INFECTIOUS DISEASES

1. Describe the nonspecific defenses that operate when a disease-producing

microorganism first enters the body.
Nonspecific defenses represent the body's first lines of defenses against pathogens.
Specific defenses represent the second.
Nonspecific body defenses do not target molecules, individual cells or cell parts. Instead,
they act as a barrier, providing a broad coverage against invasion of the body by any
foreign particle.
Skin
The first and largest of these defenses is the skin. The stratum corneum, the cells of
which are dead and filled with the protein keratin. Between 15 and 20 layers of dead
cells make up this layer, which is exposed to external air and fluids. Beneath this portion
lie several other layers, the stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum,
and the stratum germativium , anchored to the underlying dermis. Living cells from the
stratum germativium migrate through the other layers where they die and are filled with
keritin. About two weeks after the dead cells reach the surface of the skin, they are
sloughed (shed) away mechanically, carrying with them any transient microbes lying on
the outermost surface. As long as this layer remains intact, it provides an effective
barrier against the entry of potential pathogens into the body.
Hair, especially that guarding the entrance to the nostrils and external ear canals,
prevents entry of foreign particles.
Sebaceous (oil) glands along the skin and associated with hairs secrete sebum, which is
composed of water, triglyceride fatty acids, salts, proteins, and cholesterol, and is
bacteriostatic.
Ceruminous (wax) glandsassociated with the external ear canal excrete secretions which
mix with sebum to form cerumin or ear wax, which traps bacteria and also inhibits their
growth.
Sweat glands secrete a combination of water, sodium chloride, and metabolic waste
products which inhibit the growth of non-normal microflora.
Epithelial and Mucus Membranes
The lining of the upper respiratory tract is composed of epithelial cells of two main
types: goblet cells, which produce and secrete mucus, a sticky compound which traps
dust and microbes, and ciliated epithelium, which pushed the secreted mucus along.
The combination of mucus producing goblet cells and ciliated epithelium forms
the mucociliary escalator, which moves forein particles away from the lower respiratory
tract, toward the oropharynx, where it can be swallowed. The mucus-secreting layers of
the gastrointestinal tract trap microbes so they can be destroyed by chemical, cellular,
and humoral defenses, and the lining of the urinary tract is bathed in urine, an acidic
waste material which limits bacterial growth.
Chemical Defenses
Lysozymes are enzymes found in lacrimal (tear) fluid which bathes the epithelial surface
of the eyes, as well as in saliva, nasal secretions, and sweat. These lyse the cell wall of
bacterial cells.
Mucus, sebum, and sweat all inhibit bacterial growth.
Urine in the urogenital tract.
Hydrochloric acid in the stomach maintain an acidic environment which is not tolerable to
most microorganisms.
Histamines and leukotrienes, amine and lipid compounds increase vascular permeability,
stimulate glandular secretions, cause contraction of smooth muscle, and attract
eosinophils.
Kinins, polypeptides synthesized from plasma proteins stimulate pain receptors and
attract neutrophils.
Prostaglandins also stimulate pain receptors, cause smooth muscle
contraction, vasodilation, and increase vascular permeability.
Interferon, a protein compound produced by cells which have been invaded by viruses,
blocks the transcription of new viral early proteins to prevent the infection of healthy
cells.
Endogenous pyrogens are compounds produced by eosinophils, monocytes, and other
cells which induce fever, the raising body temperature to inhibit bacterial growth through
the denaturing of their metabolic proteins.
Complements increase vascular permiability, activate kinins, chemically attract phagocytic
cells, stimulate the release of histamines, and nonselectively lyse bacterial cells.
Cellular Defense
Leukocytes are cells derived from undifferentiated hemocytoblasts in bone marrow or
undifferentiated stem cells present in lymphatic tissues. Granulocytes, such as motile
basophils store chemical mediators such as kinins, prostaglandins, and histamines in
small membrane-bound packages which can be released into the surrounding
environment via a process called degranulation. Neutrophils, have the ability to
phagocytize foreign substances,and bacteria. Eosinophils enter tissues from the
bloodstream and release chemical agents which inhibit the release of histamine and
other inflammatory compounds, and also attack invading helminth (worm) parasites. B
plasma and memory cells, and T lymphocytes associated with the specific immune
response.
Fixed cell types include granular mast cells associated with connective tissues, which
release chemical mediators through degranulation, fixed macrophages such
as dendritic cells of the dermis, Kuppfer cells of the liver, and alveolar macrophages (dust
cells) associated with the alveoli of the lungs. Motile leukocytes are attracted to the site
of injury or microbial invasion by chemotactic factors such as complements, leukotrienes,
kinins, and histamines.
Normal Microflora
One nonspecific defense mechanism is not derived from specific human cell types, but
from the presence of microorganisms which are always associated with the
body. Normal microflora (normal flora) are organisms which live in and on the body of
the human, most usually as commensals.