Page | 1

CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION




Page | 2


INTRODUCTION
The chemistry of hydrocarbon reservoir fluids is very complex. It is assumed that around
3000 organic compounds can exist in a single reservoir fluid. These compounds contain a
variety of substance of diverse chemical nature that includes hydrocarbons and non-
hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons range from methane to substances that may contain more than
100 carbon atoms. Non hydrocarbons include substances such as N
2
, CO
2
, H
2
S, S, H
2
O, He
and even traces if Hg, etc.
1.1. RESERVOIR FLUID COMPOSITION
The empirical formula C
n
H
2n+h
S
a
N
b
O
c
can be used to classify all the compounds present in
crude oil. The largest portion of crude oil is composed of hydrocarbons with carbon number
n, ranging from 1 to about 60 and h numbers ranging from +2 for low molecular weight
paraffin hydrocarbons to -20 for high molecular weight organic compounds. Occasionally,
sulphur, nitrogen and oxygen substitutions occur in high molecular weight organic
compounds with a, b and c usually ranging from 1 to 3.
Hydrocarbons are of two types:
Aliphatic
Aromatic
Aliphatic hydrocarbons are further divided into alkanes (C
n
H
2n+2
), alkenes (C
n
H
2n
), alkynes
(C
n
H
2n-2
) and their cyclic analogs.
The series of straight chain alkanes (saturated hydrocarbons) show a smooth gradation of
physical properties. As molecular size increases, each additional CH
2
group contributes a
fairly constant increment to boiling point and specific gravity. The boiling and melting points
of alkanes are fairly low because of symmetrical nature of molecules. Chemically, alkanes are
unreactive at ordinary temperature. Hence, naturally occurring petroleum deposits mainly
consist of alkanes.
The physical properties of alkenes and alkynes (unsaturated hydrocarbons) are very much
like the physical properties of alkanes. Hence alkenes and alkynes are not usually found in
naturally occurring hydrocarbon deposits. Cycloalkanes and cycloalkenes are about as
Page | 3

reactive chemically as their open chain analogs. Different members of cyclic group exhibit
different chemical reactivities.
Aromatic hydrocarbons (unsaturated cyclic compounds) show gradation in their physical
properties with increase in molecular weight and they have the same stability as the carbon-
carbon single bond found in alkanes. Mercaptans, alkyl sulphides, aldehydes, ketones, resins
and asphaltenes also belong to the category of organic compounds.
Hydrocarbon liquids may be composed of several thousands of compounds. A complete
chemical analysis for the identification and measurement of constituents is very difficult. Few
of the classifications are given below:
Paraffins, naphthenes and aromatics as group (PNA) : chains of hydrocarbon
segments, branched (iso) or unbranched (normal) types of hydrocarbons are termed as
paraffins, naphthenes are similar to paraffins with the exception of containing one or
more cyclic structures and aromatics are cyclic benzene type of compounds (six
carbon atoms rings)
Paraffins base, asphalt base and mixed base oil.
Classification based on

API of oil etc.

Reservoir fluids are commonly identified by their constituents individually to pentanes and
heavier compounds are reported as groups composed mostly of components with equal
number of carbons such as C
6
s C
7
s C
8
s. The most common method of describing the heavy
fraction is to lump all the compounds heavier than C
6
and report it as C
7+
.
1.2. PHASE BEHAVIOR
The term phase is used to define any homogeneous and physically distinct part of a system
which is separated from other parts of the system by definite bounding surfaces. Whether a
substance exists in a solid, liquid or gas phase is determined by the temperature and pressure
acting on the substance. The study of effect of variation in temperature and pressure on the
physical characteristics of the naturally occurring hydrocarbons to establish phase
relationship is termed as Phase Behavior. Phase behavior of a hydrocarbon mixture at
reservoir and surface conditions is determined by its chemical composition and prevailing
temperature and pressure.
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1.2.1. Phase Diagram of Pure Compound
A phase diagram is a graph of pressure against temperature which shows the conditions under
which the various phases of the substances may be present. Phase diagram is also referred to
as pressure temperature diagram. The word pure refers to a single component system and is
considered to be the simplest type of hydrocarbon system. They are not found in nature. We
study the phase behavior of a single component in order to understand the relationship
between temperature, pressure and volume which provide the understanding of the complex
hydrocarbon mixtures.

Fig 1.1.Pressure- Temperature diagram for a single-component system
In the Fig 1.1, the line OA represents the vapor pressure as a function of temperature
and the systems which are represented by points above OA are composed of liquid only.
Similarly, points below OA represent systems that are all vapor. The upper limit of vapor
pressure line is A. This is known as the critical point, at which the intensive properties of the
liquid phase and the vapor phase become identical and they are no longer distinguishable.
The lower end of the vapor pressure line is limited by the triple point O. this point
represents the pressure and temperature at which solid, liquid, and vapor coexist under
equilibrium conditions. The sublimation pressure curve of the solid is given by the line OB
which divides the area where solid exists from the area where vapor exists. The line OC
represents the change of melting point with pressure and divides the solid area from the liquid
area. The line IJ represents an isobaric temperature increase for a system.

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1.2.2. Phase Diagram of Two-Component System
Consider a two component system with fixed overall composition. If the bubble point
pressure and dew point pressure for various isotherms on a P-V diagram are plotted as a
function of temperature, a P-T diagram similar to that shown in Fig 1.2 is obtained. The P-T
diagram indicates the phase changes that occur when the pressure and temperature of a
system are varied.

Fig 1.2.A typical Pressure-Temperature diagram for a two-component system
In the Fig.1.2, the bubble point curve AC and the dew-point curve BC meet at the
critical point C. points within the loop ACB represent systems consisting of two phases.
Points below dew-point curve represent vapor and points above bubble-point curve represent
liquid. As in single-component systems, far removed from two-phase region represent fluid.
The dotted curves XC, YC, ZC represent 25%, 50%, and 75% by volume of liquid
respectively.
If a system originally at point I is compressed isothermally at a temperature below Tc
along the path IM, then the system is originally in the vapor state; At the dew-point J liquid
begins to form and in passing from J to L more and more liquid condenses. At the bubble-
point L the system is essentially all liquid and only an infinitesimal amount of vapor remains.
At the point M the system is in the liquid state.

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1.2.3. Phase Diagram of a Multicomponent System
For a multi-component system with a given overall composition, the characteristics of
P-V and P-T diagrams are very similar to those of a two-component system. The
multicomponent P-T diagrams are essentially used to classify reservoirs, specify the naturally
occurring hydrocarbon systems and describe the phase behavior of the reservoir fluid. Fig 1.3
shows a typical P-T diagram of a multi-component system.

Fig 1.3.Typical Pressure-Temperature diagram of multi-component system
1.2.4. Terms Related to Phase Diagram
CricondenthermThe cricondentherm is the maximum temperature above which liquid
cannot be formed regardless of pressure. The corresponding pressure is termed as
cricondentherm pressure.
Cricondenbar The Cricondenbar is the maximum pressure above which no gas can be
formed regardless of temperature. The corresponding temperature is called the Cricondenbar
temperature.
Critical point The critical point for a multicomponent mixture is referred to as the state of
pressure and temperature at which all the intensive properties of the gas and liquid phases are
equal. At the critical point, the corresponding pressure and temperature are called the critical
pressure and critical temperature of the mixture.
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Phase envelope (two phase region) The region enclosed by the bubble point curve and the
dew point curve, where gas and liquid coexist in equilibrium, is identified as the phase
envelope of the hydrocarbon system.
Quality lines The dashed lines within the phase diagram are called quality lines. They
describe the pressure and temperature conditions for equal volumes of liquids. Quality lines
converge at the critical point.
Bubble point curve The bubble point curve is defined as the line separating the liquid
phase region from the two phase region.
Dew point curve The dew point curve is defined as the line separating the vapor phase
region from the two phase region.
1.3. CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIR AND RESERVOIR FLUIDS
Petroleum reservoirs are broadly classified as oil gas reservoirs. These broad classifications
are further subdivided depending on:
The composition of the reservoir hydrocarbon mixture.
Initial reservoir pressure and temperature.
Pressure and temperature of the surface production
Location of the reservoir temperature with respect to the critical temperature and the
cricondentherm.
In general, reservoirs are classified on the basis of the location of the point representing the
initial reservoir pressure, P
i
and temperature, T with respect to the p/T diagram of the
reservoir fluid. Accordingly, reservoirs can be classified into two types:
Oil reservoirs If the reservoir temperature, T is less than the critical temperature,
T
c
, of the reservoir fluid, the reservoir is classified as an oil reservoir.
Gas reservoirs If the reservoir temperature is greater than the critical temperature
of the hydrocarbon fluid, the reservoir is called as gas reservoir.
1.3.1. Identification of Reservoir Fluids
The classification is essentially based on the properties exhibited by the crude oil, such as,
Physical properties, such as API gravity of the stock-tank liquid
Composition
Initial producing gas/oil ratio (GOR )
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Appearance, such as color of the stock-tank liquid
Pressure-temperature phase diagram
Among the properties given above, three are generally available: initial GOR, API gravity
and color of the separated liquid.
The initial GOR is the most important indicator of the fluid type. Color is generally not a
reliable mean of differentiating between gas condensate and volatile oils, but in general, dark
colors indicate the presence of heavy hydrocarbons. In general, reservoir temperature and
composition of the hydrocarbon system greatly influence the behavior of the system.
Basically the reservoir fluids are classified into five types. These are:
Black oil
Volatile oil
Retrograde gas
Wet gas and
Dry gas
1.3.2. Black Oil
Black oils, or ordinary oils, are the most common type of oil reserves. Its phase
envelope is the widest of all types of reservoir fluids, with its critical temperature well above
the reservoir temperature. Atypical black oil phase diagram is shown in Fig 1.4. The quality
lines are broadly spaced at reservoir conditions with separator conditions lying on relatively
high quality lines. The above characteristics lead to a low shrinkage of oil when produced.


Fig 1.4: Phase Diagram of black oil
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The GOR may decrease initially when the reservoir pressure falls below the bubble
point, as the evolved gas remains immobile at very low saturations. The GOR then increases
sharply as the gas to oil mobility ratio within the reservoir varies inversely with the viscosity
ratio, which is typically of two orders of magnitude.
1.3.3. Volatile Oil
Volatile oils have many common features with gas condensates, but as they contain
more heavy compounds they behave liquid-like at reservoir conditions. The phase envelope
of a volatile oil is relatively wider than that of a gas condensate, with a higher critical
temperature due to its larger concentration of heavy compounds. A typical volatile- oil phase
diagram is shown in Fig 1.5.
The reservoir temperature is near the critical temperature; hence, volatile oils are
referred to as near-critical oils. The quality lines are tighter and closer near the bubble point
curve. A small reduction of pressure below the bubble point vaporizes a significant fraction
of the oil, hence the name volatile oil.
Separator conditions typically lie on low quality lines. The GOR increases when the
reservoir pressure falls below the bubble point during the reservoir life. Saturation pressures
of volatile oils are high.
Fig 1.5.Phase Diagram of Volatile Oil

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1.3.4. Gas Condensate
Atypical gas condensate phase diagram is shown in Fig 1.6. The presence of heavy
hydrocarbons expands the phase envelope relative to a wet gas; hence, the reservoir
temperature lies between the critical point and the cricondentherm. The amount of potentially
condensable hydrocarbons in the reservoir increases with the richness of the gas, as heavy
compounds shift the critical temperature towards the reservoir temperature.
Retrograde condensation:
Retrograde condensation is defined as the formation of liquid by an isothermal
decrease in pressure or an isobaric increase in temperature. Similarly, retrograde vaporization
is the formation of vapor by an isothermal compression or an isobaric decrease in
temperature. In Fig 1.6, this phenomenon is represented by the shaded region.
Retrograde phenomena would not occur in a system whose dew-point curve and
bubble-point curve meet in an acute angle at the critical point so that the cricondentherm and
the cricondenbar are equal to Tc and Pc respectively. The producing GOR initially remains
constant until the reservoir pressure falls below the dew point and increases thereafter. It is
commonly assumed that the condensate formed in reservoir remains immobile due to its low
saturation, and is mostly non-recoverable.

Fig 1.6: Phase Diagram of Gas Condensate

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1.3.5. Wet Gas
A wet gas is mainly composed of methane and other light components with its phase
envelope located entirely over a temperature range below that of the reservoir. A typical
phase diagram of a wet gas is shown in Fig 1.7, where reservoir temperature is above the
cricondentherm of the hydrocarbon mixture. Because the reservoir temperature exceeds the
cricondentherm of the hydrocarbon system, the reservoir fluid will always remain in the
vapor phase region as the reservoir is depleted isothermally, along the vertical line A-B.
As the produced gas flows to the surface, however, the pressure and temperature of
the gas will decline. If the gas enters the two-phase region, a liquid phase will condense out
of the gas and be produced from the surface separators. This is caused by a sufficient
decrease in the kinetic energy of heavy molecules with temperature drop and their subsequent
change to liquid through the attractive forces between molecules.
Fig.1.7.Phase Diagram of Wet-Gas
1.3.6. Dry Gas
Dry gases are predominantly composed of methane and non-hydrocarbons such as
nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Figure1.8 shows the phase diagram of a dry gas. The phase
envelope is relatively tight and mostly located below the ambient temperature.
The gas remains single phase from the reservoir to the separator conditions. Water,
however, may condense at the surface conditions due to the gas cooling. PVT tests in the
laboratory are limited to the gas compressibility measurement.
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Fig.1.8.Phase Diagram of dry gas
Based upon some characteristics of reservoir fluid, such as the color, gravity, GOR
etc., we can distinguish the reservoir fluids among the above mentioned classifications. Table
1.1 shows the nomenclature of a reservoir:
Table 1.1.Nomenclature of Reservoir


XXX



Component Black Oil Volatile Oil Gas
Condensate
Wet Gas Dry Gas
C
7+
mole % >30 12.5-30 <12.5 <0.5 -
GOR (scf/stb) <2000 2000-3300 3300-50000 >50000 -
Tank Gravity (API) <40 >40 >55 >60 -
Liquid color Greenish-
Black
Medium-
Orange
Light-Straw Water-
White
-
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CHAPTER
2
RESERVOIR FLUID
PROPERTIES











Page | 14


RESERVOIR FLUID PROPERTIES
Physical properties of primary interest in petroleum engineering studies include:
Gas Characteristics:
Gas Gravity
Gas Solubility
Gas Compressibility Factor
Gas Formation Volume Factor
Coefficient of Isothermal Compressibility of Gas
Gas Viscosity
Oil Characteristics:
Oil Gravity
Oil Formation Volume Factor
Shrinkage Factor
Relative Volume
Oil Compressibility
Isothermal compressibility coefficient
Oil Viscosity
2.1. GAS GRAVITY
The specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the gas density to that of the air. Both
densities are measured or expressed at the same pressure and temperature. Commonly, the
standard pressure Psc and standard temperature Tsc are used in defining the gas specific
gravity:

2.1
Assuming that the behavior of both the gas mixture and the air is described by the
ideal gas equation, the specific gravity can then be expressed as:

2.2

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2.2. SOLUTION-GAS OIL RATIO
It is defined as the number of cubic feet of gas which will dissolve in one stock tank
barrel of oil when both are taken down to the reservoir at the prevailing reservoir pressure
and temperature. As the pressure is reduced the gas in solution with oil gets liberated. If the
crude is under saturated at initial reservoir temperature and pressure the gas is evolved after
reduction of pressure below the bubble point.

) 2.3
2.3. GAS COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR
Gas compressibility factor is also called deviation factor, or z-factor. Its value reflects
how much the real gas deviates from the ideal gas at given pressure and temperature.
Definition of the compressibility factor is expressed as:

2.4
For a given amount of gas, if temperature is kept constant and volume is measured at
14.7 psia and an elevated pressure P
1
,z-factor can then be determined with the following
formula:

2.5
Where V
0
and V
1
are gas volumes measured at 14.7 psia and P
1
, respectively.
2.4. GAS FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR
It is defined as the volume in barrels that one standard cubic foot of gas will occupy
as free gas in the reservoir at the prevailing pressure and temperature. Gas expansion factor E
is the inverse of the gas formation volume factor.

2.6

2.7
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2.5. COEFFICIENT OF ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSIBILITY OF GAS
The coefficient of isothermal compressibility of gas (or simply gas compressibility) is
defined as the change in gas volume per change in pressure at constant temperature. Gas
compressibility C
g
is expressed as:

2.8
For an ideal gas, C

2.9
For real gases, C

) 2.10
2.6. GAS VISCOSITY
Gas viscosity is a measure of the resistance to flow exerted by the gas. Dynamic
viscosity (g) in centipoises (cp) is usually used in the natural engineering. Kinematic
viscosity (vg) is related to the dynamic viscosity through density (
g
) as,

2.11
Viscosities of natural gases are affected by pressure, temperature, and composition.
The viscosity of a specific natural gas can be measured in the laboratory, but common
practice is to use the available empirical data. Contrary to the case for liquids, the viscosity of
a gas at low pressures increases as the temperature is raised. At high pressures, gas viscosity
decreases as the temperature is raised. At intermediate pressure, gas viscosity may decrease
as temperature is raised and then increase with further increase in temperature.
2.7. OIL GRAVITY
Liquid specific gravity,
o
, is defined as the ratio of the density of the liquid to the
density of water, both taken at the same temperature and pressure.

2.12
The petroleum industry uses another gravity term called API gravity which is defined as

2.13
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2.8. OIL FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR
Oil formation volume factor is defined as the volume of reservoir oil required to
produce one barrel of oil in the stock tank.

2.14
The volume of oil that enters the stock tank at the surface is less than the volume of
oil which flows into the well bore from the reservoir conditions to surface conditions is due to
three factors:
The most important factor is the evolution of gas from the oil as pressure is decreased
from reservoir pressure to surface pressure. This causes a rather large decrease in volume of
the oil when there is a significant amount of dissolved gas. The reduction in pressure also
causes the remaining oil to expand slightly, but this is somewhat offset by the contraction of
the oil due to the reduction of temperature.
Shrinkage factor is the reciprocal of the Formation volume Factor.

2.15
2.9. RELATIVE VOLUME
When the pressure of a sample of reservoir oil is decreased below its bubble point
pressure, gas is evolved. The change in volume of oil due to this liberation of gas gives the
relative volume of gas as,



(

) 2.16
2.10. ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSIBILITY COEFFICIENT OF OIL
Isothermal compressibility coefficients are required in solving many reservoir
engineering problems, including transient fluid flow problems, and they are also required in
the determination of the physical properties of the under saturated crude oil. By definition,
the isothermal compressibility of a substance is defined mathematically by the following
expression: For a crude oil system, the isothermal compressibility coefficient of the oil phase
B is defined for pressures above the bubble point by one of the following equivalent
expressions:
Page | 18

2.17
Where, V is volume of the fluid and K
T
is isothermal bulk modulus, respectively.
2.11. CRUDE OIL VISCOSITY
Crude oil viscosity is an important physical property that controls and influences the
flow of oil through porous media and pipes. The viscosity, in general, is defined as the
internal resistance of the fluid to flow. The viscosity of crude oil is affected by pressure,
temperature, and most importantly, by the amount of gas in solution.
Below the bubble-point, viscosity decreases with increasing pressure because of the
thinning effect of gas going into solution. Above the bubble-point, viscosity increases with
increasing pressure because of compression of the liquid. If a crude oil is under saturated at
the original reservoir pressure, viscosity will decrease slightly as the reservoir pressure
decreases. A minimum viscosity will occur at the saturation pressure. At pressures below the
bubble-point, evolution of gas from solution will increase the density and viscosity of the
crude oil as the reservoir pressure is decreased further. Viscosities of hydrocarbon liquids
decrease with increasing temperature for gas-free reservoir crudes.
The viscosity of reservoir fluid is measured by capillary viscometer which is based on
Hagen-Poiseuille equation.
Hagen-Poiseuille law states that the volumetric flow rate Q of a liquid through a cross
section of a tube is directly proportional to the pressure difference between the ends of the
tube (P-P
o
) and fourth power of the diameter d of the tube and inversely proportional to the
length of tube and viscosity of fluid. The equation is given as:

2.18
Due to non-idealities, the operational equation is modified slightly with an empirical
factor known as the coil factor, K
v
. This factor is calibrated for each coil with fluids of
known viscosity.

XXX
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CHAPTER
3
RESERVOIR FLUID
SAMPLING












Page | 20

RESERVOIR FLUID SAMPLING
One of the important activities in reservoir management is to ensure that
representative reservoir fluid samples are obtained by sampling and proper laboratory
measurements are conducted on the samples. It is also equally important that reservoir fluid
samples should be stored in containers and maintained under conditions that retain the
composition of the original sample over time.
Some points to be remembered in sampling the fluids:
Reservoir fluids should be sampled as early as possible during the production life of
a reservoir, so that the obtained sample is representative.
As long as the reservoir pressure has never been below its saturation pressure, and a
single phase sample flows into the sampling bottle, the chance of collecting a
representative sample is high. So the flow should be in single phase.
The well should be conditioned prior to sampling:
First, the well should be cleaned such that the collected sample is devoid of
contaminants such as drilling mud, rock debris, completion fluids etc.
Well cleaning can be ensured by checking the produced fluids in the separator
after flowing the well initially for the purpose of well testing and selection of
optimum bean size.
The well is then flowed at a lower production rate until a minimum and stabilized
GOR is obtained.
Samples should be taken at the top of the completion interval so that the temperature
and pressure are close to reservoir conditions. Mostly the sampler is not lowered
below the tubing.
Multiple samples are taken to ensure accuracy of the data.
Surface samples should be taken only from the first stage high pressure separator
and when only a single well is flowing into the separator.
3.1. SAMPLE COLLECTION
The sample can be collected either as a single phase at the bottom hole, when the
pressure is still above the saturation value, or at the surface.
Reservoir fluid sampling methods are generally divided into two categories:
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Subsurface Sampling.
Surface Sampling.
3.1.1. Sub-surface Sampling
It is also known as Bottom hole sampling. After the well is ensured of a single flow, a
special sampler is run on a wire line. This sampler is activated at the surface so as to retrieve
a bottom hole fluid sample under pressure. Fig.3.1 is a schematic drawing of the bottom-hole
sampler. The valves are locked open at the surface, the sampler is located at the desired
sampling position, and the valves are activated by dropping a metal bar or by a preset clock
mechanism. Bottom hole sampling can be done in both the flowing and shut-in conditions of
the well.

Fig.3.1: Schematic drawing of bottom-hole fluid sampler.
The sampler is then brought to the surface and checked for possible leaks. The
pressure in the sampler at the surface is measured to indicate whether or not the sampler was
properly activated at the hole. The pressure in the sampler should be slightly less than the
bottom-hole pressure at which the sample was collected.
3.1.2. Surface sampling
A second technique used in obtaining fluid samples from which to determine PVT
relations is known as recombination sampling.
Page | 22

For a recombination sample, the fluids are collected at the surface. A sample of separator oil
and separator gas is collected, and these samples are recombined in the laboratory in the
proper proportions as determined by production characteristics at the surface during sampling
operations.
Gas and liquid samples are collected from the same separator at the same flow
conditions. A larger quantity of separator gas must be collected because of its high
compressibility compared with the liquid. The sampling containers can be attached the
separator as indicated in Fig. 3.2. Regardless of the method of collecting the fluid samples,
the following data should be recorded:
1. A volume of oil in the separator compared with a volume of oil in the stock tank. This
information permits the field calculation of a shrinkage factor for separator oil. The final
shrinkage factor for separator oil is determined in the laboratory by flashing to stock-tank
conditions.

Fig.3.2: Schematic layout of productions facilities with indicated sample points for
recombined samples.
2. The temperature and pressure of the separator
3. The temperature and pressure of the stock tank.
4. The specific gravity of the stock-tank oil.
5. The amount of separator gas produced pre stock-tank barrel (GOR, gas oil ration).
Page | 23

6. The gravity of the separator gas obtained in field or laboratory to correct meter
measurements.
7. The flowing bottom-hole pressure and temperature.
8. The shut-in bottom-hole pressure and temperature.
With these data it is possible to obtain an analysis of the fluid entering the separator
by properly recombining the separator liquid and separator gas
The recombination method of sampling is just as good as the bottom-hole sampling
technique for reservoirs where the flowing pressure exceeds the bubble point pressure of the
reservoir fluid. When the bottom-hole flowing pressure is less than the bubble point pressure,
free gas is produced from reservoir. The bubble point pressure for a recombination sample
may be excess of the original bubble-point pressure of the reservoir fluid owing to the excess
gas. In most cases, these errors can be found and corrections made by taking into account the
other data measured while collecting the sample.
3.3. SAMPLE TRANSFER AND VALIDATION (Sub surface sample)
After a sample is collected in the sampler, it is sent to the laboratory from the Asset.
In the laboratory, the sample is first transferred into a shipping bottle and pressurized.
After sample transfer, the validation check is performed to know whether the sample
is valid for further analysis.
If multiple samples from a single well are available, the Valve Opening Pressure
(VOP) and the GOR of the samples are measured. Ideally, all samples should show
same properties.
But, if there exists any difference in values; generally a sample with low GOR and
higher values of VOP are considered to be valid.

XXX


Page | 24





CHAPTER
4
OVERVIEW OF
EQUIPMENT









Page | 25


OVERVIEW OF EQUIPMENT
This chapter consists of an overview of the equipment required for conducting a
complete PVT analysis on a reservoir fluid sample.
4.1. PVT EQUIPMENT (Chandler PVT 3000)
PVT Equipment consists of two cells: a pump cell
and an auxiliary cell, enclosed in an insulation chamber.
While testing for gas condensates the auxiliary cell is
replaced by a gas condensate cell. The volume of pump cell
is 400cc and that of gas condensate cell is 1000cc.
Maximum pressure:
Pump cell and auxiliary cell =15000 psia
Gas Condensate cell = 20,000 psia
Maximum Temperature: 200C (400F)
The equipment is as shown in Fig 4.1. It is provided
with a digital camera for real time monitoring of process
going in the cell. All the operations can be carried out
automatically using software. For a gas condensate cell,
camera is not used; instead a borescope is used which helps
in the accurate measurement of condensate. Fig.4.1: PVT equipment
4.2. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS
Positive displacement pumps are used to change the volume in the cell as well as to
transfer the fluids. These are digital controlled single or dual drive pumps. It has feed rates in
0.01cc/min increments. It has a continuous constant pressure flow. They are Quizix 6000
series pumps which are large volume high flow rate pumps. They provide a flow rate of 400
ml/mins. They are configured for single cylinder or multi cylinder continuous flow. Fig 4.2
shows a typical photograph of a positive displacement pump used in the PVT laboratory.

Page | 26






Fig.4.2: Positive Displacement Pump
4.3. DIGITAL GASOMETER
Gasometer can effectively be used as a flow meter. It has 1 and
2 liter volume collection tubes. It gives an accurate estimation of gas
and can be used with the separator on the console assembly or directly
connected to the PVT system. Fig. 4.3 shows a digital gasometer that is
used in the PVT laboratory for accommodating and measuring the gas
volumes.
Fig.4.3: Gasometer
4.4. DENSITY METER
The density meter consists of a hollow elastic tube (oscillator) which is electronically
excited in an undamped harmonic fashion. The direction of oscillation is perpendicular to the
U-shaped sample tube. The measuring principle of the instrument is based on change of the
natural frequency of a hollow oscillator when filled with different liquids and gases. The
frequency of the oscillator is only influenced by that fraction of the volume of liquid or gas
which is injected in the vibrating part of the sample tube.
It is essential to ensure that the oscillator is completely filled. Using the relationship
between the density and the natural frequency of filled oscillator the density meter displays
the density of the injected sample on a digital screen. The equipment is calibrated using air or
water. Specific gravity and API gravity of liquid can be then calculated using their
corresponding formulas. Fig 4.4 shows a digital density meter that is used in a PVT
laboratory to obtain the density of oil directly.
Page | 27


Fig.4.4: Density meter
4.5. POUR POINT APPARATUS (through AUTOPOUR 300)
Pour point is defined as the lowest temperature at which the fluid ceases to flow when
cooled and examined under prescribed conditions. Pour point is generally expressed as
multiples of 3C as per ASTM standards. The apparatus consists of an internal
heating/cooling system, a small motor which provides torque for the rod to be placed inside
the sample container, and a digital monitoring system. The equipment is calibrated using
benzene.
4.6. GAS GRAVITY APPARATUS
The gas gravity can be known using apparatus consisting of a glass bulb, an
evacuation pump, a weighing machine, a moisture absorbing material, and connecting pipes.
Fig. 4.5 shows the moisture absorbing agents packed in glass tubes. The gas is passed through
these tubes before filling into the glass bulb shown in Fig 4.6, so as to ensure that the gas
entering into the bulb is moisture free. Fig 4.7 shows an evacuation pump used to create
vacuum in the bulb.




Fig.4.5. Moisture Absorbent Fig.4.6. Glass bulb with weighing machine

Page | 28



Fig.4.7. Evacuation Pump

4.7. ANALYTICAL EQUIPMENT
Analytical Equipment


Natural Gas Simulated GC-Mass TLC-FID Cryoscope
Analyzer Distillation Unit Spectrophotometer Analyzer (Average
(GC) (HTGC) (SARA) Mol.wt)
4.7.1. GAS CHROMATOGRAPH (GC)
Gas Chromatograph is a chemical analysis instrument for separating chemicals in a
complex sample using differential adsorption as physical principle. It consists of a column
with narrow tubes through which different chemical constituents of a sample pass in a gas
stream (carrier gas, mobile phase) at different rates depending on their various chemical and
physical properties and their interaction with a specific column filling called the stationary
phase. The function of stationary phase in the column is to separate different components,
causing each one to exit the column at a different retention time.
Two detectors Thermal Conductivity Detector and Flame Ionization Detector are
used. Both are sensitive to a wide range of components, and both work over a wide range of
concentrations. While TCDs are essentially universal and can be used to detect any
component other than the carrier gas (as long as their thermal conductivities are different
from that of the carrier gas, at detector temperature), FIDs are sensitive primarily to
hydrocarbons, and are more sensitive to them than TCD.
Helium is used as carrier gas. Hydrogen and zero air are used for the flame in Flame
Ionization Detector (FID). Nitrogen is used for operating the pneumatic valves between the
columns in GC. Before injecting the sample the detector is heated with the help of an internal
heater. Fig 4.8 shows a typical natural gas chromatographer used in the laboratory.
Page | 29


Fig.4.8: Gas Chromatographer
4.7.2. HIGH TEMPERATURE GAS CHROMATOGRAPH (HTGC)
Liquid trapped in the Flash study is filled in small sample bottles and placed in the
vial of HTGC. The auto sampler injects the sample into the column as per the loaded
conditioning sequence. Then as per the constituents of the injected sample a
chromatogram is obtained.
The HTGC also gives the distillation characteristics of the oil using a simulated
distillation unit. Recovery of oil after distillation can be useful in estimating the
reservoir fluid composition. Manual distillation also can be done using the distillation
apparatus shown in the figure.
GC- Mass Spectrophotometer is also used for analyzing composition of the liquid but
it can give accurate results for a broader range of constituents (C
20+
) when compared
to HTGC. Fig 4.9 shows a typical high temperature gas chromatographer that is used
in the laboratory.






Fig.4.9: High Temperature Gas Chromatographer
Page | 30

4.7.3. TLC-FID ANALYZER (IATROSCAN MK-6S)
This equipment is used to know the percentage of Saturates, Aromatics, Resins and
Asphaltenes in crude oil. Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) is the separation of mixtures on
thin bonded layers of adsorbent (stationary phase) with a solvent (mobile phase). Equipment
consists of a set of ten quartz-silica coated rods, held in a frame, an auto spotter, and a
detector. Fig 4.10 shows an auto spotter used to spot the sample on the thin rods. Fig 4.11
shows the Flame Ionization Detector along with the analyzer.

Fig.4.10: Auto Spotter

Fig.4.11: TLC-FID analyzer
4.7.4. CRYOSCOPE
Cryoscope is used to find out the average molecular weight of the sample. It gives
molecular weight in terms of molality m, which can be obtained from depression in freezing
point T
f
and the cryoscopic constant K
f.
(T
f
= m. K
f
). Fig 4.12 shows typical cryoscopy
equipment with a digital display of the molecular weight of the components tested.
Page | 31





Fig.4.12: Cryoscope
4.7. CAPILLARY VISCOMETER
A capillary viscometer is an instrument used to find the viscosity of fluids by the
measurement of the differential pressure at a constant volume flow of the sample through the
capillary. Inside the capillary viscometers, the velocity drop required for viscosity
measurement is built up in the form of a laminar tube flow within a measurement capillary.
Under idealised conditions, the liquid flows in coaxial layers towards the pressure drop
through the capillary.
The apparatus as shown in Fig 4.13 consists of a capillary coil, two pump cells, a
pressure gauge, all placed in an isothermal chamber. The fluid is flowed from one pump cell
to another (under a pressure drop) through the capillary coil. The pressure drop at the ends of
the capillary is noted. The flow rate of the fluid is a known parameter; hence in the Hagen-
Poiseiulle equation, the only unknown can be calculated.
Using this experiment, we can only find out the viscosity of oil but not that of gas.
The viscosity of gas cannot be found through laboratory tests; it can be obtained through the
use of correlations.

Fig 4.13: Capillary viscometer principle
XXX
Page | 32





CHAPTER
5
PVT LABORATORY
ANALYSIS









Page | 33


PVT LABORATORY ANALYSIS
PVT is the study of the behavior of reservoir fluid as a function of pressure, volume,
temperature and composition. PVT analysis needs to be performed on the representative
sample for managing efficiently the production of natural gas and petroleum reservoirs.
Fluids exist in reservoirs as mixtures of gas, oil, and water. Some reservoirs may contain only
gas and water, only oil and water, or mixtures of gas, oil, and water. Irrespective of the
proportions of these fluids present in a reservoir, obtaining fluid samples and making accurate
laboratory studies of PVT and phase-equilibrium behavior of reservoir fluids are necessary
for characterizing these fluids and evaluating their volumetric performance at various
pressure levels; also for establishing reservoir type, devising strategies for reservoir
management, and estimating expected hydrocarbon recovery.
In most of the recovery methods the reservoir temperature remains constant; hence
reservoir pressure is the main criteria that determine the behavior of fluids. Thus, the
volumetric data is determined at reservoir and surface temperatures, hence the name PVT
(Pressure Volume Temperature study).
5.1. SIGNIFICANCE OF PVT
Relating the observed volumes of Oil and Gas production rates at the surface to the
corresponding underground withdrawal.
Understanding and predicting the Reservoir behavior throughout its life.
Reservoir Simulation Studies.
Well Test analysis.
Reservoir Development Strategies.
Optimizing separator conditions
Determining optimum reservoir depletion strategy
The primary information obtained from PVT data is the phase behavior at reservoir
condition. Bubble point pressure is another important property which determines the pressure
at which the first bubble of gas is liberated. Reservoir fluid is considered to be composed of
two components, broadly: oil and gas. The gas phase is characterized in the laboratory by the
determination of formation volume factor, specific gravity and gas solubility, flash GOR,
Page | 34

liberated GOR and solution GOR. The oil phase is characterized by the formation volume
factor, API gravity and density. The parameters are determined through various studies
(discussed later), a report is prepared and sent to the respected asset.
5.2. CLASSIFICATION OF PVT ANALYSIS
PVT analysis is generally classified into two categories:
Oil-Gas PVT Analysis
Gas Condensate PVT Analysis
Oil-Gas PVT Analysis:
Studies comprises of:
Flash Study
PV Study/ Constant Composition Expansion
Differential liberation Study/ Constant Volume Expansion
Viscosity Measurement
Compositional Analysis
SARA Analysis
Pour Point Determination
Gas Condensate PVT Analysis
On gas condensate systems the following two types of studies are conducted:
Constant Mass Expansion Studies
Constant Volume Depletion Studies
Compositional study of condensate
The studies for a Gas-Condensate system are limited when compared to Oil-Gas system.
Also, a bottom-hole sampling technique cannot be used on a gas-condensate well because of
the accumulation of liquid in the bottom of the hole. Thus, in most cases, gas and liquid are
collected from a high-pressure separator. The quantities collected are brought to the
laboratory and carefully analyzed and recombined to represent the reservoir fluid.
This chapter includes description of the various PVT studies of an Oil-Gas system. Given
below is a typical activity chart containing the studies conducted on an Oil-Gas sample.
Page | 35

The Activity chart for an Oil-Gas system is as follows:

Sample transfer and validity check

Preparation of single phase sample

Cleaning and calibration of PVT cell

Charging sample to PVT cell

Determination of saturation pressure

Two Phase Study

Molar Composition Flash Study Distillation
Gas Composition Differential Liberation Characteristics

Thermal Expansion Study

Viscosity Measurements

Calculations, Data Analysis and Report

5.3. PVT STUDIES
This section consists of description of all the laboratory PVT studies conducted on an
Oil-Gas sample.
5.3.1. Flash Study
A liquid trap is arranged in between the pump cell and the Gasometer.
Initially the sample is charged from the shipping bottle to the pump cell; pressure and
temperature are maintained at the reservoir conditions.
The stirrer is turned on and the mixture is allowed to equilibrate. Initial weight of trap
is measured.
After the equilibrium is attained, initial pump volume is measured.
Some portion of the total volume is flashed into the Gasometer i.e. from reservoir
condition to ambient condition.
Flashing is done in four to five stages. Each time, the gas volume, the volume of
liquid trapped and the remaining pump volume are measured. For example, if we have
50 cc volume of sample, we flash 10 cc each in 5 stages. We almost get the same
values of GOR in each stage. At last, average of all the five values is recorded.
Page | 36

Finally, the gas and liquid portions obtained are sent for compositional analysis.
5.3.2. PV Study
This is also known as Constant Mass Expansion (CME)/Constant Composition Expansion
(CCE).The procedure is as follows:
The fluid sample is charged into the cell and initially maintained at reservoir
temperature and at a pressure beyond reservoir pressure.
The pressure is then decreased in stages and the corresponding total cell volume is
recorded.
The fluid is agitated at each pressure by rotating the cell. This avoids the phenomenon
of supersaturation or metastable equilibrium where a mixture remains as a single
phase, even though it should split into two phases.
As the pressure decreases, at some point of pressure there will be great increase in
volume for small changes in pressure.
This point can be identified by monitoring the cell contents with the help of camera.
The pressure at which we can observe first bubble of gas is the bubble point pressure.
Fig 5.1 is a process diagram for the constant mass expansion test; P
b
represents the
bubble point pressure. P
1
, P
2
, P
3
, P
4
, P
5
represents pressures at different stages. V
t1
,
V
t2
, V
t3
, V
t4
, V
t5
represents the total cell volumes at the respective pressure stages.

Fig.5.1: Constant Mass Expansion Test
Page | 37

5.3.3. Differential Liberation Study
This is also known as constant volume depletion. The procedure is as follows:
After the PV study, the cell is maintained at reservoir temperature and bubble point
pressure.
The pressure is then reduced in stages. As the pressure decreases below bubble point
gas is evolved from oil. Hence, both phases exist in the cell at that particular pressure.
Then the cell is left until the phases are stable, and then the gas volume present in the
cell is removed (through proper monitoring) with the help of pumps and discharge
tubes of Gasometer.
Care should be taken that no liquid enters into the Gasometer while removing the gas
phase.
The liquid in the cell then expands in the cell to make it constant volume throughout.
The gas volume is noted from the Gasometer.
This is done every stage and the corresponding gas volumes are recorded.
Fig 5.2 represents process diagram for constant volume depletion test; P
b
represents
the bubble point pressure.P
2
, P
3
represents pressures at different stages. V
1
is the oil
volume in the cell at bubble point. V
2
, V
3
, V
4
, V
5
represents the constant oil volumes at
the respective pressure stages.
There will be small change in oil volumes due to shrinkage of oil as gas is removed.

Fig.5.2: Constant volume depletion test
Page | 38

5.3.4. Thermal Expansion Study
After differential study, i.e. after the last part of the gas is discharged, the cell is
closed, its internal pressure is increased in steps, and the resulting oil volumes are
recorded.
Then the cell temperature is reduced to 15C, and the oil volume is determined. This
volume is the residual oil volume.
The plot of these volumes can be extrapolated to atmospheric pressure, so that a
measure of the residual oil volume at the given temperature can be determined.
This study is mostly conducted on dead oil upon being recommended by the
customer.
From this, we can obtain thermal expansion of liquid (). This is useful for knowing
the temperature at which the oil to be flowed through flow lines.
5.3.5. Viscosity Measurement (through Capillary Viscometer)
The pump cell and auxiliary cell are connected with a capillary coil of known length
and diameter.
A sample of 100cc is charged to the pump cell and that of 20cc to the auxiliary cell.
Both the cells are maintained at reservoir temperature and pressure.
The sample is equilibrated with the help of a magnetic stirrer.
The sample is swept from the pump cell to the auxiliary cell.
The flow rate is adjusted so as to maintain a constant pressure differential of about 50-
55 psia.
With the flow rate and pressure differential obtained we can calculate the viscosity of
the fluid using the above equation.
5.3.6. Compositional Analysis
Compositional measurements are made using gas chromatography and sometimes true
boiling point (TBP) distillation. Gas chromatography measures the weight (mass) fraction of
individual components in a mixture. TBP analysis gives additional information about the
amount and properties of heavier components (heptanes and heavier, C7+).Gas
chromatography is based on selective separation of components as temperature is increased in
a capillary tube.
Page | 39

The gas liberated in the flash study, and also that from the differential liberation study
are injected into the GC from the Gasometer.
The gas then flows through the columns of GC. The solutes travel through the column
at a rate primarily determined by their physical properties, and the temperature and
composition of the column.
As each solute elutes from the column, it enters the heated detector. An electronic
signal is generated upon interaction of the solute with the detector. The size of the
signal is recorded by a data system and is plotted against elapsed time to produce a
chromatogram. Fig 5.3 shows a typical diagram of a gas chromatograph.


Fig.5.3: A typical diagram of a gas chromatograph
5.3.7. True Boiling Point (TBP) Analysis
True boiling point distillation may supplement traditional GC analysis of oil and
condensate samples. TBP distillation separates oil into cuts or fractions according to the
range of boiling points used for separation. To avoid decomposition ("cracking") of the oil
during distillation, vacuum is applied in four stages to reduce the distillation temperatures for
heavier components. The distillation usually proceeds from C7 (or C9) to about C25, plus a
residue (~C26+). The mass, volume, molecular weight, and density (specific gravity) of each
Page | 40

distilled fraction is measured directly. Because the separation of components in a given
distillation cut is only approximate, some overlap is observed. The overlap can be corrected
to yield an "ideal" distillation curve.
One advantage with TBP analysis is that measured molecular weights are available
for converting from mass to mole fraction. Molecular weights are measured using a
cryoscopy method (freezing point depression), a method that is sensitive to error and
probably reliable at best to about 2 to 5%.
5.3.8. SARA Analysis
The sample is dissolved in dichloromethane to make a solution and sample amount as
small as about 0.01gm is spotted at the end of each rod.
The components are separated by a three stage solvent development sequence
(hexane, toluene, and dichloromethane) according to their relative affinities for the
adsorbent.
The rods are then directly scanned through the FID to detect and quantify the four
separated component classes.
The electronic signal from the FID is converted to a chromatogram, from which data
are normalized to produce relative concentrations of the component classes.
In Fig 5.4, the peaks represents the amount of saturates, aromatics, resins and
asphaltenes (in the same order). The area of peaks is evaluated to give the percentage
amount of the components.

Fig.5.4: Typical Peaks obtained in SARA analysis
Page | 41

5.3.9. Pour Point Determination
The sample is placed in the sample chamber and is subjected to preliminary heating to
a temperature higher than 45C.
After pre-heating, a rod is fitted to the motor on one end and the other end is
immersed into the sample. Then the sample is gradually cooled and the system is
monitored at every 3C interval.
The temperature at which the torque reduces and an icon reading Read Pour starts
blinking is the pour point temperature of the sample.
5.3.10. Gas Gravity Determination
The glass bulb is evacuated using the evacuation pump and the gas from the
gasometer is filled into the bulb ensuring that there is no moisture present in the bulb
and the gas.
Moisture absorbents such as silica gel, CaCl
2
are placed between the gasometer and
the glass bulb while filling the gas so that the weight of gas measured would be
accurate (free of moisture).
Then the glass bulb is weighed using the weighing machine. The weight of gas is
obtained by subtracting the weight of the empty bulb. The ratio of molecular weight
of gas to the molecular weight of air gives the gas gravity.


XXX









Page | 42







CHAPTER
6
CASE STUDY









Page | 43


CASE STUDY
This chapter consists of a case study involving various studies conducted on a field
sample. The analysis of the results obtained from each study, calculations to obtain various
parameters are presented. A summary of the PVT data obtained from the analysis is presented
at the end of the chapter.
A reservoir fluid sample obtained through bottom hole sampling is taken for analysis;
the well characteristics and sample details are as given in table 6.1.
Table.6.1: Well Characteristics and Sample Details







A required volume of the sample from the shipping bottle was charged to the PVT
cell (a high-pressure mercury free visual cell, as per the latest art of technology) and
thermally expanded to the reported reservoir temperature of 85C, for detailed PVT study.
To establish basic volumetric and phase behavior data of reservoir fluid, a set of
laboratory experiments were performed which includes:
Single stage flash liberation (from reservoir pressure to atmospheric pressure) along
with compositional analysis of liberated gas and oil.
Constant mass expansion or PV test
Differential vaporization along with compositional analysis of liberated gas at
different pressure stages.
Thermal Expansion study of dead oil
Formation Characteristics:
Initial Reservoir Pressure, kg/cm
2
135.7
Current Reservoir Pressure, kg/cm
2
135.7
Reservoir Temperature,
o
C 85
Sampling Characteristics:
Type of sample Bottom Hole Sample
Well condition during sampling Shut-in
Page | 44

Pour point determination, Distillation profile, Sara Analysis and compositional
analysis of residual oil.
Viscosity study at reservoir temperature at different pressure stages.
Flash Study
A flash study is conducted on the sample as stated earlier. The gas liberated from the
oil is then analyzed by the gas chromatograph. Table 6.2 gives the composition of gas
obtained from the analysis
Table.6.2: Molar Composition of Flash gas
Component Component Volume %
N
2

0.15
O
2

0.00
CO
2
1.51
Methane 63.24
Ethane 12.07
Propane
11.01
i-Butane
3.82
n-Butane 4.51
i-Pentane
1.72
n-Pentane
1.45
n-Hexane+ 0.51
Total
100

Molar composition of the liquid trapped in flash study is obtained by analyzing it in
the High Temperature Gas Chromatograph. Molar compositions of both phases i.e. gas and
liquid are then recombined to give the composition of the well stream as shown in Table 6.3.
Recombination Parameters:
GOR at ambient condition 65
Density of stock tank oil (STO) 0.8315
Avg. Molecular Weight of STO 210.0
Average Well Stream Properties
Calculated density at 0 psig and 60F 0.7629
Average Molecular weight of well stream 134.9
Page | 45

Table.6.3: Molar Composition of Reservoir Fluid by flash study

Component
STO STG Well Stream Composition
Mole Fraction Mole Fraction Mole%
N2 0 0.0015 0.0623
CO2 0 0.0151 0.6176
C1 0 0.6324 25.9251
C2 0 0.1207 4.9483
C3 0.0006 0.1101 4.5481
IC4 0.0015 0.0382 1.6573
nC4 0.0034 0.0451 2.0492
iC5 0.0070 0.0172 1.1161
nC5 0.0086 0.0145 1.1048
C6 0.0521 0.0049 3.2735
C7 0.0846 0.0002 5.0023
C8 0.0888 0.0000 5.2428
C9 0.0777 0.0000 4.5843
C10 0.0668 0.0000 3.9441
C11 0.0441 0 2.6004
C12 0.0522 0 3.0828
C13 0.0540 0 3.1881
C14 0.0529 0 3.1236
C15 0.0368 0 2.1714
C16 0.0419 0 2.4726
C17 0.0437 0 2.5785
C18 0.0339 0 1.9983
C19 0.0307 0 1.8102
C20 0.0272 0 1.6028
C20+ 0.1914 0 11.2954
1.00 1.00 100.00

The Flash GOR obtained from the flash study will be greater than the solution GOR
that will be obtained later from the differential liberation study. This is due to the fact that,
during flashing, some of the intermediate components escape along with the gas (due to high
kinetic energy of gas) resulting a greater amount of gas flashed to the gasometer.
Page | 46

While for solution GOR, in the differential liberation study, the gas liberated due to
decrease in pressure is not removed immediately. Rather, time is left for the phases to get
stabilized. Hence the amount of gas collected in the gasometer will be relatively less,
resulting in a relatively low GOR. Table 6.4 represents the properties of plus fractions.
Table.6.4: Properties of Plus Fraction
Plus
Fraction Mol % Wt % Mol Wt
Liquid
Density Liquid API
C7 + 54.70 89.29 220 0.8354 37.9
C11 + 35.92 73.55 276 0.8545 34.09
C20 + 11.30 36.08 431 0.8756 30.10
In Table 6.4, the properties of + fractions indicate the type of reservoir fluid (see table
1.1). Since the C
7+
fraction for the sample taken is >45, the reservoir fluid can be
characterized as Volatile Oil.
PV Study
A constant mass expansion study at reservoir temperature is carried out on the sample
and the obtained results after data validation are shown in Table 6.5.
Table.6.5: Constant Mass Expansion Study at Reservoir Temperature
Pressure (psig) Pressure (kg/cm
2
) System Volume (cc)
2000 140.62 155.1
1900 133.59 155.2
1800 126.56 155.3
1700 119.54 155.5
1601 112.56 155.6
1500 105.46 155.8
1397* 98.23 155.94
1390 97.75 156.1
1366 96.05 156.5
1360 95.64 157.0
1346 94.63 157.5
1325 93.13 158.0
*Bubble point pressure (from graph): 1397psig = 98.23 kg/cm
2

Page | 47

A graph is plot between pressure and system volume as shown below. Bubble Point
Pressure is identified as the point at which the slope of the PV-curve changes.
6.1. BUBBLE POINT PRESSURE
The values of system volume below and above the bubble point are plotted. They
represent two lines with different slopes. The point at which these two lines meet is the
bubble point.
Fig.6.1: Plot of Pressure vs. System Volume
In the Fig.6.1, as the pressure from 140.62 kg/cm
2
(>reservoir pressure) is reduced in
stages, the total volume of the cell increased gradually with a lesser step increase. But when
the bubble point is reached, there occurs a greater step increase in the volume due to the
liberation of gas from the oil.
By knowing the bubble point we can know the duration of single phase flow from the
reservoir, and also the recovery factor. If the difference between average reservoir pressure
and bubble point pressure is more, then the recovery factor will be more.
6.2. RELATIVE VOLUME
Relative Volume is calculated as the ratio of volume of oil at indicated pressure to
volume of oil at saturation pressure.
Page | 48

The relative volume data frequently require smoothing to correct for laboratory
inaccuracies in measuring small volume changes in the total hydrocarbon volume just below
the saturation pressure and also at lower pressures. A dimensionless compressibility function
known as Y-function is used to smooth the reported relative volume data. The function in its
mathematical form is only defined below the saturation pressure and is given by the
following expression:

6.1
Where, P is indicated pressure in psia
The Y-function is a straight-line function of pressure or has only a small curvature. To
smooth the relative volume data, the Y-function is plotted as a function of pressure on a
Cartesian scale. Table 6.6 represents the calculated values of the relative volume and Y-
function.
The following steps summarize the simple procedure of smoothing and correcting the
relative volume data:
Calculate the Y-function for all pressures below the saturation pressure by using the
equation above.
Plot the Y-function versus pressure on a Cartesian scale.
Determine the coefficients of the best straight fit of the data, or: Y = a + bP Where, a
and b are the intercept and slope of the lines, respectively.
Table.6.6: Constant Mass Expansion Study at Reservoir Temperature
(Relative Volume and Y-Function at different pressure stages)



Pressure
(psig)
Pressure
(kg/cm
2
)
Relative Volume
(smooth)
Y
Function
(smooth)
1000 70.26 1.17 2.32
750 52.72 1.39 2.18
500 35.14 1.85 2.04
250 17.56 3.28 1.89
170 11.86 4.62 1.85
127 8.89 5.92 1.82
Page | 49

Recalculate the relative volume at all pressure below the saturation pressure from the
following expression:

6.2
Fitting an equation to a given set of data implies determining the constants a and b
such that the resulting straight line equation will closely express the relationship throughout
the range of the data. The method of least squares and method of averages can be used to
obtain the equation of the best curve which can be fitted to the measured data points. Fig 6.2
represents the plots of relative volume and Y-function against pressure.
Fig.6.2: Plots of pressure vs. relative volume and pressure vs. Y-function
6.3. MEAN OIL COMPRESSIBILITY
Oil compressibility can be obtained from the formula,

2.16
Assuming C
o
to be constant as pressure changes, we have

) 6.3
Substituting relative volume (V/V
sat
) obtained above for volume, we obtain:
Page | 50

6.4
For pressures below bubble point, oil compressibility can be calculated by the formula:

*(

+ 6.5
Table 6.7 represents the calculated values of oil compressibility. The values are calculated
using the relative volume calculated in the section before, and the pressure and system
volumes obtained in the PV study.
Table.6.7: Mean Oil Compressibility
Pressure
(psig)
Pressure
(kg/cm
2
)
System Volume
(cc)
C
o
(cc/cc/kg/cm
2
) C
o
(psi
-1
)
2000 140.62 155.1
0.000128 8.98153E-06
1900 133.59 155.2 0.000135 9.47921E-06
1800 126.56 155.3 0.000145 1.02259E-06
1700 119.54 155.5 0.000133 9.33855E-06
1601 112.56 155.6 0.000152 1.07112E-06
1500 105.46 155.8 0.000124 8.72415E-06
1397* 98.23 155.94 _ _
1390 97.75 156.1 _ --
1366 96.05 156.5 _ _
1360 95.64 157.0 _ _
1346 94.63 157.5 _ _
1325 93.13 158.0 _ _
Mean Oil Compressibility 13.33x10
-5
9.37x10
-6

*Bubble point pressure (from graph): 1397psig = 98.23 kg/cm
2

Hence, Mean Oil compressibility at reservoir temperature (above bubble point) is
determined to be 13.33x10
-5
cc/cc/kg/cm
2
(9.37x10
-6
/psi). This compressibility can be used in
material balance calculations.

Page | 51

Differential Liberation Study
A constant volume expansion test is performed on the sample. Stage gas gravity and
residual oil density are the measured values. Cumulative gas gravity, Gas FVF, Oil FVF,
Liberated and solution GOR are the calculated values. The results are as given in Table 6.8.
Table.6.8: Differential Liberation Study at Reservoir Temperature
(Gas gravity, Gas FVF (v/v), Reservoir Oil Formation Volume Factor (Bo), Reservoir Oil Density,
Solution GOR and Liberated GOR at different pressure stages)

Pressure
Stage
(psig)
Pressure
Stage
(kg/cm
2
)
Stage
Gas
Gravity
Cumulativ
e Gas
Gravity
Gas FVF
(v/v)
Res. Oil
Density
(gm/cc)
Res.Oil
FVF
(v/v)
Liberated
GOR
(v/v)
Solution
GOR
(v/v)
2400 168.74
_
_ _ 0.7256 1.2362 0 58
2200 154.68
_
_ _ 0.7242 1.2386 0 58
2000 140.62
_
_ _ 0.7228 1.2410 0 58
1900 133.59
_
_ _ 0.7223 1.2418 0 58
1700 119.52
_
_ _ 0.7209 1.2442 0 58
1500 105.46
_
_ _ 0.7195 1.2466 0 58
1397*
98.23 (Gravitational) 0.7189* 1.2468* 0 58
1150 80.85 0.7168 0.7168 0.0147 0.7204 1.2362 8 50
900 63.28 0.6882 0.7024 0.0189 0.7234 1.2226 15 43
650 45.70 0.7015 0.7020 0.0263 0.7299 1.1994 25 33
400 28.12 0.7446 0.7136 0.0419 0.7356 1.1785 35 23
150 10.55 0.8740 0.7512 0.1002 0.7432 1.1513 45 13
0 Atm. Pr. 1.4788 0.9106 1.2408 0.7649 1.0849 58 0
Page | 52

6.4. GAS GRAVITY
The specific gravity of gas, known simply as gas gravity, is defined with reference to
air. It is defined as the ratio of the density of the gas to the density of air at the same
temperature and pressure:

6.6
Most of the petroleum industry has adopted the temperature of 60F and the pressure of
14.65 psia, as standard conditions. Density is defined as mass per unit volume. Hence, gas
density is defined as:

6.7
If we assume ideal gas behavior at standard conditions, then the above equation becomes:

6.8
Similarly, the density of air is given by:

6.9
Therefore, gravity of gas can be obtained by dividing the molecular weight of gas with the
molecular weight of air.

6.10
6.5. OIL FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR
The differential oil formation volume factor Bo (commonly called the relative oil
volume factors) at all the various pressure levels are calculated by dividing the recorded oil
volumes V
L
by the volume of residual oil Vsc.
In Fig.6.3, below the bubble point pressure, the oil formation volume factor increases
with pressure. This is because more gas goes into solution as the pressure is increased
causing the oil to swell. Above the bubble point pressure, the oil formation volume factor
decreases as the pressure is increased, because there is no more gas available to go into
solution and the oil is compressed. This compression of oil is termed as shrinkage.
Page | 53

The amount of shrinkage is directly related to the amount of gas dissolved in solution
and this helps in designing the surface treating facilities.

Fig.6.3: Plot of pressure vs. Oil Formation volume factor

6.6. SOLUTION GAS-OIL RATIO
The differential solution gas-oil ratio Rs is calculated by dividing the volume of gas in
solution by the residual oil volume. Fig 6.4 represents the plots of solution and liberated GOR
against pressure.

Fig.6.4: Plots of Pressure vs. Solution and Liberated GOR
Page | 54

Solution gas oil ratio gives the type of separator to be used at the surface for high
GOR fluids, we use horizontal separators, and for low GOR fluids vertical separators are
used. We can also know the cumulative gas produced, by multiplying solution GOR with
total hydrocarbons produced at stock tank conditions and the time duration.
6.7. GAS FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR
Gas FVF is defined as the volume in barrels that one standard cubic foot of gas will
occupy as free gas in the reservoir at the prevailing pressure and temperature.

2.6
Gas expansion factor E is the inverse of the gas formation volume factor and is given as:

2.7
Fig 6.5 represents the plot of Gas formation volume factor against pressure.

Fig.6.5: Plot of pressure vs. Gas Formation volume factor
These Formation Volume Factors are used in calculations of reserves in place, to
know the best aquifer model, ratio of volume of gas cap to the volume of oil (m), and in
material balance equation to know cumulative production and recovery factor.
Page | 55

The gas liberated at each stage during differential liberation study is analyzed in
HTGC and the composition is obtained at various pressure stages is recorded as shown in
Table 6.9.
Table.6.9. Composition of Differentially liberated Gas at different pressure stages

VVVVVVV Mol.wt of
component
Pressure
Composition
1150 900 650 400 150 0
N
2

0.22 0.20 0.14 0.09 0.05 0.02 28
CO
2

1.32 1.40 1.53 1.72 1.97 1.70 44
Methane
82.51 83.95 82.39 78.15 66.20 36.52 16
Ethane
6.94 7.15 8.31 10.35 15.09 20.22 30
Propane
4.20 3.81 4.37 5.68 9.79 20.47 44
i-Butane
1.30 1.02 1.10 1.41 2.53 6.54 58
n-Butane
1.57 1.15 1.15 1.46 2.63 7.66 58
i-Pentane
0.72 0.45 0.39 0.45 0.76 3.34 72
n-Pentane
0.74 0.47 0.37 0.42 0.67 2.82 72
C
6+
0.48 0.40 0.26 0.26 0.30 0.70 86+
Sum
100 100 100 100 100 100

6.8. GAS COMPRESSIBILITY
The volume of gas evolved at each stage of differential liberation process is measured
at the temperature and pressure of the PVT cell (reservoir conditions, R). The volume of the
gas is also measured at standard conditions (atmospheric pressure and 60F, sc). Gas
compressibility factor is calculated from these volumes as:

6.12
It can also be calculated from the gas expansion factor as:
7

2.7
Volume %
Page | 56

Table 6.10 represents the compositions of produced well streams at different pressures
during differential study. This data can be useful to know the composition and also to predict
the behavior of reservoir fluid during reservoir depletion.
Table.6.10: Compositions of Produced Well Streams at Different Pressures during Differential
Study- Mole Percent
Pressure Step
(psi)/
Components
1150 900 650 400 150 0

Residual
Oil
N2 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
CO2 0.66 0.63 0.59 0.51 0.41 0.25 0.00
C1 27.26 24.45 21.21 16.13 11.09 5.38 0.00
C2 5.08 4.99 4.87 4.59 4.12 2.98 0.00
C3 3.86 3.85 3.85 3.81 3.65 3.02 0.00
iC4 1.16 1.15 1.16 1.16 1.14 1.00 0.04
nC4 1.31 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.31 1.17 0.05
iC5 0.61 0.60 0.61 0.63 0.65 0.63 0.17
nC5 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.54 0.55 0.53 0.14
C6 1.25 1.30 1.35 1.44 1.55 1.68 1.87
C7 2.86 3.01 3.17 3.43 3.70 4.08 4.76
C8 4.54 4.77 5.03 5.45 5.89 6.50 7.61
C9 6.55 6.88 7.26 7.86 8.50 9.38 11.00
C10 4.29 4.50 4.75 5.14 5.56 6.14 7.20
C11 3.20 3.37 3.55 3.84 4.16 4.59 5.38
C12 3.68 3.87 4.08 4.42 4.78 5.28 6.19
C13 3.60 3.79 3.99 4.32 4.68 5.16 6.05
C14 3.44 3.62 3.81 4.13 4.47 4.93 5.78
C15 2.37 2.49 2.62 2.84 3.07 3.39 3.97
C16 2.40 2.52 2.66 2.88 3.12 3.44 4.04
C17 2.84 2.98 3.15 3.41 3.69 4.07 4.77
C18 2.20 2.32 2.44 2.65 2.86 3.16 3.70
C19 2.04 2.14 2.26 2.44 2.64 2.91 3.42
C20 1.92 2.02 2.13 2.31 2.49 2.75 3.23
C20+ 12.28 12.90 13.61 14.73 15.93 17.58 20.62
Page | 57

6.9. OIL VISCOSITY
Viscosity is measured at various pressure stages using capillary viscometer and the
results are as given in Table 6.11. Fig 6.6 represents the plot of oil viscosity against pressure.
Table.6.11: Reservoir Oil Viscosity at different pressure stage (At Reservoir Temperature)
Pressure (psig)
Pressure (kg/cm
2
)
Viscosity (cp)
2750 193.35 0.9791
2500 175.77 0.9656
2250 158.19 0.9479
2000 140.62 0.9287
1750 123.04 0.9095
1397* 98.23 0.8828*
1200 84.37 1.0220
900 63.28 1.1101
600 42.19 1.2495
300 21.09 1.3716
0 0.00 1.7731
*Bubble point pressure (from graph): 1397psig = 98.23 kg/cm
2


Fig.6.6: Plot of Pressure vs. Oil Viscosity
Page | 58

Depending on the viscosity of the fluid sample, the type of crude can be known; and
based on this the best field development/recovery method can be adopted. (Steam flooding,
in-situ combustion etc.). Using viscosity, mobility ratio of either oil gas or water can be
calculated and based on this mobility the relative permeability can be calculated.
Oil Characteristics
Pour Point : 36
o
C
Water Content : Nil
DISTILLATION PROFILE(Using High Temperature Simulated Distillation)
o I. B. P. : 68
o
C
o Recovery Details : Table 6.12 gives the distillation characteristics of the sample.

Table.6.12: Distillation Characteristics
% Recovery Temperature Range (
o
C)
5 125.8
10 160
20 216.4
30 259.2
40 301.1
50 333.1
60 370.5
70 407.4
80 439.5
90 480.6
95.8 525.1

SARA ANALYSIS OF RESIDUAL OIL (>250
o
C) (Using TLC/FID Analyzer)
o Saturates : 86.2%
o Aromatics : 6.8%
o Resins : 4.9%
o Asphaltenes : 2.1%
Page | 59

Summary of PVT Data
Reported Reservoir Conditions
Initial/Current Reservoir Pressure, kg/cm
2

135.7 (1930 psig)
Reservoir Temperature,
o
C
85 (185
o
F)
Pressure-Volume Relations
Saturation Pressure, kg/cm
2
98.23 (1397 psig)
Oil Compressibility (between 135.7 kg/cm
2
& 98.23
kg/cm
2
), at reservoir temperature, cc/cc/kg/cm
2

13.33x10
-5
(9.37x10
-6
/psi)
Single Stage Flash Study (at 2100 psig)
Flash GOR, v/v 65
Flash FVF at 2100 psig, v/v 1.260
Flash FVF at Reservoir Pressure, v/v 1.261
Flash FVF at Pb, v/v 1.266
Reservoir Oil Density, gm/cc 0.7223
Stock Tank Oil Density at 15.5
o
C, gm/cc 0.8315
Gas Gravity of flash liberated gas 0.9889 (gravitational)
Shrinkage (%) at Reservoir Pressure 20.70
Mean Gas Solubility, cc/cc/kg/cm
2
0.6602
Differential Vaporization Data
Solution Gas/Oil Ratio, v/v 58
Differential FVF at P
b
, v/v 1.247

API of Dead Oil 38.84

Dead Oil Density at 15.5
o
C, gm/cc 0.8299
Gas Gravity of differentially liberated gas 0.9106
Thermal Expansion Coefficient of dead oil at 500
psig between 40
o
C and 85
o
C
8.7 x 10
-4

Viscosity Data
Viscosity at Reservoir condition (135.7 kg/cm
2
& 85
o
C), cp 0.9205
Viscosity at Saturation Pressure (98.2 kg/cm
2
& 85
o
C), cp 0.8828
Dead oil Viscosity at 14.7 psia & 85
o
C, cp 1.7731
Page | 60


7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ali Danesh : PVT and Phase Behavior of Petroleum Reservoir Fluids -
1998
Emil J. Burcik : Properties of Petroleum Reservoir Fluids -1979
Tarek Ahmed : Reservoir Engineering Handbook, Third Edition-2006
James W. Amyx, Daniel M. Bass Jr., Robert L. Whiting: Petroleum
Reservoir Engineering - 1960
William D. McCain Jr.: Properties of Petroleum Fluids, Second
Edition-1990
L.P.Dake : Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering -1978
http://www.google.com
http://www.ipt.ntnu.no/~curtis/courses/PVT-Flow/2013-TPG4145/e-
notes/PVT-Papers/Hydro%20PVT%20Manual%20Chap%203.pdf
Reservoir-Fluid Sampling Revisited- A Practical Perspective (SPE paper)
https://www.onepetro.org/journal-paper/SPE-101037-PA