccated
clay
beneath the foundation at the corner
Underpinning:
Chapter
2
Identifying
the causes
ofundation failure and
checking safety
Figure
Zc
Sagging
mode
-
ground
under centre has
subsided
Crack in the
party
wall
(or
rear facade
cracked in
the same
way
as the
front)
Wider
gaps
in
roof
coverings
(and/or
cracks
in end
wall)
page
10
Cracks are wider
towards the
top
/
/ Cracks are wider
/
towards the bottom
Figure
2d
Hogging
mode
-
ground
under the end
Ends of
building
have
subsided
(or
the
ground
under the
party
wall has
heaved)
Underpinning; Chapter
2
Identifying
the causes of foundation
failure and
checking safety
RECOGNISING
THE CONDITIONS
THAT ARE PRONE TO GROUND
MOVEMENT
Vulnerable soil
types
Almost
all soils will
compress
under
heavy point
loads but even
when not overloaded
certain
types
of soil can move and
damage
a
building
Clay
The soil that causes
most
subsidence
damage
is
clay.
It accounts
for over half
of all
underpinning
in
Britain. In
prolonged periods
of
dry
weather
clay
shrinks.
Certain
clays
are
'highly
shrinkable',
for
example
London
clay.
Others
cause fewer
problems.
Figure
3 shows the main
areas
of
the
country
where shrink-
able
clays
occur. However
local
knowledge
is more
reliable than a
generalised
map.
Where
clay
is the
cause of
damage
the
local
authority
Building
Control
department
should be able to confirm
other
cases
of subsidence
in
the area.
Certain
soils near Sunderland and
Shrewsbury
can be
vulnerable,
as can soft soils in
the Somerset Levels,
the
Fens,
and
near the Thames
Estuary
and
the Firths of Forth
and
Clyde.
FIGURE 3
Main areas of the
UK where shrinkable
clays
occur
(shown dark)
page
1 1
0
a
Underpinning: Chapter
2
Identifying
the causes
offoundation failure and
checking safety
Peat
and river
deposits:
Soft soils such
as
peat
and
certain river
deposits
are
prone
to
subsidence
and,
although
normally
avoided
as the base to
support
a
foundation,
they
may
be concealed
below a
layer
of
different soil that is
not
strong
enough
to
carry
the
weight
of the
building
over the
peat
below.
Figure
4
shows how a
foundation can
punch
through
a
layer
of
good
soil
when there is a
softer
layer
underneath.
Only
an
investigation
of the soil
well below the
foundation level will
reveal the
presence
of soft strata.
FIGURE 4
How a
foundation can
punch through
a
layer
of
good
soil
when there is a
softer
layer
beneath
page
12
Previous
position
of
ground
floor
windows shown
dotted
Layer
of soft soil
between two
layers
of firm
soil
By widening
the
openings
on
the
ground
floor the
load
has been
concentrated on
the central
pier
and its
foundation has
punched
through
to the softer
layer
of soil
beneath
Underpinning:
Chapter
2
Identifying
the
causes of foundation failure and
checking safety
SOME
OF ELEMENTARY SOIL MECHANICS
FOR THOSE WHO
ARE INTERESTED
Fine
grained
soils were formed
by deposition
of soil
particles
from
suspension
in water.
In the
process
of
settlement,
consolidation and
drying
out the material
passed
through
several well-defined
stages:
1, suspension
in
liquid
2,
viscous
liquid
3, plastic
solid 4,
semi-plastic
solid
5,
solid
The three
important
boundaries between
the
stages
shown in
Figure
5 were demonstrated
by
the Swedish soil scientist
Atterberg (after
whom some soil tests are
named). They
occur at the moisture content
that forms the lower limit of the
liquid, plastic
and semi solid states
FIGURE 5
Plasticity
index
LL
=
The
liquid
limit' and is the minimum moisture
content
at which the soil will flow under its
own
weight. (In
the standard test a
groove
in
the
soil will close when
a
sample
is
tapped.)
PL
=
The
plastic
limit' and
is the minimum moisture
content at which the soil can be
rolled into a
3mm thread without
breaking.
SL
=
'The
shrinkage
limit' and is the moisture content
at which
further loss of moisture does not cause
a decrease
in the volume of the soil.
P1
=
'The
plasticity
index'
and is the difference
-
between the
liquid
and
plastic
limits
shrinkable soils contain more
than 35% of fine
particles
(silt
and
clay)
and have a
plasticity
index of more than
10%.
Table 3 shows the
plasticity
index
figures
for soils classified as
having
low,
medium and
high
shrinkage potential
and the
NHBC minimum foundation
depths
for each
classification
Table 3
Plasticity
index and
shrinkage
classification
Plasticity
index
(P1)
classification
of
shrinkage potential
NHBC
required
minimum
foundation
depth
for
new
buildings
Greater than 40% High
1.00 m
20
-
40%
Medium
0.90 m
10-20%
Low
0.75m
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Figure
6 shows the how
the moisture
profile
of soil at different
depths
can be affected
by
a tree
removing
moisture from
the soil.
Drying
of a shrinkable
soil below its
equilibrium
moisture content
may
cause it to shrink
enough
to
damage any
building
it
supports.
There is no
direct correlation between moisture
content of a soil and the
loading permitted
beneath a foundation. A
clay
soil that is dessicated
to below its
equilibrium
moisture
content will be harder than the same
clay
at the
equilibrium
moisture content.
But it is the
clay
at
equilibrium
moisture
content that is used to establish
the
permitted
loading.
Typically
a stiff
clay
can
support
100
-
200 kNlm2
(1
-
2
tons/sq.ft.)
page
13
Plastic
LL.
Semi-solid
PL
SL
Moisture content of soil
+
Greater
depths required
in
vicinity
of trees Or where
trees are to be
planted
FIGURE 6 Desiccation
of soil
by
a tree
Depth
below
ground
in
metres
10% 20%
30% 10% 50%
Moisture
profile
of soil
desiccated
by
the tree
Difference in the moisture
contents of the soil
Moisture
profile
of'normal soil'
Underpinning: Chapter
2
Identifying
the causes
of foundation failure
and
checking
safety
Made
ground:
Sometimes
buildings
are founded on
'made
ground'-material
used to
replace
excavated
soil or to raise
ground
levels.
Unless the made
ground
is of a stable
and uniform
nature the
buildings
walls or floor
slabs
may
subside.
It is common
to use
either
piling (or
in some
situations raft
foundations)
where a
building
is to be
built on
made
ground.
Other
conditions that
can lead to
subsidence
A
whole
range
of
conditions can
cause local weaknesses
in the
ground
supporting
a
building.
Sloping ground:
South
facing clay
slopes
are
particularly prone
to
shrinkage
as hot
sun dries
out
exposed
soil. North
facing
or
overshadowed
slopes
are
less
susceptible.
Buildings
on
sloping ground
require suitably
designed
foundations or
they
may
be
subject
to
landslip
when the
building
and the
surrounding
soil start to slide
down the
slope together.
Leaking
drains:
Leaks from drains
or water
supplies
can wash
out fine
material from
soils,
weakening
them and
causing
the
foundations
they
support
to subside.
This
subsidence can further
damage pipes
and
increase
leaks,
creating
a
chicken and
egg
situation. Was it the
subsidence that
cracked the
pipe
or was it the
leak that
caused the
subsidence? A
common
way
to
check drains
nowadays
is the closed
circuit
television
camera.
More traditional checks
include air
pressure
or smoke
tests.
Simply plugging
the drain at
its lower end
and
filling
with
water can be
used to check for
leakage.
Mining
subsidence: In
coal
mining
areas
significant
settlement can
occur as a
mining
face is worked and
passes
under a
building.
This
movement
takes the form of a
'ripple'
of
differential
settlement. Severe
cracking
of
buildings
often
results but once
the
ripple
of
ground
movement has
passed
the
buildings
above can be
repaired
on the
assumption
that little further
movement will
occur.
British
Coal,
which
was
formally
the
National Coal
Board,
is
legally responsible
for
mining
subsidence
damage (f-lead
office Tel. 071
235
2020).
Whether the owners
of
privatised
coal mines will
have
equal
responsibility
remains to
be
seen. The lack of
responsibility
for
pollution
from
private
Cornish tin
mines is not
an
encouraging precedent.
Mine shaft
collapse:
Unlike the
progressive
subsidence
that follows
the
working
of a
coal
face,
the
collapse
of
old mine
shafts and
workings
is
usually
disastrous for
the
buildings
above and
cannot be dealt
with
by
normal
underpinning
techniques. Mining
engineers
can
cap
shafts to secure
the
ground
above for
other uses but this
was not
always
done in the
past.
In this
specialist
area
the Institution
of
Mining
and
Metallurgy
can
suggest
independent
engineers
to
approach
for
advice where the
mine was
for
metal ores
(Tel:
071 580
3802).
The
Institution of
Mining Engineers
can
provide
a
similar service in
relation to
coal
workings (Tel.
Doncaster
(0302)
320486).
page
14
Underpinning: Chapter
2
Identifying
the causes of
foundation failure and
checking safety
Swallow
holes: Swallow holes
can occur in chalk and
limestone.
Underground
voids in
these rocks
are
enlarged by
the action
of water and
'migrate'
towards the surface.
Buildings
above
become vulnerable to subsidence
-
or even
collapse.
Similar
probiems
can be
man-made,
for
example,
where
quarrying
is carried out
underground
(as
it
was,
around
Bath). Specialist techniques
are
necessary
to locate such voids.
'Ground radar'
which
detects
changes
in
the
density
of the soil is one such
technique. Specialist
techniques
are also needed to
remedy
the situation once
a void has been
located,
for
example,
voids
or caverns can be filled
with
large quantities
of
grout (liquid
cement
and
a
filling medium).
However environmentalists
are concerned that
this could be harmful.
Effect of weather conditions
Where
subsidence is caused
by
the
shrinking
of
clay
soil,
weather conditions and
orientation
can
dramatically
increase subsidence,
particularly
of
exposed
parts
of
a
building.
This
type
of subsidence becomes
much commoner after
droughts
or after a
series of drier than
average years.
RECOGNISING
THE DAMAGE
THAT TREES CAN CAUSE
Damage
caused
by
tree roots themselves
Tree roots can sometimes
cause
physical
damage
to foundations. However
modern
concrete foundations are
not
easily penetrated by
roots
and are therefore
much less
susceptible.
Roots
may
also
damage
or
partially
block
drains and
consequential leakage
can weaken
surrounding ground.
Removal of
ground
moisture
by
tree
roots
Trees do
very
much
more harm
by removing
moisture from the
ground
under
foundations
than
they
do
by penetrating
structures and
drains.
Clay
soils are
mainly
affected.
Trees remove moisture
from the
clay, causing
it to shrink
locally
where
the
roots encroach
on soil below foundations.
Since differential
ground
movement is the
most
disruptive
movement,
trees
are
responsible
for a
high proportion
of subsidence.
Table 4 shows the
types
of tree that extract
most water from
the
ground
and the
distance from the tree
within which
damage may
be caused.
Smaller
plants
Bushes
up
to five metres
high
are
not
likely
to cause harm.
The
lady
who asked
"gardener's
Question
Time" on BBC
Radio
4,
if daffodils
were safe was told
'yes'!
page
15
Underpinning: Chapter
2
Identifying
the
causes ofundation
failure and
checking
safety
Table
4
Tree
types
-
water
demands,
heights
and
risks to
buildings
based on NI-IBC
guidance
for new
housing
with author's
amendments
Water
demand
Broad leaved trees
Conifers
Species
Mature
Species
Mature
height (m)
height (m)
HIGH
Elm
(Eucalyptus)
Oak
Poplar
Willow
18-24
16-24
25-28
16-24
Lawson's
Cypress
Monterey
Cypress
18
20
MEDIUM
Alder
Apple
Ash
(Blackthorn)
Cherry
(Japanese
and
orchard)
Cherry (wild)
(False
Acacia)
Hawthorn
(Honey Locust)
Hornbeam
Horse Chestnut
(Laurel)
Lime
Maple
Mountain
Ash
Plane
Pear
Plum
Sycamore
(Walnut)
Whitebeam
18
9
23
8
9
17
18
10
14
17
20
8
22
18
11
26
12
10
22
18
12
(Cedar)
Leyland
Cypress
(Douglas
Fir)
(Pine)
(Spruce)
Yew
20
24
20
20
18
12
LOW
Beech
(Holly)
Birch
(Magnolia)
(Mulberry)
20
12
14
9
Notes:
I Insufficient
information is
available
about trees
indicated in
brackets,
for a
definite
classification.
2
In
highly
shrinkable
clay ground,
trees
may
be
responsible
for
damage
to
buildings
within
the
following
distances of
their current
height:

High
water demand
trees: 1 .25 x
height

Medium water
demand trees:
0.75 x
height

Low
water demand
trees: 0.50 x
height
Trees
pose
more risk if
they
have
yet
to reach
their mature
height (see
table).
3 The
deeper
the
foundation is the
less risk a tree
poses.
page
16
Underpinning:
Chapter
2
Identifying
the causes of foundation failure
and
checking
safety
Recovery
of
ground
moisture
after removal
of trees
Avoiding
tree root
problems
would be a lot easier
than it is if removal
of trees would
automatically
prevent
the
damage
trees can cause
Removal
is, however,
usually
not the
answer to
subsidence caused
by
tree
roots on
clay
soil.
If trees are removed,
or if
they
die,
the moisture
content in the
clay
within the root area
is
slowly
restored,
causing
the
clay
to swell and the
ground
to 'heave'.
The
resulting damage
to
buildings
can be
much
more extensive and
expensive
to
put right
than
any
damage
caused
by
the tree extract-
ing
moisture from the
ground.
It
may
be
possible
to remove a
tree that is
younger
than
the
building (provided
the cracks
it has caused in
the
building
have not
been
filled)
because the
ground
should
only
recover to the
original
level. But with an older
tree the
best that can be
done to reduce
its adverse effects is
to
progressively
cut
it back to
limit its
foliage
and
therefore reduce the
moisture it needs
from the
ground.
An
extremely
severe initial
cutting
back is
best avoided because it
may produce
the same
ground
heave
problems
that
would have resulted
from
removing
the
tree
altogether
and it could
kill the tree!
It has been
found that the
ground
near to a tree
may
be dessicated
down to a
depth
of
4m. The
shrinking
of the dessicated
ground
lowers
the surface level
which rises
again
when a tree is removed,
and the
clay
recovers its moisture.
An idea of the
ground
heave that can
occur when a tree is removed,
is
given by
the case of
upward
movement
in excess of 150mm
which was
recorded as
taking place
over 25
years
after
removal of
a
tree
(though
the
first half of such movement
is
likely
to
have been
completed
within
ten
years).
The removal
of trees and
resultant
ground
heave can cause other
problems
besides
building
subsidence,
for
example
the
slope
of
ground
drains can be altered
or even
reversed. Such
badly
affected drains
will need
replacing.
Precautions to deal
with
underpinning
where
ground
heave
is a
possibility
are
shown in
Figure
7.
INVESTIGATING
FOUNDATION FAILURE
The evidence
that will
be
required
Insurers will
usually
require
evidence
of current
(ie.
continuing)
movement
before
they
will
accept
a subsidence
claim.
Engineers
are
likely
to
require
information about
the
ground
before
designing
remedial works
such as
underpinning.
Both call for
methodical
investigation.
Movement
investigation
The movement
investigation
most
often relevant in
suspected
subsidence
situations is
the
recording
of cracks and their
development.
A
simple
technique
that
produces
useful
data
and
requires
no
special
skills is
to
carefully
note
positions, approximate
widths
and
the extent
of cracks
directly
on wall surfaces
and if
possible
onto
elevational
drawings
of the
wall drawn to scale.
Each note should be dated,
then as cracks extend,
a
picture
of the movement
changes
can
be seen. For more
accurate measurement
of crack
widths the various
techniques
illustrated
in
Figure
8 are
available.
(including
a method
of
recording cracks).
page
17
Clay
heaves as
moisture content
increases to
normal
Reinforced concrete
ground
beam
surrounded
by
crenellated
polystyrene
before it is
cast so that
subsequent
day
heave
does
not cause
damage
II
Crenellated
linings
only
strictly
necessary
if
swelling
day
could cause
damage
to
other
construction
Crenellated
polystyrene sheet,
up
to 100
mm
thick,
lines
excavation
before the con-
crete is
poured
and allows
day
to swell
into the
voids instead of
thrusting
the whole
underpinning sideways
page
18
Underpinning:
Chapter
2
Identifying
the-causes
of3bundation
failure and
checking
safety
FIGURE 7
Precautions to be taken to
protect
underpinning
when
ground
heave is a
possibility
jITTT
Underpinning
V
Underpinning: Chapter
2
Identifying
the causes of foundation
failure and
checking safety
FIGURE 8
Techniques
for
monitoring
crack
widths
Glass tell-tale: if it cracks movement has
occurred
-
but how much?
(vulnerable
to
damage
in some
locations)
Sliding perspex
tell-tales:
readings
are taken on a
grid
so that
they
can show both horizontal and vertical
movement but
only
movement
greater
than 0.5mm.
A current condition
survey
in
a case of
suspected
subsidence
may
need to include the
recording,
on
plans
of the
building,
of:

crack widths and
positions;

out-of-plumbness,
distortion and
bulging
of
walls;

the
slope
of
floors,
sills
etc.;

the extent and condition of
paving
and
drainage,
and the
position,
size and
species
of
existing
trees
(or
trees known
to have been
removed)
page
19
0
Vernier
callipers (readings
possible
to 0.005 mm but
such
precision
is not needed
for this
task).
Digital reading calipers
are available
t.q
Measurements of 'x' and
'y'
taken with
callipers
across the shafts of brass screws
(or
across studs fixed with adhesive
using
a
'Demec'
gauge
which
incorporates
a dial
reading gauge)
Recording
the extent of
cracking
on an inside
wall surface
Underpinning: Chapter
2
Identifying
the causes of
foundation failure and
checking safety
FIGURE 9
Method of
recording
crack
survey findings
An assessment of the
building's
condition and the need for
underpinning requires
a
weighing up
of these
measurements and detaIls. Safe limits
depend
on
many
factors.
Assessing
the
significance
of cracks is dealt
with
in
Figures
1 and
2,
assessing
bulges
and
out-of-plumbness (or
lean)
is a matter
ofjudgement
based on
experience
since,
except
for
freestanding garden
or
boundary
walls,
most walls are
provided
with some
degree
of lateral
restraint
by
the floors or beams that
they support.
In
these
circumstances
bulges
or lean of less than one third
of the wall's thickness
may require
no
special
action, Indeed
they may
not indicate recent movement or
distortion
-
the
building may
have been built
out-of-true in the first
place,
or moved soon
after
building.
Where there
appears
to have been subsidence it is
important
to establish whether
movement is
continuing (or
is
likely
to continue under
dry
conditions).
It is therefore
necessary
to monitor
cracks,
etc. over a
period,
often of twelve
months.
Monitoring
needs to be done
systematically
and some
monitoring procedures
are time
consuming.
The
judgement
of an
experienced professional
in consultation
with the insurance com-
pany's
loss
adjustor
can
determine what
monitoring
is
necessary.
BRE
Digests
251,
343 and 344 consider this
issue in detail.
page
20
Underpinning: Chapter
Identifying
the causes of foundation failure
and
checking safety
Substructure and soil
investigation
Finding
out about sub-structure and
ground
conditions
is more difficult than
recording
the
development
of cracks. Not even the best
engineers
have
'X-ray eyes'.
The below-
ground investigation requires
a
variety
of
techniques
some of
which need
specialist
contractors. Two
investigation
methods and a
description
of the data
they
can
provide
are shown in
Figure
10. Other
techniques
are less intrusive than those illustrated,
hand
augers
and
compact power augers
can be
used within a
building
to collect soil
samples
and test the
strength
of the soil several
metres below foundation levels.
Samples
of soil and
tree roots taken
during
a
ground investigation
can be sent to a
laboratory
to
provide
useful information for the
design
of remedial
works and also to
support
insurance claims.
Laboratory
tests will show whether a
clay
is
highly
shrinkable
and whether the roots that have desiccated a
clay
soil have come from a
particular
species
of
tree. If this
happens
to be the
type
of tree
maturing
on a
neighbours
land or
in a
public pavement,
the insurance
company may
wish to
recover costs from the
neighbour (or
his insurance
company)
or the local
authority.
BRE are
pioneering
new
(and cheaper)
ways
to measure
the moisture content of soils
which make
testing
a
practical
proposition
-
even for small
underpinning
jobs.
Other useful
information can be
gleaned
from
desk studies of
many
different source
documents,
such
as:

geology maps,

aerial
photographs,

local
authority Building
Control
departments,

local
history
libraries,

recollections of local
people,

records of
previous
owners,

British
Coal
(in
the case of
mining areas).
But a walk-round
examination of
nearby buildings
in the area would
normally
be the
starting point
before
embarking
on more
costly investigations.
Deciding
whether subsidence has
occurred
In the final
analysis
this
question
will be answered
by
the
engineer
or
surveyor
investigating
the
situation
(possibly
in
conjunction
with
insurers).
If however
cracking
and
disruption
of
pavings
looks
like subsidence and if
any
other factors
often associated
with subsidence
apply,
for instance if the
underlying ground
is shrinkable
clay
AND
drought
conditions
have
prevailed
OR if a
large
tree
may
be to
blame,
OR if a drain
may
be
leaking
then
the
problem
could be subsidence.
If it
is,
then other
buildings
in
the
vicinity may
be
affected. To find out if this is
so,
a
telephone
call
to the local
authority
building
control
department may
be useful.
Although they
have no
obligation
to
help,
unless
building
work is
already
under
way
or soon to
start,
building
control
officers can often be
very helpful.
page
21
Underpinning: Chapter
2
Identifying
the causes of
foundation failure and
checkinq
safety
FIGURE 10
Examples
of soil
investigation
techniques
Types
of
damage
that could lead to
collapse
It will be
superstructure
damage
which
leads to
investigating
the
sub-structure. Unless
damage
to
the
superstructure
is
slight
the
question
may
arise: is the
building
safe? In
the
short term the
answer is
likely
to be
yes.
Most
housing
has
reserves of
strength
designed
into it and
these take over for
a time, If
nothing
is
done and
movement
continues it is
possible
that so much
movement will
occur in the walls that
the
bearing
lengths
of
floor
joists,
lintels and
beams are
gradually
lost. Without
bearings they
will
collapse
and
sections of wall
may
fall with them.
However,
long
before
this
stage
is
reached,
gaps
in walls are
likely
to be so wide and
extensive that the
building
is no
longer
weathertight
or
habitable.
Ways
to secure
the
stability
of
the
building
Should
horizontal
gaps
occur in
brickwork
bed-joints
a more serious
situation has
developed
and more
urgent
attention will be
called for. The
gaps
should be
packed
with
hardwood
(ie
non-shrinkable) wedges
as
a matter of
urgency.
This is
because
support
of the construction
above has been
lost. Such
wedges
will need to be
reset
frequently
so that
support
is
maintained while the
building
moves.
Another more
urgent
situation
could affect
peripheral parts
of the
superstructure
such
as
bay
windows or
porches.
These are much
more vulnerable since
they
could fall
away
from the
building
if vertical
cracks
develop
next to them.
page
22
Other
types
of
auger
can be used
from inside a
building
Trial
pit
excavated to
examine
the soil beneath
foundations
,.
Shell
auger dropped
from
from a
rig (soil samples
are collected from
a
hollow
core)
SEEING
THAT THE BUILDING IS
SAFE
Underpinning: Chapter
2
Identifying
the
causes of foundation failure and
checking safety
Classification of
damage
Attempts
to
classify damage
have been made. In
1981 BRE
published
Digest
251
'Assessment of
damage
in low-rise
buildings'
and this included a 6
categories
of
damage
from
'negligible'
to
'very
severe'. Some
controversy
resulted from
these
descriptions
-
for instance
owners could not
accept
that a 5mm
crack should be classed
as
'slight'.
This
Digest
was revised in 1990 with the
controversial
category
descriptions
removed. In fact an
engineer
would never assess
severity
of
damage
solely
on the
basis
of crack width but would consider
the situation in its context. The
preamble
to this
table now
recognises
this more
fully.
Table 5a is
based on the
original
BRE
digest together
with further comments on it
from a
1991 BRE
publication.
Table Sb is a
suggested way
of
assessing
active move-
ment.
Taken
together
the two
parts
of table 5
allow
a
comparative
classification of
damage
that not
only
takes account of
the visible
damage
at a
particular
time
but also
development
of the
damage
over a
period,
If the tables are used to describe
damage
in
schedules,
etc. it is
suggested
that the
degree
of static
damage
should be
given
before
the active
movement
description
and that both
should refer to the worst
degree
of
damage
in the area
being
considered.
Example:
"moderate static
damage,
severe active movement"
Table S
Damage
and
movement classification
Sa
degree
of
static
damage
Description
of
damage
(ease
of
repair
in bold
type)
Approximate
crack width
Negligible
Hairline
cracks
only
up
to 0.1mm
Very slight
Fine cracks
easily
treated
during
normal
decoration;
perhaps
isolated
slight fracturing
in
building;
cracks
rarely
visible in external brickwork
up
to 1mm
Slight
Cracks
easily
filled; redecoration
probably required;
recurrent
cracks can be masked
by
suitable
linings;
cracks
not
necessarily
visible
externally;
some
external
repointing
may
be
required
to ensure
weather
tightness;
doors and windows
may
stick
slightly
up
to
5mm
Moderate Cracks
require
some
opening up
and can be
patched by
a
mason;
repointing
of
external brickwork and
possibly
a
small amount
of brickwork to be
replaced;
doors and
windows
sticking;
service
pipes may
fracture;
weather
tightness
is often
impaired
5-15mm
(or
a
number
of
cracks
up
to
3mm)
Severe
Extensive
repair
work
involving breaking-out
and
replacing
sections of
walls,
especially
over doors and
windows;
door and window
frames
distorted;
floor
sloping
noticeably;
some loss of
bearing
in
beams;
service
pipes disrupted
15-25mm
(but
also
depends
on
number
of
cracks)
Very
severe This
requires
a
major repair job
involving partial
or
complete rebuilding;
beams lose
bearing,
walls lean
badly
and
require shoring;
windows broken
by
distortion;
danger
of
instability
usually
more than
25mm
(but
also
depends
on number
of
cracks)
page
23
Underpinning: Chapter
2
Identifying
the causes of foufldation failure and
checking safety
Sb
degree
of
active movement
Description
of
damage
-
Approximate
increase in crack
width
per year
Negligible
No increase in
damage
nil
Very slight
Increase in isolated
slight
fracturThg
that is
barely
noticeable
up
to 0.2mm
Slight
New cracks are not
necessarily
vLThle
externally;
doors
up
to 0.6mm
Moderate
and windows
may
start to
sticlc5lightly
Marked increase in
fracturing;
doors and windows
may
stick
more;
new fractures in
service
pipes;
often new
weather-tightness problems
0.6 to 2mm
Severe
Extensive new
fracturing;
window and door frames
become distorted; floor starts
to
slope noticeably;
some loss of
bearing
in
joints
and beams
(could
therefore be a risk in
using
some
parts
of
the
building)
2mm to 6mm
Very
severe
Widespread
new
fracturing;
beams lose
bearing;
walls lean
badly (and require sioting)
windows break
with
distortion;
building
can become unstable
(and
therefore
dangerous
to
use)
over 6mm
page
24
Chapter
3:
DECIDING THE
METHOD
OF
REPAIR
DECISIONS THAT HAVE TO BE MADE
Repair
of
buildings damaged by
subsidence is best considered in two
parts:

repair
of the
substructure,
eg underpinning,
and

superstructure repairs,
eg
repair
of cracks in walls and redecoration
In some cases
superstructure repair
alone will be
enough.
In others substructure
repair
will be needed
(and
will be followed
by superstructure repair).
HOW THE SUBSTRUCTURE CAN
BE REPAIRED
The
principles
of
underpinning
A basic
principle
of the
underpinning process
is that
support
to construction above is
removed in short
lengths
and new
support
inserted. At
any
one time
support
should
not be removed from more
than,
say,
one fifth of the
building
or wall
being
under-
pinned.
In this
way
the structure will
generally
be
adequately supported
for short
peri-
ods
during
the
underpinning operation. (In
effect
lengths
of wall
being underpinned
'arch' over onto
adjacent walls).
However
occasionally,
for instance if
ground
is soft or
the
building
weak,
special support systems may
be needed to
provide
interim
support.
Often these will be removed when the
underpinning
is installed but there can be sav-
ings
if the
supports
are
designed
to be
'sacrificial', that is
if
they
are left
permanently
embedded in the
underpinning
-
since work
will
then able to
proceed
more
quickly.
Types
of
underpinning
A
range
of methods is available. Most render the sub-structure
adequate by extending
it downwards to
ground
that is
sufficiently strong
and stable. The increase in
depth
can
be
anything
from
half a metre to over seven metres. Table
6 shows the
depths
com-
monly
used for the different methods.
TABLE 6
Depths
of different
types
of
underpinning
Type
of
underpinning
Maximum
depth
Traditional 2.5 m
Mass concrete 3.0 m
Pier and beam 4.0 m
Piled 15.0 m
Notes:

Depths
shown are
approximate.
The foundation
types may
be used to different
depths
for
specific
conditions.

Formation levels
(i.e.
foundation
bottoms)
need to be
inspected
by
a local
authority
building
control officer.

Excavations for
underpinning
are
usually
filled
immediately
with mass concrete but if
left
exposed they
should be sealed with a
layer
of
"blinding"
concrete.
page
25
Underpinning: Chapter
3
Deciding
the method of
re5fr
Traditional:
Lengths up
to I .2m are excavated below the
existing
foundation,
a new
foundation laid and the
gap
between infilled with
brickwork
tight up
to the old
foundation.
Figure 11(a)
shows this. This method
is not often used
nowadays
since
brickwork is
expensive,
but instances of
it
may
be found. Mass concrete
underpinning
is
the modern
equivalent.
Mass concrete:
Again lengths up
to I .2m are excavated.
Concrete is cast to some
75mm
below the
original
foundation. When it has set
and after
allowing
time for the
greater part
of its initial
shrinkage
(usually
1
-
3
days),
the
gap
under the old
foundation is
packed tight
with
dry
mix
concrete.
Figure 11(b)
shows this.
Pier and beam: This
method is
frequently
employed by specialist underpinning
firms.
Reinforced
concrete beams
(ie
made of concrete in which
a
cage
of steel bars is
embedded)
are cast in short
lengths usually
in the
wall
just
below
ground
or floor level.
Sacrificial
jacks
support
the
superstructure during
while the beams are cast.
Mass
concrete
piers
are
built below the beam ends
taking
the
loads down to
suitably
stable
ground. Figure
11 illustrates this method.
Piling:
Various
methods of
piling
suitable for domestic scale
underpinning
have been
developed by specialist
firms. Piles used for
underpinning may
be bored and will not
need
casing through
loose
ground.
Alternatively,
small diameter
piles
can be
power
driven
through
it. Sometimes the
piles support
reinforced concrete beams much
as in
pier
and beam
underpinning.
However
such methods
usually
need additional
short
lengths
of beam so that a
piling rig
can be
positioned alongside
walls.
Piling rigs
small
enough
to be taken into houses are the
pride
of
some
specialists.
The
mini-piles
such
rigs
create can
avoid the need for
ground
beams. A
more recent and
highly engineered
method is the
piled
raft. This method is
carried out
internally.
Nibs are
cast into
pockets
cut in the
walls,
thereby supporting
them. The
original
foundation is then left
redundant.
Fig 11(d)
illustrates various
piling
methods.
Other
specialised
methods:
Liquid
cement
grout
can be
pumped
into
porous
ground
such as loose sands
or
gravels,
either beneath
foundations or below internal
concrete
floor slabs.
In this
way ground
containing
votds can
be made more solid.
Knowing
the
extent and
effectiveness of the
grouting
can be
difficult. There have been
cases of
grout escaping
and
blocking
sewers.
Other methods of soil
stabilisation exist but
they
are
not relevant to most
housing applications.
Such
specialised
methods
will be
engineer-designed.
page
26
Underpinning: Chapter
3
Deciding
the method of
repair
FIGURE
11(a)
Traditional brick
underpinning
FIGURE
11(b)
Mass concrete
underpinning
Underpinning
to
extend
(perhaps
to
500mm)
below root/eta. Steel
reinforcement
may
be
used to dowel sections of
underpinning together
poor ground
stable
ground
Sequence
for
mass concrete
underpinning.
All
'pins'
No.1 to
be effective
before
pins
2 are
started,
likewise
pins
3,
then 4
page
27
Original
wall with
stepped
brick
spreaders
onto
existing
concrete
footing (perhaps
a
'clinker
concrete')
underpinning
brickwork on
new concrete
footing
75mm
gap
between
existing footing
and
underpinning dry packed
with
1:3 cement/sand
Underpinning: Chapter
3
Deciding
the method of
re1Th
Reinforced
concrete
ground
beams
installed once
piles
are cast
page
28
Reinforced concrete
ground
beam built in
short
lengths
FIGURE
11(d)
Pile and beam
underpinning
Pair of
piles
under a
cantilevered beam
avoids the need to
bore
piles
inside the
building
Reinforced bored
piles
250-350mm in
diameterinstalled first
One of
this
pair
of
piles
is bored from within
the
building
(cantilevered piles
can
be used to
avoid
this)
FIGURE
11(c)
Pier and beam
underpinning
Gap
pier
and
beam
packed
with cement
and sand mix
\
Mass concrete
piers
formed in
excavation and cast
Photo of
pier
and beam
underpinning
Underpinning: Chapter
3
Deciding
the method of
repair
Precautions to be taken
during underpinning
There is
always
a
possibility
that
underpinning
will
aggravate damage
or even cause
collapse.
Precautions should be taken to reduce the
risks,
for
example:

Before work
is started it
may
be
necessary
to
strengthen
the
building temporarilt.
Openings
for doors and windows that are
closely adjacent may
need to be
specially
supported using
needle beams and
adjustable props. Figure
12 shows another
method of
supporting openings.

During
the work the sides of excavations will
generally
need
temporary support
to
stop
them
falling
in.
(In very
stiff
clay
this
may
not be
necessary).
If the
ground
is
particularly
soft or the water table is
encountered,
methods based on
deep
excava-
tion
may
not be feasible. More
practicable
solutions would then be shallow but wide
concrete
underpinning
or
piling.

During underpinning
some
monitoring
of the structure above is essential. At a
minimum,
a
regular
visual
inspection
should be carried out. In some cases
precise
readings
of
level and
plumb
should be taken
regularly
so that
any
distortions,
caused
by
the
changing support
conditions,
can be assessed.
page
29
Underpinning: Chapter
3
Deciding
the
method of
reifr
FIGURE 12
Strengthening
of
superstructure adjacent
to
underpinning
to
prevent
distortion
FIGURE 13
Underpinning
of a
stepped footing
Extent of
underpinning
Assessing
how much of the
building
to
underpin:
In most cases
only part
of a
building
is
underpinned.
The
justification
for
this
may
be that tree
roots have caused
shrinkage
of
the
clay
soil in a limited area
or because a
peripheral part, eg
a
bay
window,
had
foundations that were shallower and
proved
less effective
than those of
the rest of the
house,
or because
part
of the
house was built on a 'soft
spot'.
Where
the
existing footings
are
stepped,
underpinning may
need to be
carried
through
at the
lower level
to avoid a
point
of weakness
(see Figure
13)
The effect of
partial underpinning:
In
engineering
terms a terrace of houses is
one
building,
but in
terms of
ownership
it is
many.
Even if it were
desirable to
underpin
the
whole
terrace,
some
owner
may object
or not have the
money
or insurance- cover for
it. So
underpinning
at
single
houses
alone is common
and constitutes
partial
underpinning
in the
same
way
as
underpinning
part
of a detached
or semi-detached
house. Once
underpinned
the foundations of a
single
house in a terrace
may
then
be 'harder' than
those of the houses
on either side.
page
30
Braced
heavy
timber frames at
window and door
openings
with
vulnerable arch brickwork
wedged
Length
of
higher
footing
underpinned
at
lower
depths, approx.
Im
may
be
enough,
but if
the
original footing
is
poor
a
greater length
may
be
called for
Where
subsidence has
loosened brick
arches,
or where
adjacent
openings
mean loads on
foundations are
chentrated,
then
temporary
strengthening may
be called
for
during
the
underpinning Operation
Underpinning: Chapter
3
Deciding
the
method
of
repair
Instead of all
moving together
as a terrace the
underpinning
may
anchor one
house and
cause
cracking
in the
neighbour's
house. The
adjoining
owners
may reasonably expect
the owner who
underpinned
to make
good
these
cracks. However the instirance
policy
of the owner who
underpinned
might
not cover
damage
to the
neighbour's
house,
in
which case it would be sensible
to
give
the
adjoining
owner an
opportunity
to
notify
his
insurance
company
before
works start. Even if the
neighbour's
insurance
company
accepts
the claim
they may
not be
prepared
to
pay
the excess. There
is no
easy
answer
to
this.
The
best that can be achieved is to
use transitional shallower
underpinning
depths
at the
end of each stretch of wall
underpinned
and
hope
to demonstrate
suc-
cessfully
that reasonable
care had been taken to avoid
damaging
the
neighbour's
house.
HOW THE SUPERSTRUCTURE
CAN BE REPAIRED
The
principles
of
superstructure
repair
In most cases
following underpinning
it is
necessary
to restore full
strength
and
robustness to the
superstructure.
In cases where subsidence
is
slight superstructure
repair
alone
may
well be
adequate,
though
this would
only
be so if there were reasons
why
further
damaging ground
movement
was
unlikely:
for
example
after four
dry
years,
if wet weather is
likely
to restore volume
to
clay
that has shrunk
only
a
very
small amount.
It is normal for the
building
to
bed down
slightly
onto new
underpinning
and some
changes
in crack widths and extent
may
then
occur. A
period
of time must
be
allowed,
perhaps
four
to
eight
weeks,
for this to
happen
before the
superstructure repair
can be
tackled.
Types
of
superstructure repair
The
following
are some
of the methods of
superstructure repair
used
singly
or more
often in combination.
Stitch
bonding:
Cracked bricks and
brickwork close to fractures are cut
out and
replaced.
The
new
matching
bricks are
tightly packed up
to
original
brickwork
above.
RC beam or lintel
bonding:
Slots are cut out of
the
brickwork,
at
perhaps
1.2 m
centres,
across vertical or
near vertical fractures. Short
lengths
of rc beam or lintel are
then cast in to create a
length
of bond well
away
from the fracture
position.
Stitch
bonding
is used between lintel bonds.
Resin
bonding:
Except
where brickwork
is shattered this is often a viable
alternative
to
stitch
bonding.
Different
techniques
are available. In one the
fracture
position
is
chased out and cleaned out.
(An
industrial vacuum cleaner can
be used to extract the
dust and small
lumps
of
mortar).
Nipples
are fixed over the
fracture
perhaps
100mm
to 300mm
apart
and
the
gaps
between are sealed
with a resin mortar.
Using
a
special
gun
or
injection pump, epoxy
or other
liquid
resin is
pumped
in. Indication of how
far it
penetrates may
occur when it
emerges
from an
adjacent nipple.
After a time the resin
solidifies.
Different
consistency
resins are
available. Some are less viscous
than
water,
that is
they
flow more
easily.
Some are
thixotropic,
that is
they jell
when
not in motion
and
before
hardening.
page
31
Resin
bonding
is not
appropriate
in all
cases. For instance
parts
of sash
window boxes
could fill with
resin which solidifies.
Resin
injection
can
only
work in
cavity
walls if car-
ried out in a
'ery
controlled
way.
Uncontrolled,
the
resin
easily
enters
the
cavity,
and
may
bridge
it in
places
allowing dampness
to cross
to the inner leaf.
Resin is
expensive
so
letting
it
escape
is
costly.
Strapping
and
tying:
On occasion it is
appropriate
to tie
small extensions
such as
bay
windows and
porches
back to the main
building.
Steel
straps may
be
installed,
and
they
should at least be
galvanised,
but
are better made of
stainless steel.
These need to be
suitably
fixed,
for
example by being
well screwed
to
joists
at one
end and
tightly
embedded in brickwork
at the other. If
subsidence affects a main
wall and if the
elevation is
on the move and
not tied into the
building
as a
whole,
it
may
be
necessary
to install
steel ties
between it and each
floor at centres of
1 .2m to 2m. A
method often
seen in old
buildings
is the tie-bar
and wall
plate.
l1No
opposite
walls
are tied in in
this
way. Alternatively
the internal
end of a tie-bar
may
be fixed in
some other
way.
A
plate
on a
wall does not
necessarily
mean
adequate
tying
is now
provided.
The
anchorage
may
be
insufficient,
or corrosion
may
have
weakened the bar
between the
plate
and
the wall.
Fig
14 shows
various
superstructure
strengthening
methods.
FIGURE 14
Superstructure
strengthening
methods
Underpinning: Chapter
3
Deciding
the method of
refr
New brick
stitched in
to
replace
cracked
brick
stitching
lintel
STITCH
BONDING AND
LINTEL
BONDING
Metal
nipple
fixed with
<
resin I,
mortar
and
gaps
bet ween
filled with
same
RESIN
BONDING
Resin
drips
from
next
nipple
above
as
former
nipple
is
injected
Resin
penetrates
in
fan
shape
page32
Underpinning:
Chapter
3
Deciding
the method
of
repair
ASSESSING THE
COST OF REPAIRS
Investigation
costs
Typical
current costs for
initial
investigation
of
suspected
subsidence are
given
in Table
7(a). Apart
from the amounts
due as insurance
excess these
costs should be
recoverable
through
the
building's
insurance
policy
if a claim is
accepted.
Underpinning
costs
Clearly
various factors
have to be considered
when a contractor
offers a
price
to do
any
work. For
example,
work
will cost more
if access is difficult.
However a 'ball
park'
guidance
table
7(b)
indicates
likely
costs for mass
concrete
underpinning
in
heavy clay
at various
depths. (At
2.5m to
3m
depth,
pier
and
beam
underpinning
rates are
probably
the
same).
Superstructure
repair
costs
Costs
of
superstructure
repair
are less
easy
to state since
they
are more related
to
access,
protection,
and
subsequent
re-decoration.
Table
7(c) gives
current rates
for
three common
types
of
repair.
Other costs
must be allowed for
in addition to
the
investigation
and
repair.
Figure
7(d) gives
an indication
of what these amount
to.
Costs
quoted
are exclusive
of site 'on-costs'.
In other
words,
the builder
might
charge
500 on
top
of the costs of
work to set
up
his
site,
maintain
it and leave it
tidy.
Contractors like
to work in
empty
rooms where
they
are not restricted
or
interrupted
and their
prices
are
likely
to reflect
this. If there is a
significant
amount
of work to be
done
from inside a
house it is
usually
better for the
furniture to be stored
and for the
occupants
to move out
temporarily. (It
should be
possible
to recover rent
of other
accommodation
and all
expenses
associated
with
moving, together
with
consequential
costs such
as more
expensive
travel to
work,
from the insurance
company).
It is often convenient
to have other
work done at
the same time as
underpinning
(to
avoid
two
periods
of
disruption).
It is
common to have
redecoration done
by
a
decorator
rather than
by
the
underpinning
contractor.
The
advantage
is that costs
can
be reduced as
the
underpinning
contractor's
percentage
will not
be added to the
decorator's
price
-
but bear in
mind that there
may
be
disputes
about
responsibility
between
two contractors
and also
that the insurers
will not
pay
for "betterment".
They
are
only
obliged
to restore
the
building
to its condition
before subsidence
took
place.
It is advisable
to commission
a
consulting engineer,
architect or
surveyor
to
specify
and
oversee the
underpinning
works. This is because
the whole of
the
work,
not
just
the
underpinning
element,
should
be in the hands
of a consultant who
acts
impartially.
His
involvement
will
usually
be a
continuation of
the
investigation process.
If a consultant
is
employed,
his fees
during
a remedial
contract will
be extra to the contractor's
price
and
in the
range
of
12 to 15%. Insurers
should
pay
the consultant's
fees in addition
to the
cost
of the work but
it is
prudent
to
get
the insurance
company's
agreement
before a
consultant
is
appointed.
page
33
Underpinning: Chapter
3
Deciding
the method of
reTh
Fees will also
be
charged by
the local
authority
for
inspecting
the work
and for
permits
to
place
skips
or the
like in the
public
highway.
These costs
will best be
covered
by
writing
them into the
contract
documents so
that
they
are
charged
by
the
contractor as
a
part
of
the final
contract sum.
Table 7
Typical
costs for
underpinning
a 3 bedroom
house,
1993
7a__Investigation
stage
Cost
An
initial
engineer's report
Ground
investigation
(1
trial
pit
and 1 borehole +
soil
testing)
Final
engineer's
report (taking
account of initi al
report
and
investigation
and
of visits for
monitoring
purposes)
250
-
400
7b
Type
of
underpinning
work
Depth Cost
per
metre
Mass
concrete
2.5 m
300
-
400
Pier and
beam
3.Om
350
-
450
Pile and beam
l0.Om
400
-
600
7c
Superstructure
repair
works
Cost
Rebuild
damaged facing
brickwork
45
-
55
per
sq.
metre
Resin
injection
of brickwork
40
-
50
per sq.
metre
Replace
damaged plaster 25
-530
per sq
metre
7d
Other cost
items
Cost
Alternative
accommodation
(if necessary
because of
work)
Contract
preliminaries
(setting up, clearing
and
maintaining
the
site)
Decoration
_____
500
-1000
Ofta
separate contract
(if
main
contractor is to
be
responsible
for
decoration an extra
charge
will
be
made)
Associated
repairs.
If
the
opportunity
is taken to
renew
itehis
partly damaged
by
underpInnIng
insurers
may
consider this
"betterment" and refuse
to
pay
Professional
fees
Usuauy
10%
-
15% of
the cost of
the work
Building
control
fees
Miiiiium 28
(but
see
chapter 5)
VAT
is
payable
(unless
the work is
part
of a
programme
of
work for which
listed
building
consent has
been
obtained)
5150-5300
350
-
450
Full cost of
moving,
furniture
storage
and rent
(within
limits set
by
insurers)
page
34
Chapter
4: MAKING AN INSURANCE
CLAIM
WHY MAKE A CLAIM?
There is a view that insurers have
largely
caused the escalation of insurance claims for
underpinning. They may
be reluctant to insure a house which shows
any signs
of
subsi-
dence. Therefore owners claim for
underpinning
however
slight
the
subsidence has
been because
they
know
that,
if
they
decide
to
sell,
it will be hard to find a
purchaser
for a house that
shows
signs
of subsidence
damage
and so
may
be difficult to insure.
WHAT IS COVERED BY INSURANCE POLICIES?
Insurance of houses and other
buildings
Insurance is a contract under which
the insurer
promises,
in return for the
payment
of
premiums,
that if the insured suffers loss caused
by
a
specified peril,
then the insurer
will
make
good
his loss, It is a
principle
of insurance law that a
person
should not
profit
from accidental
damage
to his
property
so insurers will
only pay
the value of what has
actually
been lost. When
underpinning
is
necessary
the
end
product may
well be a
better foundation
than the foundation that existed
previously.
In this sense
improvement
may
have occurred.
However,
since an
underpinned
house could be
considered to be of
less value on the market than an identical
building
not affected
by
subsidence,
insurers
do not claim that an increase in value has occurred. It is
simply acepted
that a loss in
value has been averted.
Most houses are insured since it is a
requirement
of the
building
society
or bank which
provides
the
mortgage
and most houses are
mortgaged.
If there is no
mortgagee
it is
equally necessary
for the owner to
keep
it
fully
insured. If it is
under-insured
any
claim
will be met at best on a
pro-rata
basis. That
is,
if the
sum insured is
only
half the cost
of
rebuilding
the insurance
company may only pay
half of
any repairs
costs claimed less
the cost of
excess. To ensure a
building
is
adequately
insured a valuation should be
obtained either from a
surveyor
or
possibly
from one or two local estate
agents.
A
qualified
valuer will be
able,
for a
fee,
to
give
a written valuation that can be used in
any
future
dispute
over insurance claims.
NHBC Insurance
Most
privately
built houses are covered for the first 10
years by
an insurance which
their builders obtain
by being
members of
the National House Builders Council
(NHBC).
Standards of construction are laid down
by
NHBC who send
inspectors
to see that the
standards are followed on
site,
If
there is a structural failure in the
building
during
the
first 2
years
the builder is liable but if he fails to
remedy
the
damage,
or if the failure
occurs in
years
3 to
10,
then the NHBC insurance
operates.
New houses do need to be
separately
insured
against
such
things
as fire and storm
damage
from the
outset,
and
after 10
years
a full insurance is needed.
The excess on an insurance
policy
The
normal household insurance
policies specify
an "excess" on certain
types
of claim.
The excess varies with the
type
of claim. Subsidence claims
usually carry
the
highest
excess,
usually
of 1000.
They
are one of most
expensive types
of claim that is
commonly
made
by
householders. The excess must be
paid by
the householder.
page
35
Underpinning: Chapter
4
Making
a insurance claim
If the householder
does not have
money
available the
mortgagees
can often
arrange
for
the
mortgagors
to be increased to cover the
payment
of the excess, If
you
are not cur-
rently "mortgageable",
for
example
if
you
are
unemployed,
other
help may
be
available.
The DHS "Social fund"
may agree
to
special payments
or to a loan. Another
possibility
is to
approach
the local
authority
Environmental Health
Officer. He
may
declare the
building
"unfit for habitation" and as a
result a
mandatory grant may
be released.
This,
however is a
long-shot
and
will
only apply
if
damage
is
particularly
serious
(for example
if
damp proof
courses are broken and the
building
becomes
excessively damp).
There are sometimes
disputes
about a claim
covering aspects
of
damage
that
appeared
at different times or that arose from different
causes. The insurance
company may
then want to treat the claim as two or more
separate
claims and the householder will
then have to
pay
two
or more excesses.
Liability
for
damage
to
neighbouring property
Liability
for
damage
to a
neighbour's property may
be covered either
by
the
building
insurance
policy
or the contents
policy.
If the
property
is
occupied by
someone other
than the owner then subsidence
damage
should be covered under the
contents
policy.
In the case of subsidence
damage
caused
by
a
tree the law holds that the
occupier
is
liable for such
damage,
since the
occupier
is
present
while the owner
may,
be
elsewhere and therefore
not aware of the extent of the trees
growth.
If,
on the other
hand,
the
ground
beneath both houses has subsided and a
tree is not
involved both owners should
notify
under their
buildings policies
and if the claims are
accepted they
should both
expect
to
pay
an
excess.
Specific
limitations of
cover
Heave: Since about 1980 most
policies
have included
heave. If the 1987 hurricane
blew a tree down
and,
as a
result,
clay ground
heaved and
damaged
a
nearby
house it
should be covered. Heave is less common
than subsidence
but,
because of the
damage
heave does to the
superstructure,
the cost of remedial measures is
likely
to be
greater;
there is therefore an even
greater
need
for insurance cover.
Landsllp: Landslip
is covered
by
some
policies.
It is a
relatively
unusual situation which
occurs
on
sloping
sites when the
ground
surrounding
the
building
moves down the
slope
and the
building
is
damaged, destroyed, displaced,
or buried.
Landslip
is
beyond
the
scope
of this
publication.
Floor
slabs:
Many policies
exclude subsidence of
concrete floor slabs unless walls have
subsided too, If the walls have
not subsided it is
likely
that the
subsidence of the floor
has been caused
by
defective excavation or
backfilling
below the slab.
Betterment: When
remedial work is carried out it often
makes sense to build to
modern standards rather than
to
replace
the
existing
construction. For
example
thermal insulation can be fitted
relatively cheaply
to
walls,
roofs or
floors slabs if
they
have to be
replaced (insulation may
in
fact become a
requirement
under new
building
page
36
Underpinning: Chapter
4
Making
a insurance
claim
regulations
where roofs or floors are
replaced)
. The insurance
company
is not
obliged
to
pay
for an
improved
standard of construction however sensible it
may
be to make
the
improvement.
Such
improvements may
be described as
betterment;
the
building
owner will then have to
pay
for them.
Uninsured
buildings
Insurance of churches and farm or other commercial
buildings
seldom includes
subsidence
cover,
but there
may
be other
insurance
policies
in
operation
to cover the
costs of a shutdown of the
business,
which
will
help
with the cost of
vacating
premises
to allow
underpinning
to
go
ahead.
FOLLOWING THE CLAIMS PROCEDURE
Notifying
the
insurers
Insurers should be
notified as soon as subsidence occurs for which a claim
may
be
made,
If
there are doubts as to whether there is
enough
evidence to
support
a
subsidence
claim,
an
engineer,
architect or
surveyor
can be asked to
give
an
opinion.
They
will
probably
be
prepared
to
give
an
initial verbal assessment for a nominal fee.
The Local
Authority Building
Control
department may
also be able to
help, especially
if
the
area is
particularly prone
to subsidence.
The insurers initial
response
The insurers will
generally require
a
surveyor
or
engineer
to
report.
Usually
this takes
the form of an initial
report
which sets out the circumstances so that insurers and the
loss
adjustor,
who is
appointed
to act on their
behalf,
can consider the situation. If it is
clear cut
they may
then
accept
that remedial
work,
possibly including underpinning,
is
called for. In other situations
they
may require
more
investigations
to establish firmer
proof.
These will
probably
entail
ground investigations
followed
by laboratory
tests.
Alternatively (and possibly additionally) they
are
likely
to
require
monitoring
of the
building,
for
perhaps
a
year,
to see how the situation
develops
and whether the
movement across cracks is
progressive (which
would
probably require underpinning)
or
whether it has
stopped (when
underpinning might
not be
necessary
and
only
superstructural
work
required).
The formal
agreements
Before the
repair
work starts the insurance
company may require
the owner of the
building
to
formally agree
that the work
specified
will meet the claim and when the
work is
finished,
before the last
payment
is made to the
contractor,
the owner
may
be
asked to
formally agree
that no further claim will be made for
additional
repairs
relating
to the
damage
that had occurred. These are
important agreements
and should
be considered
by
the owner
together
with
any
consultants that have been
appointed.
The method of
payment
When a consultant is
employed
to
supervise
the
work, he
may
seek a mandate from the
owner
instructing
the insurance
company
to
pay
the contractor
direct,
as soon as
they
receive
a certificate from the consultant
saying
the work has been
satisfactorily
completed.
In
larger
contracts interim certificates are
likely
to be issued for
payment
page
37
Underpinning: Chapter
4
Making
a insurance claim
each
month. Alternative methods of
payment may
involve a direct
payment
to the
contractor When
the,
owner
agrees
that the work has been
completed
or
payment
to
the owner when the
specification
and
price
have been
agreed.
V.A.T.: When an
owner,
for
example
a
property company,
is
registered
for VAT the
insurance
company
will not
pay
the VAT
on
the
building
contract but will
expect
the
owner to
pay
and to claim
reimbursement
from Customs and Excise. If the
building
is
listed as a historic
building
and historic
building
consent has
been
given
with
specific
reference to the
underpinning
then the
underpinning
work is zero rated for VAT and no
payment
needs
to be made. When the
underpinning
is for an owner who is not
registered
for VAT the insurance will
pay
the VAT.
page
38
FIGURE 15
Typical
insurance
policy wording
"Escape
of water clause" if this results in
wash-out of materials under foundations
and
subsequent damage,
a claim
may
be
met under this clause with an excess less
than 25
"Subsidence
clause "this
nowadays
involves an
excess of
1,000
more
Underpinning: Chapter
4
Making
a insurance claim
NEGOTIATING FOR MAXIMUM REIMBURSEMENT
Once the
findings
of
any specialist investigations
are to hand the
investigating engineer,
architect or
surveyor
can make an assessment of all
aspects including
the substructure!
superstructure
interaction and submit a final
report justifying
the claim. Most house
buildings policies
cover subsidence but the details of how it is covered can
vary.
In
any
case
they
will not cover the excess. To what extent subsidence
insurance exists
depends
on the
policy wording. Figure
15
gives
two
specimen policy wordings.
FIGURE 16
Cross section of tree roots under the
microscope
(longitudinal
sections are also
required
to confirm
identification).
How
disputes
over
liability
can arise
Tree roots: If soils
laboratory
tests show desiccated
clay
to some
depth
beneath the
foundation of a
damaged building
and tree root identification tests
(see figure
16)
show that the rootlets from a trial hole are live and of the same
species
as a
nearby
tree this will
usually
be sufficient evidence to demonstrate subsidence and a need for
underpinning. (Note
that tree roots can die and
regenerate
in a few
weeks
-
so dead
roots
may
also be
presented
as
evidence).
If, however,
the thickness of desiccated
clay
beneath the
footing
is much
less,
say
300mm,
then it
may
be reasonable for the
insurers to
require cutting
back of the tree
canopy
and the
carrying
out of
superstruc-
ture
repairs only
on the
assumption
that further
shrinkage
of the
clay
can be
prevented
and the
superstructure repairs
will not be at risk.
External works and
outbuildings:
Some
policies
cover
damage
to all manner of
external
buildings,
even
swimming pools,
but
only
if the house is also
damaged.
page
39
Photo: Dr. R.D. Macleod. Tree Root
Investigations
Ltd.
ASH BIRCH PINE
Underpinning: Chapter
4
Making
a insurance claim
Adjacent properties:
Often
policies
speak
of
subsidence of the
ground
on which the
house is built. Does this mean the
ground
below the
house? What if subsidence under
terrace house A causes
damage
to
adjacent
house B's
superstructure?
In some cases
insurers will waive such
arcane considerations and will consider house B as
being
subject
to subsidence of
the
ground
on which it is built even when the evidence is
that
the
ground
that caused the
problem
was
actually
under house A. However
in this case
owner B is
likely
to have to meet the excess.
Leaking
drains: If
investigations
indicate that drains are
leaking together
with the
associated risk of
granular
material that
supports
foundations
being
washed
away
then
the claim
may
be met under the
'escape
of water' clause of the
policy.
In this case a
much lower
excess,
perhaps
25 or
less,
will be
payable.
However the cause of the
damagethe
leakwill
need to be
repaired directly.
Extent of
damage:
The insurance
policy
will cover
damage
caused
by
subsidence but
not
damage resulting
from
neglected
maintenance or
poor durability
of
superstructure
materials. There can be all sorts of
arguments
in this area. When a
building
is
opened
up
weaknesses,
corrosion
and rot
may
be revealed.
Normally
these must be dealt with
at the owner's
expense
but it is
sometimes
possible
to convince the insurer's
representative
that
consequential damage
has occurred as a
result of subsidence cracks
letting
water into the structure. It has been known
for insurance
companies
to
pay part
of the cost of a new roof
where the
flashings
have been disturbed
by
the
movement of
the
walls below.
Dealing
with the insurer's
representatives
Insurers will choose someone to
negotiate
on their behalf. This
may
be a loss
adjustor,
though
some
companies appoint surveyors
or
engineers
or a
suitably qualified
member
of their own staff. Loss
adjustors usually pride
themselves as
being impartially placed
between the insured and the
insurer. It is
probably
the best
policy
to treat
them as such
(while
prudently ensuring
that
they
are
presented
with the most
favourable
case).
Partial
underpinning
and insurance
As has
been said in
Chapter
3
underpinningDften
has to be
partial. Moreover,
since
insurance is to do with
alIeviating
the effect of a
peril',
the loss
adjustors may only
accept partial
underpinning, say
at
one end of a
party
wall. The
engineer
or
surveyor
may
see
things
rather
differently.
Without
necessarily being
over-defensive he or she
may
believe that the correct solution is to
underpin
the whole
length
of a wall. The
compromise
called for in this situation
may
well be that the
engineer puts
on record
the
opinion
that the 'correct' solution is
to
underpin
the whole wall.
The insurers
may
still
only accept partial
underpinning.
If
so,
the
engineer
can establish that if
more
damage
occurs
because too little
underpinning
was
done,
then the insurers
will meet
the extra costs of
further remedial work. If this is
agreed,
it will also be
reasonable to
establish
that this will constitute a
continuation of the same claim and that a
further
excess will
not be
charged.
It
may
also be
appropriate
to seek an
undertaking
that the
pol-
icy
will not be terminated
by
the
insurers for a number of
years following
the work. If
this
undertaking
can
be also extended to a
potential buyer
in this
period
-
well and
good. (The
obvious drawback
to such an
arrangement
is
that there is no control over the
premiums
that the
insurers
may
charge
and other
firms are
unlikely
to offer
the same
undertakings).
page
40
Underpinning: Chapter
4
Making
a
insurance claim
Alternative accommodation
If
underpinning
or other work is
likely
to be
very
disruptive
to normal use
of the house
the costs of alternative
accommodation and
moving
or furniture
storage
should be met
under the
policy up
to
an amount
specified.
Where the
normal use of the house
includes
people working
from
home,
the
alternative accommodation should be
suitable
for continuation of the business.
The insurance
company may
want to
pay
in
advance
for a lease to cover the
period
of
the work to avoid later
arguments
or the
costs of
moving
more than once.
DISPUTES WITH
INSURANCE COMPANIES
Insurers
normally
set out to be reasonable.
Nevertheless
you may
consider that the
insurance
company
should have met
your
reasonable
claim and
they
have not. You
may
think
that their
ruling
has been
wrong
what can then be done?
Appeal
to the
company's management
In the first
place you
should write with full details to the
manager
at the insurance
company
office or at the office of the
building society
who
arranged
the insurance.
If
they
cannot resolve the matter to
your
satisfaction then write to the Chief
Executive
at the insurance
company's
head
office.
Other
appeal
and
arbitration
procedures
If the
claim relates to
your
house and
you
remain dissatisfied
arbitration should be
possible through
either:-
(a)
the
Insurance Ombudsman
or,
(b)
Personal Insurance
Arbitration Service.
The
Arbitration Services's decision is
binding
on both
parties
whilst the Ombudsman's
decision is not
(unless
the insured
accepts it).
Most insurance
companies
subscribe to
(a).
Those that do not will
probably
subscribe to
(b).
If arbitration is not available for
your
situation,
for
example
if the
dispute
concerns
business
premises,
then the
only remedy
will be
legal.
This could of
course be a
long
and
expensive processyou may
not win!
CONTINUING INSURANCE COVER AFTER
UNDERPINNING
Effect of
premium
policies
on rates
It has been said that the insurance
industry
favours the tactic of
alternative
premium
'feasts' and
'famines'. The
cycle suggested
is two
years
of
premium price
war,
two
years
of
premium
increases and one of
stability!
On this
basis 1993 should have been a
period
of
stability
and in 1994 we will be back to
price
wars. However
drought
or a
return to more normal wetter
years
could dictate insurers' attitudes to subsidence
claims.
Conditions
imposed
after
underpinning
It is sometimes
reported
that insurers will cease to
provide
subsidence
insurance. This
is
unlikely
as
rnortgagees
will continue to
require
it
and,
provided premium
levels and
risks
are
properly
assessed insurers will no doubt
continue to offer it as this is their
business. However excesses and
premiums may go higher
or
policies may
be
adjusted
to meet the market's
requirements.
Underpinning: Chapter
4
Making
a insurance claim
Alternative
accommodation
If
underpinning
or other work is
likely
to be
very disruptive
to normal use of the house
the costs of alternative accommodation and
moving
or furniture
storage
should be met
under the
policy
-up
to an amount
specified.
Where the normal use of the
house
includes
people working
from
home,
the alternative
accommodation should be suitable
for continuation of the business. The insurance
company may
want to
pay
in advance
for a lease
to cover the
period
of the work to avoid later
arguments
or the costs of
moving
more than once.
DISPUTES WITH INSURANCE COMPANIES
Insurers
normally
set out to be reasonable.
Nevertheless
you may
consider that the
insurance
company
should have met
your
reasonable claim and
they
have not. You
may
think that their
ruling
has been
wrong
-
what can then be done?
Appeal
to the
company's management
In the first
place you
should write with full details to the
manager
at the
insurance
company
office or at the office of the
building
society
who
arranged
the insurance.
If
they
cannot resolve the matter to
your
satisfaction then write to
the Chief Executive
at the insurance
company's
head office.
Other
appeal
and arbitration
procedures
If the claim relates to
your
house and
you
remain dissatisfied arbitration should be
possible through
either:-
(a)
the Insurance Ombudsman
or,
(b)
Personal Insurance Arbitration Service.
The Arbitration
Services's decision is
binding
on both
parties
whilst the Ombudsman's
decision is not
(unless
the insured
accepts it).
Most insurance
companies
subscribe to
(a).
Those that do not will
probably
subscribe to
(b).
If arbitration is not available for
your
situation,
for
example
if the
dispute
concerns
business
premises,
then the
only
remedy
will be
legal.
This
could of course be a
long
and
expensive processyou may
not win!
CONTINUING INSURANCE COVER AFTER UNDERPINNING
Effect of
premium policies
on rates
It has been said that the insurance
industry
favours the tactic of alternative
premium
'feasts' and 'famines'. The
cycle suggested
is
two
years
of
premium price
war,
two
years
of
premium
increases and one of
stability!
On this basis 1993 should have been a
period
of
stability
and in 1994 we will be back to
price
wars. However
drought
or a
return to more normal wetter
years
could dictate insurers' attitudes to subsidence claims.
Conditions
imposed
after
underpinning
It is sometimes
reported
that insurers will cease to
provide
subsidence insurance. This
is
unlikely
as
rnortgagees
will continue to
require
it
and,
provided premium
levels and
risks are
properly
assessed insurers will no doubt continue to offer it as this is their
business. However excesses and
premiums
may go higher
or
policies may
be
adjusted
to meet the market's
requirements.
page
4!
Underpinning: Chapter
4
Making
a
insurance claim
II
Premiums are
already being
increased in areas with
postal
codes which
have been
identified as more
risky
-
areas no doubt of
highly
shrinkable
clay.
Some
companies
may
continue to make no
geological
distinction. But
since their total
premiums
will
have to more than meet their claims
over a
period,
those on stable
ground
will
effectively
be
subsidising
those whose
houses are built on less stable
ground.
In this
case
savings may
be
possible
for owners of houses built on stable
ground by switching
insurance
companies.
In cases where
premiums
are
very high
a reduction
may
be
agreed by
insurers if
they
are shown an
engineer's investigation
that concludes that the
risk of subsidence is low, It is
important
however
to think
carefully
before
changing
insurer since a claim
may
be
rejected by
the new
company
if the
peril
occurred
during
the term of the
previous policy.
The old
company may
still
accept
such a claim but
this
could
depend
on
'proof'
of when the
damage
occurred.
Corresponding problems
can
occur when
the
ownership
of
property
is
changing
and this is one of the
issues to be
protected against
during conveyancing.
WHO PAYS FOR
DAMAGE CAUSED BY TREES?
Most
people enjoy having
trees near their home
-
though perhaps
not so close that
they
darken rooms. But trees have
roots,
and tree roots
can be bad for
buildings, especially
if the
ground
is
clay.
A section in
chapter
2 described the sort of
damage
that tree
roots can cause and
precautions against
this. How best to
keep
our
buildings
and trees
in close
proximity
is a
big
issue. Without trees our homes and cities
would be bleak.
This
issue will not
go away
and
everyone
with an
interest in it needs to be aware of the
precautions
that can be taken and of the
consequences
when
precautions
are not taken.
Trees on the same site as the
building
Owners often
enjoy having
trees
very
close to their homes. But if tree roots cause
subsidence,
or worse
heave,
who will
pay?
In the worst case remedial costs
can be
almost as much as
rebuilding.
The house owner will look to the
insurers for this.
Trees on
adjacent
sites and in the
pavement
If the trees of a
neighbour's
house cause
damage,
who will
pay?
There are various
insurance
policies
to look
to in this situation. Whilst one's own
buildings
insurance
may
seem to
cover it since it is
ground
on which the house
is built that is
subsiding,
insurers
may
take the
view,
following legal
precedents,
that it is the
neighbour's
responsibility
since his tree
causing
damage
constitutes
nuisance.
They may
therefore look
to see if
he has
liability
insurance to cover this. This insurance
is often included in a household
contents
policy.
The court cases on this issue are
mostly
based on
establishing
whether
the
damage
could
have been foreseen.
Increasingly
the
ruling
has been that
damage
could be
foreseen
by any
property
owner as
the
problem
is now
widely
known.
If a tree in the
pavement
outside causes
problems
then the
highway
authority may
be
responsible.
That a
particular
tree could cause
damage
will have been
foreseeable in
many
cases,
particularly
to a Local
Authority expected
to have
knowledge
of such
things. They might
therefore
be
expected
to
keep
the tree
from
doing
harm
by
cutting
it back.
page
42
Underpinning: Chapter
4
Making
a insurance claim
Owners,
neighbours
and authorities will
look to their insurers for
recompense.
Insurers
will
study
case law to decide if
any policy
clauses
cover the situation. Often the issue
can
be
very complex.
Fortunately
in
many
cases insurers will
pay
for the
damage
to be
rectified and then seek
reimbursement from the
body responsible.
This is
normal
practice,
as
by entering
into an
insurance contract one
permits
the
insurance
company
to
pursue
what
legal
redress one
might
have
pursued
oneself.
page
43
Chapter
5: The
approvals
that are needed
BUILDING CONTROL APPROVAL
Building
Notice or
Deposit
of Plans
There are two
ways
to
acquire Building
Control
approval
from the Local
Authority.
One is
by Deposit
of
Plans,
the other is
by Building
Notice.
Depositing plans
is the normal
procedure
for new
building.
The Local
Authority
has five
weeks to
approve
the
plans, specification
and calculations of the
proposed
work
and,
provided
the
building
work follows the
plans,
the Local
Authority
is not then entitled to
ask for
changes
while the work is
being
done unless
ground
conditions,
for
example,
are worse than were assumed in the calculations. If the Local
Authority
refuses to
approve
the
plans
the
building
owner or his
agent
can
appeal
to
the
Department
of
Environment for a 'determination' which can overrule the refusal.
The
Building
Notice
procedure
is
simpler
and
usually
the more
appropriate procedure
for
underpinning.
The Local
Authority
officer must be sent a
Building
Notice at least 48
hours before the work will start. The
Building
Control Officer
may
ask for
changes
to
be made or calculations to be
produced
as the work
proceeds.
There is no
appeal pro-
cedure
except through
the courts. The risk with the
Building
Notice
procedure
is that
the BCO asks for extra work that increases the cost. With
underpinning
however the
extra work is most
likely
to be a
deeper
foundation to deal with
poor ground
condi-
tions
-
and this work would also have been
required
and would have involved extra
cost
if the
plans
had been
deposited
and
approved
beforehand.
Inspections
and
completion
certificates
Under the
Regulations
24 hours notice has to be served on the Local
Authority
before
an
excavation,
foundation or certain other elements of construction are covered
up.
The
Authority
then has
opportunity
to send a
building
inspector,
If
they
fail to do so
they may
be
responsible
to some
degree
if the work
proves
to be
inadequate.
The Local
Authority
is
obliged
to
provide
a
completion
certificate when
the work is
finished,
provided
a certificate was asked for when the
building
notice was submitted
or the
plans
were
deposited.
It is wise to
ask for the certificate as it
may help
to con-
vince a
potential purchaser
that
underpinning
was
properly
carried out.
Underpinning
defined as a material alteration
Lord
Denning
defined
underpinning
as 'an extension of a
building
in a vertical
downward direction'. It is therefore clear that such work needs the
approval
of the
Local
Authority.
The current
'Building Regulations
1991' are
explicit
(in
regulation
A2(b)). Superstructure repairs
however would not need such
approval.
There
is a fine
line between
repairs
and
alterations;
many types
of alteration do
need
approval
and it
is often
advantageous
to make small alterations
while
repair
work is
being
done.
Clarification
by
the
Building
Control
Department
as to whether
approval
is
needed,
is
advisable. A
Building
Control
Officer
may
well be
prepared
to visit and offer a view
on
this. But
sending
in
plans
and
receiving
back a written
ruling
is the
only way
to be sure
whether
approval
is
required.
page
44
Underpinning:
Chapter
5 The
approvals
that are needed
Building
Control's
liability
for defective
foundations
Some
judgements
in recent
years
have
placed
more technical
responsibility
on local
authorities.
This,
together
with
increased claims
against
them for
aspects
of the work
they
did not
condemn,
means that
they may
decide to take
an interventionist
role,
for
example
on
how
deep underpinning
should be.
In
1977 a I-louse of Lords
judgement
found that Merton Council was liable for
defects
in Mrs Anne's house for which
they
had
given Building Regulation
approval.
More
recently,
when Mr
Murphy's
insurance
company,
the Norwich
Union,
tried to recover
the cost of
underpinning
of his subsided house from Brentwood
District Council
they
were
unsuccessful. The more
recentjudgement
has
removed
responsibility
for economic
loss from
the Local
Authority.
Fees for
Building
Control
A fee must be
paid
to
the Local
Authority
when a
Building
Notice
is submitted.
Currently (1994)
the minimum fee is 28 based on work
costing
less than 1430. The
fee increases
with the estimated cost of the work and
becomes
payable
after the first
site
inspection.
When the
Deposited
Plans
procedure
is used the fee is
paid
in two
installments. The
plan
fee
(113rd
of the
total)
is
paid
when the
plans
are submitted for
approval.
The remainder is
payable
after
the first site
inspection.
An alternative
procedure
for
obtaining building
control
approval
from
independently
approved inspectors
is
likely
to become more
widespread
over the next few
years.
At
present
this
procedure
is limited to the National
House-Building
Council's
Building
Control
scheme which does not deal with subsidence
repairs.
APPROVAL OF
NEIGHBOURING OWNERS
Party
wall
agreements
In London: In Inner London
(the
area that until 1964
comprised
the
London
County
Council)
1939
legislation regarding party
walls which
separate
two
buildings
continues
to
apply.
This
gives rights
to use the section of a
party
wall or its
foundation owned
by
the
neighbour
but
imposes
a
requirement
to cater
for the
neighbour's
need in one's
own section of the
party
wall or
foundation. These
rights
and
obligations
also
apply
to
the
ground
on which the
party
wall
stands. This
applies
not
just
to
ground
below
the
wall but to that within a 45
spread (see Figure 17).
Procedures for
administering
these
arrangements
when
building
work is
being
carried out are
prescribed
and can
involve
up
to three
independent surveyors,
the third
being ready
to arbitrate if the two
appointed
on behalf of each
adjoining
owner cannot
agree.
The
surveyors'
fees are
normally paid by
the
party
carrying
out the work
but as the
underpinning
of a
party
wall should benefit both
parties
there
may
be a case for the costs to be shared.
Less
formal
agreements
(which
should still be in
writing)
may
be
sufficient,
but in all cases
an
agreed
schedule of condition for the
building adjoining
the
party
wall is useful
evidence when there is a
dispute
over
damage
that
may
have been caused
by
the work.
page
45
Underpinning: Chapter
5 The
approvals
that are needed
FIGURE 16
Application
of Inner London
party
wall
legislation
to
ground
beneath a
party
wall
Both houses ha ye The
right
of
support
on this section of
ground
Outside London:
Equivalent legislation
does not exist for other
parts
of the
country.
However the use of similar
procedures
with an
agreed
condition schedule and a
surveyor appointed
to
represent
each
party
can be a sensible move since the
neighbour
is not then so
easily
able to claim that
damage
was caused or there was insufficient
consultation.
Apart
from
anything
else,
it will be
courteous
to
give
advance notice to
adjacent
owners
and
occupiers, including any
in flats above. If
any
then consider
they
have a
right
to be
consulted
further,
they
can
say
so.
Details of what is to be done
(see
next
chapter)
should be made available to the
parties
particularly
involved.
In
the case of
party (separating)
walls which have been
damaged
by
subsidence,
relevant owners should
notify
their insurers at an
early stage.
Relevant
insurers' officers will need to be involved and it would
perhaps
be
surprising
if insurers
for each
property
did
not
agree
on the liabilities. But it
may
not come out that
they
do
not
agree
(and
the
only sign
of
disagreement
will be the slow
progress
of the
claims).
A
agreement
on behalf of each owner
may
be reached without recourse to
party
wall
legislation
or
equivalent procedures.
page
46
I
iI
.1.
Underpinning: Chapter
5 The
approvals
that are needed
OTHER APPROVALS
Tree
preservation
orders
If a tree is
thought
to be the cause of subsidence
and it
happens
to be one that the
Local
Authority
has made
the
subject
of a tree
preservation
order under
planning
legislation
then the
Authority's approval
will be needed before it can be "cut
down,
up-rooted, topped
or
lopped".
If the
Authority
is convinced of the need to
get
rid of the
tree
they may agree
to
replacing
it with another
species
of tree or one
planted
further
from the
building
that has subsided. But if
they
will not
agree
to the tree's removal the
Local
Authority appears
to have no
liability
and it is the insurers for the
building
owner
who will
eventually
be liable.
(Illogically,
the
Authority may
be forced to
accept liability
if
they
consent to
partial
lopping
which then can be shown
to have been
insufficient).
This is not an area where the
legal position
is
clear cut. Some
experts
think that "it
may
be
possible
to transfer a measure of
responsibility"
for subsidence
damage
to the
plan-
ning authority
that made the tree
preservation
order
(see
references).
Planning
and historic
building approval
Planning approval
is not needed for
underpinning
unless other alterations or
changes
of
use are
being
carried out at the same time. However if the
building
is listed as a
historic
building by
the Local
Authority they
should be asked to
approve any underpin-
ning
and
superstructure repair
scheme.
They (or
the
Royal
Commission on Historical
Monuments) may
want the
opportunity
to visit and draw
any
construction that is to be
removed.
They may
have
specific requirements
to avoid
damage
to historic features
and their reference to
underpinning
work on an
approval
will allow it to be zero rated
for VAT. No fee is
payable
for historic
building applications.
In
a few
areas,
where the subsoil
provides
a valuable historical record of
previous
human
settlements,
there are restrictions on the extent to which the
foundations can
penetrate (and
therefore
disturb)
the subsoil. For
example penetration may
be
restricted to a maximum of
5% of the site area
may might
make
piling
the
only
practicable underpinning
method.
Noise
(Control
of Pollution
Act)
Underpinning
can be
quite
a
noisy operation
and a nuisance to
neighbours
as
digging
out for
foundations is
usually
done with
pneumatic
tools. There are
ways
to reduce the
noise that reaches
neighbours
and in sensitive situations
neighbours
should be
consulted to avoid the
public
Health
Department imposing
unexpected
conditions on the
work,
such as restrictions on
working
hours . A formal
prior approval procedure
is
available under the Control of Pollution Act 1974 Section
61.
Rubbish
skip
license
If
a rubbish
skip
needs to stand on the
highway
to be filled with the excavated soil a
license will be needed from the Local
Authority.
The
positioning
and
lighting
of the
skip
will be
specified
and a fee is
payable.
page
47
Underpinning: Chapter
5 The
approvals
that are neaded
Access
To reduce costs and avoid
delays
it
may
be
possible
to
arrange
an
agreement
for access
over
neighbouring
land before
tenders are invited for the
underpinning
work. When
a
contractor can
bring
lorries and
equipment
close to the
underpinning
and has
space
to
work around the
perimeter
walls there are
savings
to be made which
may
exceed the
cost of
reinstatement of
gardens
or terraces afterwards.
Protection of
underground
services
Where there is a
wayleave
for services to
run in the
vicinity
of the
underpinning,
protection
should be discussed with the
Authority responsible
for the services, It is
often the
case,
however,
that drains and water
pipes serving
other
properties
are run
beneath
or close to
buildings
without formal
wayleaves.
If such
services are
suspected
(particularly
where
buildings
were
formerly
in common
ownership)
an
attempt
should
be made to establish their
positions
and contractors should be warned. There are
now
ways
of
surveying
for hidden services without
digging. (see chapter 2)
page
48
Chapter
6:
Getting
the work done
SELECTION OF CONSULTANTS
Experience
Unless a consultant is selected
by
the insurance
company,
an owner's
first,
and
possibly
most
critical,
step
is the choice of a consultant
(or consultants).
Table 8
gives
the
professions
that
can handle
underpinning
contracts,
some
general
notes on their
strengths
and weaknesses
and where to
apply
for a list of
suitably qualified
firms or
individuals in each
profession.
The
main
points
to watch for are:
That an
unnecessary
number of consultants is
not
employed.
For
example
if an
architect
suggests
that a
quantity surveyor
and a
structural
engineer
should also be
appointed,
the combined
total of their fees is
likely
to be excessive
and
unacceptable
to
the insurance
company.
Insurers
may
be
prepared
to
pay
for
only
one
consultant and
sometimes this must be the
one
the
insurers choose.
That the
person
who will be
directly responsible
for the work is
suitably experienced
and
if
possible
has had
previous experience
of similar
underpinning
contracts. There is
always
a
danger
with a
larger
firm that a small
contract
may
be handled
by
an
inexperienced
member of staff without
adequate supervision.
When
appointing
a consultant
make sure that the terms of the
appointment
are
quite
clear. What services will be
required
and what fees will be
paid
when?
Each
profession
has standard
terms of
appointment (that
can be
varied).
Lack of a written
agreement
or letter
has often led to
disputes.
If the insurers
choose the consultant ensure that the
consultant is
responsible
for the
design
and
supervision
to the owner,
not to the insurers.
References
Even when a consultant's name
appears
on a list
provided
by
a
professional body
or
comes with a recommendation from
an insurance
company
it is as well to take
up
references
-
bearing
in mind that
people
are sometimes
willing
to hint at difficulties
in
phone
conversations
that
they
would not want to
put
down in
writing.
TABLE 7
Underpinning
consultants
organisations
to contact for suitable firms in each area
Consultants
Organisation
to contact
strengths
and
weaknesses
Structural
Engineers
Institution
of Structural
Engineers
Tel:
071
235 4535
Best consultants to deal
with
structural
problems
-
may
not be the best to deal
with other
aspects
of
building
(such
as
drainage
and
redecoration)
Architects
Royal
Institute of British
Architects Tel: 071 580 5533
(Scotland
031 229
7205)
Best consultants to deal with aesthetic
aspects (such
as
historic
building repair)
-
likely
to need
engineer's
help
with
any
but
simplest
calculations.
May
not
accept
small
commissions with no creative
design
content unless
work is short
Civil
Engineers
Institution of Civil
Engineers
Tel: 071 222 7722
Building
surveyors
Royal
Institution of Chartered
Surveyors
Tel: 071 222 7000
Generally
deal with
large
scale or unusual construction. Best
for
unusual
problems especially
those
concerning
soils and
slip
Best for small contracts
with little calculation or creative
design.
Often
specialise
in
repair
of
buildings
page
49
-
Underpinning:
Chapter
6
Getting
the work
done
PREPARING THE
DOCUMENTATION
A
contract exists when
an offer is
unconditionally accepted.
Whilst the law
accepts
that
this can either be
done
orally
or in
writing
it is
normally
advisable that a
contract for
building
work
should be in
writing.
Prior to the
acceptance
however an offer
must be
made
by
a
contractor. Insurers will
expect
at least two
offers to be
considered and the
lowest
accepted.
To obtain
realistic offers it is
necessary
to state in as
much detail as
practicable
what work is
required
and to ensure that
each firm tenders
on a similar
basis. The
standard forms of
contract
designed
for
minor works are
described in more
detail
below. It is advisable
to use a standard form
rather than
accepting
a
specialist
contractor's standard
conditions
printed
in small
type
on the back
of his tender.
The
drawings
The first
thing
to do
is to describe the
work. Someone
with technical
expertise
needs to
do this.
Normally
it will be
done
by
a consultant. The
work will be
described in
part
by
drawings
and in
part by
words.
Drawings
will
identify
the
building
and
the location and
dimensions of
underpinning
etc. Plans
(usually
at one fiftieth
(1:50)
actual
size)
will
show the walls to be
underpinned
or
where
superstructure
repairs
are needed
and
larg-
er scale
plans
and
cross-sections will
show details of the
work.
The
specification
Although
notes on the
drawings
will
convey
much of what is
required
it is usual
for the
operations
also to be
described in a
printed
document called
the
Specification
(or'Spec'
for
short). Figure
16 shows
examples
of
parts
of a
drawing
and
Figure
17
gives
clauses from an
underpinning specification.
As there is
rarely
a bill of
quantities
in
domestic scale
underpinning
work
the
specification
is
particularly
important. Disputes
about costs often
centre on the
way
work is
described in the
specification.
The
prelims
and
the
preamble
Drawings
and
spec
tend to show
only
the technical
requirements.
Other
documentation
is needed
so that a firm
pricing
on the work
can allow for all
that is
required.
This
might
include
preliminary
information
(called
prelims)
which relates the
work to
established
standards and codes of
practice.
Such
information as 'how
to
get
access
to
the
site', 'hours of the
day
when
working
is
permitted',
'where
water and
eIectricj'
will
be available' etc.
are dealt with before the
prelims
in a
'preamble'.
The
preamble
will also
include a
recitation of who is who:
the
employer,
his
engineer,
his contract
administrator etc.
It will
say
whether a
standard form of
contract is to be
used and
how
the
options
on
that standard form
are to be filled in.
OBTAINING
COMPETITIVE TENDERS
Selection of
contractors
Insurers
require
at
least two
competitive
tenders. The
NJCC code of
procedure
for
single
stage competitive
tendering
recommends that the
maximum number
of
contractors invited to tender
should be 6.
For a small
underpinning
contract
(up
to
20
000)
a list of
four contractors
would be
reasonable. All
contractors invited
to
tender should be
of similar
standing
and
equally capable
of
carrying
out the
work.
Normally
the
lowest tender is
accepted.
For
this reason it is
best to invite
only
firms
page
50
F
I
G
U
R
E

1
8

U
n
d
e
rp
in
n
in
g
:
C
h
a
p
te
r

6

G
e
t
t
i
n
g

t
h
e

w
o
r
k

d
o
n
e

D
r
a
w
in
g

s
h
o
w
i
n
g

p
a
r
t
i
a
l

u
n
d
e
rp
in
n
in
g

o
f

a

h
o
u
s
e

p
a
g
e

5
1

Underpinning: Chapter
6
Getting
the work done
FIGURE 19
Parts of a
specification
and schedule of rates for
underpinning
page
52
Underpinning: Chapter
6
Getting
the work done
who can be shown to be
capable
and
reputable.
Some
vetting
of
firms is therefore
called
for before a list of the firms who will be invited to tender is
finalised. Builders
with little
experience
of
underpinning
can move into
underpinning
work at a time of
recession in the
industry.
If
possible underpinning
and
superstructure
repairs
should be undertaken
by
the same
contractor but if the
underpinning
involves
specialist
work,
such as
piling,
it
may
be
necessary
to divide the contract
and invite tenders from
separate
lists for each
part.
However as a
general
rule one contract is
always
best as it is then
quite
clear which
contractor is
responsible
if
workmanship,
and
any designs (such
as
ground beams)
that
he is
offering, prove
to be
inadequate.
There
is sometimes a case for
having
the
decorations carried out
by
a
separate
contractor as
they
can
be done after all the
structural
work and are not so
likely
create
split responsibilities
for defects.
Lists of suitable contractors
can be
provided
by:
The
Regional
Service
Centres of the
Building Employers
Confederation:
London
071 636 3891
Leeds
0532 630 607
Birmingham
021 742 5121
The
Federation of
Piling Specialists
081 464
0831
Association of
Specialist
Underpinning
Contracts 0252 336318
Where contractors are not
known to the owner or consultant references can be taken
up
before invitations
to tender are sent out.
Inviting
tenders
Contractors
on the list should be asked to confirm
in
writing
that
they
are
prepared
to
tender. It is useful
to have one or two additional names in reserve in case
some on the
original
list
drop
out.
Copies
of the
drawings
and
specification
are sent to each of
the tenderers under a
covering
letter. This will tell them where and when to
respond.
The NJCC code
recom-
mends a minimum
period
of 20
working days
for contractors to
prepare
tenders.
In due course tenders are received.
For
big jobs, especially
those in the
public
sector,
a
small ritual ensues. Tenders are
opened privately,
offer
prices
are
recorded,
all is
witnessed. These are
procedures
to
prevent corruption.
For small
jobs
however it is
much like
receiving any
other mail but certain customs should be observed.

All tenderers should
be
given
an
equal
chance
-
if one asks for additional information
the others should receive
it too.

Contractor's detailed
prices
should
be
regarded
as confidential
-
it could
help
a
competitor
in future
tendering
to know the breakdown
of a rival's
price.
It is how-
ever
good practice
if,
once the contract is
let,
tenderers are notified of this
and a list
of
prices
received
is issued.

If reductions have to be
negotiated they
should be
negotiated
first of all with the
lowest tenderer and
only
with the
next lowest when the first
negotiations
are unsuccessful.
page
53
Underpinning:
Chapter
6
Getting
the work
done
When the
offers have been received
they
must be
carefully
examined to check that
they
do not
exclude items of work
required,
and for obvious
errors. This
especially
applies
to
the two lowest tenders if
they
are close.
It must be
remembered that tenderers need
not
only
be
competing
on
price, they may
also be
competing
on time. If a
building
is
out of use it
may
be
very expensive
and well
worth
paying
a
higher
price
to
secure an earlier
completion
date. The tender
documen-
tation should not be a
straightjacket
that
prevents
contractors
using
initiative and
better
equipment.
For
instance one contractor
may
find he is able to make
a lower bid
if
temporary
access
or
temporary drainage
is
arranged
and reinstated
afterwards.
Standard
forms of contract
When
an
acceptable
offer has
been received
-
or has been
reached
by negotiation,
a
written contract is
prepared.
Most
building
contracts of
any
size will make use
of a
standard
form,
often
one
prepared
by
the Joint
Contracts Tribunal
(JCT)
which
comprises representatives
of
building professionals,
building
firms and
property
owners.
There are other bodies who
also
produce
standard
forms. JCT
produce
a
number
of standard forms
which,
from time to
time,
they may
amend in
certain detail
points.
iWo forms in
particular
are aimed at
smaller
building
works and so
might
be
used for
underpinning
contracts. One is their
Intermediate Form of
Contract 1984
(1FC84),
the
other is their Form of
Agreement
for Minor
Works 1980
(MW8O).
The
latter
provides
a bare outline for
small,
straightforward works,
the former
provides
for various
situations that
might develop
if a contract is
more
complex.
It has
provi-
sions to deal with such
things
as
ensuring proper
insurance exists to cover
risks,
for
example
the
collapse
of
part
of a
neighbouring property.
The nature of
underpinning
means there is some
increase in this
possibility.
A consultant will
advise which form is
most
appropriate,
based on his
experience
and on what the
works entail.
Many underpinning
firms have their
own forms of contract,
If invited to make
an offer
by
an owner
direct and not
through
a
consultant,
they
are
likely
to make their
offer in
the
terms of their own contract
wording.
Since this will be
intended
primarily
to look
after their
interests,
these contracts are
best avoided.
The
Consumer's Association has
given
its members advice
on
setting up
a
simple
con-
tract
with a builder. It is based
on a common-sense
approach
to
setting
down in
print
the essentials of the
work
required
and how
it should be carried
out. However this is
less
satisfactory
than
employing
a
consultant and
using
a
standard contract
form for
subsidence
repair
since the
work is of a
specialist
nature and
unforeseen
complications
can
easily
arise.
The contract
agreement
Once a tender
is chosen and is
accepted
there is a
contract, If done
formally,
acceptance
may
be
by
both
parties
signing
and
initialling
two
copies
of all the
documentation and
each one
taking
a
set
(as
we see on TV
when an
international
treaty
is
signed).
Often a
more informal
way
is
acceptable,
with
the
employer
simply writing
to the
successful
tenderer to
say
his
offer has been
accepted.
The
price agreed
will then be
known as the
contract
sum. Even when all
the
arrangements
are left to a
consultant the contract
is
page
54
Underpinning: Chapter
6
Getting
the work done
between the
employer
and the contractor. The consultant is
simply acting
for the
employer.
If
the insurers choose the
consultant,
establish at an
early stage
that the
contract will be between the
building
owner and the
contractor. Then the owners
redress is with the contractor not the insurance
company.
SUPERVISING THE WORK AND
AGREEING VARIATIONS
Supervision
of
the work
Adequate supervision
of the work at all
stages
is crucial. The
only
sure
way
is to have
the work done
by
a
capable
contractor who takes
pride
in
the work. The contractor's
supervisors
should
regularly inspect
the work whilst it is under
way.
A consultant
should also be
required
to
inspect
as
part
of his commission. But he can
only
call from
time to time so his site
inspection
service will
only
be
partial.
The Local
Authority
will
also
inspect
at least while the excavation or
piling
is in
progress.
Variations to the contract
No matter how careful and extensive
the
preliminary investigations
were,
excavating
the
ground
or
opening up parts
of an
existing building
can result in the
unexpected.
If
variations to
the work are
required,
for
example
if some
underpinning
must be
deeper
due to
poor ground,
a method of
adjusting
the contract sum is
necessary.
A breakdown
of the contract sum can
provide
the basis for
calculating
the cost of variations. It can
also be useful
if,
together
with a
price
for the work as a
whole,
tenderers are asked as
part
of their tender to
complete
a schedule of rates that will
apply
to variations.
Fig
18
shows
part
of
such a schedule.
Method of
payment
Any
method of
payment
can be
agreed
as
part
of
the
contract,
but whatever is
agreed
must be
acceptable
to the insurers. A
standard
arrangement
for
larger
contracts is for
the work to be valued
by
the consultant at
the end of each month. A certificate
showing
the
valuation,
less a
retention sum of
5%,
is sent
by
the consultant to the
employer
who has one month to
pay.
When the work is
complete
half the
retention
sum is
released to the
contractor,
the
remaining
2 1/2%
being paid
after
3 or 6 months
or when
any
outstanding
defects that have come to
light
are rectified. With
underpin-
ning
contracts where the
insurers are
meeting
the
costs,
the consultant's certificate
may
be
sent
straight
to the insurer for
payment.
In
practice
other
arrangements
are
often
agreed
for small works.
Payment may only
be
made on
completion
of the work or
agreed
percentages may
be
paid
at different
stages.
It is also common for contractors to
ask for
money 'up
front'
before the work has started. The risks of
agreeing
to this are
obvious and it
should
always
be avoided even when a reduction in
price
is
offered.
COMPLETION
OF THE CONTRACT
Once the foundation
repair
is done a
period
of time is called for
to allow the
building
to
bed down
fully
onto the
underpinning.
Then
superstructure repair
can
be carried out.
Since cracks could close or
possibly open
and extend in
this
period
the cost of
super-
structure
repairs
is best assessed
separately
from
underpinning
costs. The contract
might
be set
up
to allow for this
flexibility by incorporating
the schedule of rates
referred to and illustrated above.
This would allow for such
things
as
repairing
cracks,
possibly by
resin
injection,
and for
rebuilding
small areas of
brickwork. Rates offered
page
55
Underpinning: Chapter
6
Getting
the work done i
may
be
compared by
the consultant with standard
published
rates,
so those that are
out of order can be
rejected. Ultimately
a reasonable
approach
to these costs is called
for on all
sides,
by
the
contractor,
by
the
person administering
the contract on behalf
of the
employer,
and
by
the loss
adjustor
on behalf of the insurers.
I-low
long
will it be from first
noticing
subsidence
damage
to when it is
repaired?
The
answer is that it is
unlikely
to be less than six months and could be
up
to three
years.
Table
I
shows how this time
elapses.
GUARANTEES AND WARRANTIES
Value of a
guarantee
Many underpinners
offer
guarantees
or warranties
-
perhaps significantly
these often
start with the word
guarantee
in
gothic
letters! Some hold the view that
guarantees
are 'not worth the
paper they
are written on' and it is true that
they
must be treated
with care. For
example they may only
cover an amount
up
to the cost of the
underpin-
ning
work. This
will
not be
enough
to
provide deeper
foundations or
put right
conse-
quential damage.
Indeed if inflation is allowed for it
may
not cover a fraction of such
costs,
not to mention costs of alternative accommodation if the
building
has to be
vacated while the work is done.
As an alternative to limited
reimbursement of costs the
guarantee may
offer the
option
of the contractor
coming
back to re-do the work. If the work was
poorly
done in the
first
place
this will not be an attractive
prospect!
Although
the
guarantee may
not cover all the costs when
underpinning
fails it will
cover some of them and others
may
be covered
by
insurance. When it comes to
selling
the
building purchasers
are therefore
likely
to be somewhat reassured if
there is a
guarantee
for the
underpinning. (When buying
a
building
see that the
guarantees
are
transferable,
there is sometimes a
transfer
fee
to be
paid.)
Insurance backed
guarantees
Whilst a
guarantee may
claim to offer cover for
twenty years
this will
depend
on the
firm
continuing
to trade and
presumably
also
continuing
to
pay
annual
premiums,
and
few
underpinning
firms have been in
business for as
long
as
twenty years.
So to have
any
real
validity
a
guarantee
or
warranty
needs to outlast the life of the
underpinning
firm. To do this it will need to be
suitably
underwritten
by
insurance.
And of course the
amount
covered
will need to be
adequate.
Look for
200,000
cover or more! It has to
be
admitted,
that
few,
if
any,
such schemes exist at
present.
However the Association
of
Specialist Underpinning
Contractors
hopes
to start such a
scheme
(see
list of useful
addresses).
Negligence
claims
If
underpinning proves
inadequate
another
possible way
to recover the cost of
putting
things
right
is
by suing
the consultant or
the Local
Authority
but this is best left to the
insurers to
decide as there is a
risk,
perhaps
even a
likelihood, that,
because
negligence
is hard to
prove,
the case will be unsuccessful
-
and then the
legal
costs can be enormous.
In
any
case if
poor workmanship
is the reason the consultant or
the Local
Authority
may
not be
responsible
since the contractor was at fault.
page
56
Underpinning: Chapter
6
Getting
the work done
RECORDS
The records of what work was
actually
done to
repair
a
building
are
vitally important.
Too often the documentation
disappears
or does not reflect
what was
actually
done on
site. An owner should
always
insist on
having
a
copy
of "as built"
drawings
and other
documentation
including any guarantees.
If
possible
these should be
kept
with the
deeds of the
property. They
will be needed if subsidence affects
any
other
part
of the
building, they
will be needed if the
underpinning
fails,
and
they
will
be needed when
the
building
is sold.
REFERENCES
NHBC
Manual
Chapter
4.2
Building
near trees.
Building
Restoration Establishment
(BRE)
BRE
Digests
240,241
& 242 Low rise
buildings
on shrinkable
clay
soils. Parts 1,2 & 3.
251 Assessment of
damage
in
low-rise
buildings
with
particular
reference to foundation movement.
298 The influence of trees on house foundations in
clay
soils
343
Simple measuring
and
monitoring
of movement in low rise
buildings
Part 1: cracks.
344
Simple measuring
and
monitoring
of movement in low rise
buildings
Part 2:
settlement,
heave and
out-of-plumb.
352
Underpinning
Foundation movement and remedial
underpinning
in low-rise
buildings,
BRE
report
1991.
CIRIA Structural renovation of traditional
buildings
1986
RICS,
building surveyors guidance
notes,
Foundation failures in low-rise traditional
structures.1986
Subsidence and heave of
buildings
on
clay
-
a home owners
guide.
To
be
published
by
ICE and BRE in 1994.
Report
on
Working
Parts on Subsidence. I. Struc. E. to be
published
in 1994.
LIST OF USEFUL
ADDRESSES
Association of
Specialist Underpinning
Contractors 0252 336318
British Cement
Association,
Century
House,
Telford
Avenue, Crowthorne,
Berks ROl I 6YS 0753 662727
Building Employers
Confederation,
82 New Cavendish
Street,
London WI
071 636 5588
(see Chapter
6 for Local Service
Centres)
Federation of
Piling Specialists,
20 Tooks
Court, London EC4 071 831 7581
House Builders
Federation,
82 New Cavendish
Street,
London WI 071 580 5588
Institution of Civil
Engineers
(ICE),
Great
George
Street,
London SW1 071 222 7722
Institution of Structural
Engineers (I
Struct.
E),
11
Upper Belgrave
Str.,
London SWIX 8BH ... 071 235
4535
Insurance Ombudsman
Bureau,
35
Southampton
Row,
London WCIB 5HT
071 242 8613
National
House-Building
Council,
Chiltern
Avenue, Amersham,
Berks
0494 434477
Personal Insurance Arbitration
Service,
Royal
Institute of British Architects
(RIBA),
66 Portland Place, London WI N 4AD 071 580 5533
Royal
Institute of Chartered
Surveyors (RICS),
12 Great
George
Street, London SWI 071 222 7000
Tree Root
Investigation
Ltd. 3
Langley
Drive, Kinnoull
Hill,
Perth PH2 7XA 0738 39113
Subsidence Claims Association, Jakobi & Co.
Solicitors,
Swedenborg
House,
21
Bloomsbury
London WCI A2TH 071 242
4957
Construction
Industry
Research and Information Association
(CIRIA)
071 799 3243
British Coal
071 235 2020
Institute of
Mining
and
Metallurgy
071 580 3802
Institution of
Mining Engineers,
Doncaster 0302 320
486
page
57
Underpinning: Subject
Index
SUBJECT
INDEX
A
Access
A. difficulties can increase costs 47
Payment
for
temporary
A.
may
be worth while 48
Should be described in the brief 5
Accidental
damage
Shall not
produce profit
35
Action check list
To cut down
delays (ii)
Advice
List of sources 4
Aerial
photographs
Use in soil
investigation
21
Alterations
Concentrating
loads and
leading
to subsidence 3
Distinction between As.
and
repairs
44
Alternative accommodation
While work is
going
on 41
And insurance 41
Appeals
To Ombudsman after Insurer's
management
41
Approval
And license needed for rubbish
skips
47
From
planning may
be
needed for alterations 44
May
be needed for access 47
Needed to fell certain trees 47
Needed to
underpin
historic
buildings
47
Required
from
Building
Control 44
Subject
to differential settlement 7
Approved Inspectors
Likely
to become more
widespread
for
Building
Control 44
Arbitration
In case of
dispute
41
Atterberg
Soil tests 13
Augers
For soil
investigation
22
B
Backfllling
Floor slab
damaged by
defective B. 36
Bay
windows
Tying
in
32
Beam
bonding
To
repair
fractured walls 31
Bearings
Safe
bearings required forjoists
22
Bedding
down
Time
required
31
Betterment
Definition 36
Insurers will not
pay
for B. 37
Bill of
Quantities
Rarely required
for
domestic work 50
Bonding
(see
under:
stitch, lintel, or resin
B.)
31
Brief
Client should
provide
a written brief 5
Building
Control
Legal precedent
45
Liability
of Local
Authority
45
Suing
the Local
Authority
for
negligence
56
Two routes to
approval
44
page
58
Building
Notice
Submission
requirements
and
completion
certificates 44
Businesses
Disruption
of B. and insurance 41
Insurance for
shutdown 37
C
Calcium silicate bricks
Requirement
for
movementjolnts
8
Calculations
Required
for
Building
Control
approval
45
Certificates
Based on valuation of the work 55
Claims
(see
also
insurance)
Acceptance by
insurers
37
Procedure 37
Treating damage
as
separate
C. 35
Clay
Shrinkable
clays
11
Client
Need for client to be Involved 5
Collapse
Damage
that could lead to C. 23
Completion
certificate
Obtained from
Building
Control 44
Completlon
of contract

Procedures 44
Condition
survey
Information to be included 20
Consequential damage
May
be covered
by
insurance 40
Consultants
Insurers
agreement
to Cs. fees 33
Payment
should be defined in the brief 5
Reason for
appointment
33
Selection and standard terms of
appoIntment
49
Suing
the C. for
negligence
56
Consumer AssociatIon
Advice on
simple
contract with a builder
54
Contract sum
Breakdown used for
calculating
variation
costs 54
Contractor's
prices

Detailed rates should not be
disclosed 53
Contractors
Selection for tender list 50
Contracts
Commonly
used forms 54
Consumer Associations advice 54
Signing
C. and C. sum 54
Standard forms 54
Conveyanclng
Issues to be
protected against
42
Costs
Assessing repair
C. 33
Typical
C. 34
Cracks
That can be mistaken for subsidence 7
Repair
methods 31
Simple Investigation
method 17
Surveying
17
Widths and movement
classification 23
Damage
classification
Table 21
Underpinning: Subject
Index
Decoration
Case
for
having separate
contractor 53
May
be done
by ajobbing
builder 33
Re-D.
affecting
costs 30
Deeds
Records of
underpinning
should be
kept
with the deeds 57
Demolition
Possibility
if
repair
costs are
high
1
Depth
Likely
costs for
different Ds. 34
Of different
types
of
underpinning
25
Desiccated
ground
Liable to heave 15
Determinations
By
DoE
following
refusal
by Building
Control 44
Disputes
Avoiding
Os. about
responsibility
39
Drains
Blocked
by
tree roots 15
Excess reduced if cause is
leaking
D. 40
Slope
of Os.
affected
by
heave 14
Surveying
condition 21
Testing
14
Drought
conditions
To be considered in
investigations
21
E
Engineered buildings
Requiring
special
solutions 6
Evidence
Required
of foundation failure 18
Excavations
Removing
lateral
support
6
Excess
less
payable
for
leaking
drains 40
Neighbour's liability
to
pay
E. 36
Not recoverable
through
insurance 31
On subsidence claims 35
Two Es,
payable
for
separate
claims 36
Expenses
To allow for 33
External works
Surveying
condition of 21
Extent of insurance cover 39
Extensions
Subject
to differential settlement 7
Tying
in 32
Underpinning
as E. in downward direction 44
Extra work
May
be
required by Building
Control 44
To be covered
by
contract variations 55
To be done at the same time 33
F
Failure
Of the foundation for a second time 4
Fax
Follow it with a letter 2
Fees
CostofFs. 33
For
party
wall
agreements
45
For
Building
Control 45
Final
report
Cost 34
Flats above
To be notified
of work 46
Flexible
buildings
Built with lime mortar 6
Floor slabs
Insurance cover
limited 36
Floors
Surveying slopes
20
Footings
(see
foundations)
Foundations
Displacement
after removal of trees 15
Evidence of failure
required
20
Stepped
30
Furniture
Storage
30, 33,
34
G
Geology maps
Use in soil
investigation
21
Ground levels
Need to
underpin
before
lowering
3
Ground movement
Recognising
conditions
prone
to G.M. 10
Ground moisture
Recovery
of 0. M. after removal of trees 17
Ground
radar
Used to detect voids 15
Grout
Escaping
and
blocking
sewers
26
Used to fill voids in
ground
26
Guarantees
Backed
by
insurance 56
Owner should insist on
having
copies
57
Value of Os. 56
H
Heave
Caused
by recovery
of
ground
moisture 17
Insurance cover limited 36
Highway Authority
H.A's.
responsibility
for tree
damage
42
Historic
buildings
Approval
needed for
underpinning
47
Repairs may
not be
subject
to VAT 38
I
Initial
report
Cost 34
For insurers 37
Inspection
By Building
Control 44
Of
work
by
consultant and Local
Authority
55
Regular
visual I.
during underpinning
29
insurance
Acceptance
of claims 37
Against collapse
of
neighbour's property
48, 49, 50
Appeals
to I. Ombudsman 41
Arbitration
procedure
41
Building
and contents
policies
33,
35
Claims reduced if
property
is
under-insured 35
Commercial
buildings
not insured 37
Consequential damage
40
Considerations when
changing
insurers 42
Continuing
cover after
completion
of work 41
Cover limited on:
heave,
landslip,
floor slabs
36
Dealing
with insurer's
representative
40
page
59
Underpinning: Subject
Index
Disputes
with insurers 41
Excess sum 35,
36,
38
Extending
I. to
potential buyers
41
Extent of
damage
40
Formal
agreements
37
Liability
insurance to cover
damage by
tree 36
Making
a claim 35
Moving,
furniture
storage
and alternative accommodation
33,34
Need for reinstatement of cover 4
Neglected
maintenance reduces cover 37
Negotiating
maximum reimbursement 39
Notification of insurers 37
Premiums related to
postal
codes 42
What
policies
cover 35
Interim certificates
Used as a basis for
payments
37
Investigation
And insurance 33
Investigation
Costof I. 34
L
Landslip
Definition 36
Insurance cover limited 36
Leaking
drains
Causing
subsidence 14
Causing
soil erosion
6
Letters
How to
get replies
2
Levels
May
need to be read
during underpinning
29
Survey
of levels 21
Lintel
bonding
To
repair
fractured walls 31
Lintels
Failure over
openings
7
Liquid
limit
Definition 13
Loading
Increased
loads caused
by heavy equipment
3
Increased loads
by
more than 10% 3
Permitted on soil beneath foundations 13
Loss
adjustor
LA's
impartiality
40
M
Made
ground
Compression causing
subsidence 14
Definition 14
Market value
Of
underpinned
house
35
Mass concrete
underpinning
Description
26
Mine
shaft
collapse
Description
14
Mini
piles
Can avoid need for
ground
beams 26
Mining
subsidence
Description
14
Moisture content
Of
clay
soils 14
Moisture
profile
Of soil
at different
depths
13
page
60
Monitoring
Cracks 19
Mortar
Cement M.
creating
brittle
buildings
6
Damaged by
sulphates
7
Lime M. used for
flexible,
pre
1914,
buildings
6
Resin mortar to
repair
cracks 31
Mortgage
Requirement
in M. conditions to Insure
36
Movement
Active movement classification 23
Defects due to lack of
M.jolnts
7
Reporting progressive
M. to
Insurers 37

Simple investigation technique
17
Surveying continuing
M. 20
Needle beams
Providing support during underpinning
29
Negligence
Claims
against
consultants 56
Negotiating
a contract
Procedure for N. 50
Negotiation
Brief
may require
consultant to
negotiate
5
Neighbours
Agreements
with
N.
to
carry
out work 42
Desirability
of consultation
with Ns. 46
Liability
for
adjacent properties
40
Liability
for
damage
to N's
property
36
N's
responsibility
for trees 42
NHBC
Building
Control
scheme 44
Insurance and
inspectors
35
Noise
Consult
public
Health
Dept
about
prior approval
47
Non-domestic
buildings
Often not insured for
subsidence 3
Notification
Of insurers 37
0
--
Occupier
Can be liable for tree
damage
42
-
On-costs
Charged by
contractor 33
Outbuildings
(see
also external
works)
Sometimes not insured 39
P
Party
wall
agreements
In Inner London 45
I
Paving
(see
external
works)
Payment
Method 55
P.
up
front to be avoIded 55
Peat
Soil
prone
to subsidence 12
Pier and beam
underpinning
Described 26
Piling
On made
ground
14
Use for
underpinning
26
Underpinning:
Subject
Index
Planning approval
Only
needed
for other alterations
47
Planning legislation
Tree
preservation
orders
47
Plans
Normally
drawn
by
the consultant
50
Owner should
insist on
having
as built' drawings
44
Required
for
Building
Control
approval
44
Plastic
limit
Definition
13
Plasticity
index
Definition
13
Plumbness
P. of walls
may
be read
during
underpinning
29
Surveying
out-of-P
20
Porches
Subject
to differential
settlement
6
Tying
in 32
Precautions
To avoid subsidence
3
To take
during
underpinning
29
Preliminary
stages
Time
required
2
Prelims
and Preambles
Definition
49
ProfessIons
Strengths
and limitations
of
professions
49
Programme
Contractors
can
compete
on time
in their tenders
54
Period
for
preparation
of tenders
50
Preliminary stages
time
required
2
Sequence
of events
3
Time
required
for bedding
down
31
Protection
of works
Affect
on costs
29
Pumping
Causing drying
out
of
heavy
clay
6
R
Raft foundations
On made
ground
14
Piled R.
used for
underpinning
26
Rafters
Defect due
to
spreading
7
Rates
Work
priced
on standard
published
rates
50
Schedule
of rates 51
Contractor's prices
should not
be disclosed 53
Records
Importance
of 57
References
Taking
up
Rs,
for consultants
49
Resin
bonding
To
repair
cracks
31
Retention
sum
Deducted
from
payment
to contractor
55
River deposits
Soil
prone
to subsidence
12
Roof damage
Even this
may
be covered
by
insurance
40
S
Sacrificial
supports
Definition 25
Sacrificial
jacks
Use
described 26
Safety
Seeing
the
building
is safe
20
Schedule
of conditions
For
party
wall
agreements
42
Schedule
of Rates
To be used for
variations 52
Semi-detached
houses
And
partial
underpinning
30
Sequence
of
events
For
underpinning
3 bedroom house
3
Settlement
Definition
of 5, and
of differential
5. 6
Shrinkable
soil
Definition
13
Shrinkage potential
Classification
of soils 11
Shrinkage
limit
Definition
13
Shrubs
Unlikely
to cause
subsidence
15
Skips
Obtaining
rubbish
skip
licenses
47
Sloping
ground
Clay slopes prone
to
shrinkage
14
Soft
strata
Allowing
foundation to
punch
through
12
Soil
erosion
Caused
by leaking
drains
14
Soil
investigation
Cost
34
Methods
21
Soil mechanics
Elementary
introduction
13
Soil
samples
For
analysis
21
Soil stabilisation
Used
for
underpinning
26
Soil
types
Vulnerable
to
ground
movement 11
Specialist
Contractors
Their own
forms of contract
are to be
avoided 50
Value
and drawbacks
of their advice
5
Specification
Description
50
Stability
Ways
to secure
5. 22
Stitch
bonding
To
repair
cracks
31
Straps
To
tie in
parts
of
the
building
32
Strengthening
Without
the need for
underpinning
31
Structural Engineer
To check increased
loads 3
Subsidence
Causes of S. 6
Conditions
leading
to S.
13
Defects
that can be
mistaken for S.
6
Definition 1
Minimising
the effect
3
Resulting
from
alterations 3
Signs
of
subsidence
badly
fitting
doors
1
Signs
of subsidence
cracks I
Typical
case
I
Substructure
Repairs
21
Suiphates
Damaging
mortar
8
Superstructure
Types
of
repair
31
page
61
Underpinning: Subject
Index
Principles
of
repair
31
Repair
can be more
expensive
than the
underpinning
3
Repair
costs 32
Retaining flexibility
for
extent and cost of SR. 53
Supervision
Of work
by
contractor 55
Swallow
holes
Where
they
occur 15
Swimming pools
(see
external
works)
T
Temporary strengthening
Of
building
during underpinning
29
Tenants
Can be liable for tree
damage
42
Protecting
their interests 2
Tenders
Obtaining competitive
Ts. 53
To be
checked for errors 54
Terraces
And
partial
underpinning
30
Testing
drains
CCTV. air
pressure
and smoke tests 14
Tie bars
Use
in old
buildings
32
Traditional
underpinning
Using
brickwork 27
Transfer
fee
For
passing
on a
guarantee
56
Tree roots
Damage they
can cause 15
Evidence needed to
demonstrate subsidence 17
Removing ground
moisture 15
Samples
for
analysis
39
Whether alive and of same
species
37
Trees
Cutting
back 42
Cutting
back without
underpinning
37
Cuthng
back
to reduce moisture take
up
17
Neighbour's
responsibility
42
On
the same site as the
building
40
On the
pavement
40
On
adjacent
sites and on the
pavement
42
Payment
for the
damage
Ts. cause 43
Risk zones for different
types
16
Surveying
size and
species
16
T.
preservation
orders 47
U
Underground
services
Protection,
wayleaves
and
surveying
for
U.Ss. 48
Underpinning
Assessing
extent 30
Costs of different
types
34
Defined as
a 'material alteration
44
Definition I
Extra wide to
avoid excavation 26
Partial U. 30
Partial U. and insurance 40
Precautions
during
underpinning
29
Principles
of U. 25
Specialised
methods 26
Types
and
depths
of
U. 25
page
62
Validation
Of subsidence claim 33
Valuation
Can be used to
support
claim 35
Variations
Calculating
costs 54
VAT
When V. is
payable
38
w
WalIs
Crack
repair
methods 31
teral restraint
required
20
Plumbness of W.
may
be read
during underpinnIng
20
Safe
bearings
required forjoists
18
Surveying bulges
20
Wayleaves
Check existence of W. for
underground
services 48