UNIT 2

TYPES OF SOCIETIES/ECONOMIES DURING PRIMITIVE PERIOD

EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRY
Introduction
o Types of productive system were never the same over different periods of history. Today, we
are in the post-industrialism stage.
o Modern industrialism represents a phase in the development of human knowledge concerning
industry.
o This is called complex because the tools or instruments used are more sophisticated. This
may be further divided into early industry and modem industry.
o Modem industry originated during the Industrial Revolution in the second half of the 18th
century.
Early Industrialism
o The productive system found in most of the early civilizations and in many pre-literate
societies can be called early industrialism.
o Some of the features of early industrialism are :

1. The Use of Tools and Machines:
2. Excess Production:
3. The Division of Labour:
4. Means of Transport and Development of Market:
5. Development of Arts and Crafts:
6. The Art of Writing:
7. Use of Money:
8. Acquisition of Raw Materials:
9. Refinement of Goods:

The socio-economic organization of the western society prior to the Industrial Revolution
could be divided into three different systems. They are
i) The manorial system,
ii) The guild system and
iii) The domestic system.

Economies and societies during ancient time Food production is the main economic activity
and can be subdivided according to the level of technology and the method of producing food.
.Preindustrial societies are divided into their method of producing food:
Hunting and Gathering
Pastoral Societies
Horticultural Societies
Agricultural Societies

Hunting and Gathering- o
Characteristics:
*aCollect food daily by-Hunting wild animals, Collecting wild fruit and vegetables
*Everyone hunts and gathers
*Constantly move in search of food
*Usually live in temporary housing-Huts, tepees
*Small in population
*Cooperation and sharing are key features
*No social class- Because everything is based on sharing, there is little understanding of private
property or ownership of goods
*Family is the only institution
* Division of labor is based on sex and age
Pastoral Societies-
Characteristics:
In pastoral societies, food is obtained primarily by raising and taking care of animals.
Migration still needed, but with some permanent villages
Male dominated
More complex division of labor
Trade possible
Division of labor - Because there are food surpluses, individuals within the group become
specialized at specific economic tasks
A horticultural society
Characteristics:
More permanent settlements
Multicommunity societies
Family more key
More complex division of labor
Trade possible
Horticultural and - Grow food in farms
Have high level of technology Use slash and burn tactics for crops
Wild vegetation is burned
Ash turns into compost for new farming.
Large division of labor
Strictly because of surplus of food
Agricultural Societies (Agrarian societies)
Agrarian societies are societies which are based upon crops which are produced by using the
ploughs. It further refers to any form of society especially traditional society primarily based on
agricultural and craft production rather than industrial production. Agriculture became the
primary source of life. Land became a private property.
Characteristics:
Developed large-scale agriculture
Large division of labor
Peasants are the largest class (50 % or more of population)
An agricultural society subsists by growing food, but with the use of plows and animals.
More food per unit of land due to the plow
Cities develop
Other occupations appear
Government replaces the family group
King or emperor rules
Economy based on trade
Monetary system develops
Separation between religion and government
Agricultural Societies: a society that uses plows and animals to grow food.
peoples pursue non-economic activities: education, politics, occupations not tied to
agriculture.
Compared to horticultural and pastoral societies, they are wealthier and have a higher degree
of conflict and of inequality.
Industrial Societies -
Features of industrial societies
-Emphasis shifts from production of food to manufactured goods.
-Industrial Society leads to urbanization
- Industrial societies are based on using machines (particularly fuel-driven ones) to produce
goods.
-Cultural diversity increased
-Social power moved into the hands of business elites and governmental officials, leading to
struggles between industrialists and workers.
-Labor unions and welfare organizations formed in response to these disputes and concerns over
workers' .
-Rapid changes in industrial technology
- faster means of transportation.
-Less than 10% of population is involved in food production
-Very detailed division of labor (gender roles remain)

Feudal or manorial system
Feudalism, is a term which means, an economic system based on Lordship (ownership) of vast
Land (also known as the manor or estate), owned by a senior lord, who gave the right of
cultivation (fief) to a lower rank of people called the vassals, who in return paid a stipulated
amount from the harvests or from services rendered or later on through money, to the Lord of
the manor.
Feudal Hierarchy/Manorial Hierarchy

*provide military services Kings *grant land
* provide king with a counsel * maintained the land
* pay homage and fealty to king * provide shield money
for
maintenance of army
Tenants -in- chief
* provide military services * Grant land
*pay dues * maintained the land
* give farm produce Knights * Provide protection to vassals

* give services *Give land for work
* give farm produce Serfs * provide shelter
*cultivate the land of lord *provide protection from
outside attacks
The classes of feudal system are:
1) King - At the apex in the feudal pyramid were the kings. All the land in the kingdom belonged
to king and hence king was on the top of the hierarchical structure.
2) Tenant-in-chief or Barons, bishops(LORDS)- The tenants in chief were required to perform
certain ceremonies of homage, before king could handover the land to them. They were required
to take oath that they will serve the kingdom and the king faithfully and will perform their due
services throughout their life. The kings required these tenants in chiefs to be always ready to
fight for the king, and were also expected to bring along certain number of knights depending on
the size of the war.
Rights and duties of lords
(1) Right to military service from the vassal/ knights.
(2) Right to take back the fief for breach of the feudal oath, or if the vassal dies without an heir
(3) Right to control marriages in vassals family
(4) Right to other services and payments from the vassal
Duties of lords/Tenant-in-chief
(1)The main duty of lords was to provide protection to vassals and peasants. This protection
extended to the family members of vassals as well, even after a vassal's death.
(2) Lords settled the disputes that happened on his land. He would also decide on punishments
and penalties.
(3)Nobles in feudal Europe also served as a kind of middle management for the king in terms of
economic and agricultural management.
(4) Duty to honor and protect the vassals Rights and Privileges
(5) Duty to govern and administer law on lands within the boundary of the fief.
(6) Duty to divide the fief between his knights
(7) Duty to attend the royal court and provide the king with counsel on important matters
3. Knights(vassals)- Knights were the fighters in the war, and were under tenants as per the
European feudal hierarchy. They also gave some parts of their land to peasants for services, and
in this way they became able to support and sustain themselves. Knights were professional
warriors who served in the lord's army. In return, the lord provided the knight with lodging, food,
armor, weapons, horses and money.
Rights of Knights(vassals)
(1) Getting land from lords
(2) getting protection by lords
(3) getting taxes and other dues from peasants

Duties of Knights(vassals):
(1) Duty to be loyal to the lord (and the king, if not one and the same)
(2) Duty to protect the lord and serve in the lords army (and the kings army)
(3) Duty to attend the lords court, judge cases between vassals, and settle judicial disputes by
combat on behalf of the lord
(4) Duty to pay a ransom if the lord is captured.
(5) Duty to help make a dowry (with money or gift of land) when the lords daughter marries
4 Peasants(Serfs) -After knights came the lowest category or class of people in the feudal
system the peasants. The responsibility of peasants was to farm the land and provide food
supplies to the whole kingdom. In return of land they were either required to serve the knight or
pay rent for the land. Duty of Peasants-
(1) to cultivate the land of lord
(2) Paid taxes to the lord.
(3) Were responsible for nearly everything involved in maintaining their lord's property.
(4) Working the fields of his lord was the main duty of a serf.
(5) In addition to their other duties, serfs could be called on at any time by the lord to work.
The serfs could be forced to do anything from building a wall to digging.
(6) In the direst situations, serfs could be called upon to fight for their lord.
Rights of peasants/serfs
(1) The peasants were protected from outside attacks.
(2) The large amount of land surrounding the castle provided a means for peasants to
acquire enough money and food to live by farming.
(3) They also had the privilege of passing their land on through inheritance after their
deaths.
Manorialism Manorial System, is the political, economic, and social system by which peasants
of medieval Europe were made dependent on their land and on their lord derived from the word
manor. Its basic unit was the manor, a self-sufficient stationary estate, or fief that was under the
control of a lord who enjoyed a variety of rights over it and the peasants attached to it by means
of serfom. The manorial system was the most convenient device for organizing the estates of the
aristocracy and the clergy in the European Middle Ages.
Decline of the Feudal system
(1)Economic growth in the medieval age gave impetus to commerce and industry in urban .This
growth together with the new agricultural structure of industrial farms invited most of the
population to go and work in the urban areas.
(2) New trade options opened in England .The spread of trade and money economy promised
greater profit in craft and other production rather in feudal system.
(3)Revolt by the serfs which realized their power and demanded changes.
(4)With increase in population and growth of trade, cities developed. Peasants moved to towns in
search of freedom and jobs.
(5)At that time England started to move from land based economy to money based economy due
to which feudal levy(military services that was given in exchange of land) became outdated and
vassals preferred to pay the lord rather than to fight for him.
(6) The rise of powerful monarchs in France, Spain and England broke down local
administration of the kings of local area and development of centralized monarchies.
(7) increase in demands of growing population.
GUILD SYSTEM
The guilds were association of craftsmen or merchant in particular trade. Thus there were guilds
of blacksmiths, carpenter, weaver etc.
Both employer and employees were members of the guild e.g. weaver who was the master of
the shop and the worker who weaved the cloth both were members of guild.
The membership of guild was compulsory as the product reached the market through guilds.
There were three classes in guild i.e. masters, apprentice and journeymen.
Apprentice He was untrained worker who received training under master for 3 to 7 years
.After getting training under a master for several years ,and after producing a qualifying piece of
work, the apprentice was granted the rank of journeymen and was given documents which
certified him as journeymen .Both master and apprentice had certain rights and duties. The duty
of master was to grant skill to the apprentice for producing goods, he also provided certain
necessary things to him. The master had the right to discipline him and relationship between
them was that of father and son. On the other hand apprentice obeyed the master and was loyal to
him. He had the right to leave the master if terms and conditions of apprentice were not met.
Journeymen After completing the training under master apprentice becomes a journeymen.
A journeymen was fully trained worker who due to certain reasons could not become master. He
worked under master and received wages from him.
Masters-After several year of experience journeymen could become master. This would require
approval of all masters of guild, a donation of money and production of a masterpiece .They
were controllers or managers of guild. He owned the shop and hired workers (journeymen).He
worked along with workers in his shop. Masters received there positions not by investing capital
but because they could produce a master-piece.
Guilds were not purely economic institutions but it also promoted the welfare of its
members. The sick and disabled members were looked after and financially weak
members were helped by guilds.
The guilds were located in towns.
The various classes of guild were regulated through strict rules and regulations, for
which guild assembly was constituted. All members of the guild assembly met
annually to discuss rules and regulations to monitor guild. The official head of the
guild assembly was known as warden. The warden held the office for one year after
which another member was elected as warden. The warden punished those members
which did not follow he rules. This warden also regulated the relationship between
apprentice, journeymen and masters.
Guild promoted equality among its members.
Guild prevented monopoly of masters as the decision regarding how much to
produce, how much wages to be paid to journeymen, how many journeymen and
apprentice to employ and decisions regarding technological change was universally
taken by all members of guild.
There was no technical specialization in guild which means that worker has to
produce the entire product e.g. guilds producing cloths did not specialize in particular
process like spinning, weaving, dyeing but the entire cloth was produced by one
person.
In order to prevent competition the prices of the product were regulated by guild and
no outsiders i.e any one who was not the member of guild was not allowed to place
his product in the market.
Guilds promoted welfare of customers by producing standard quality goods.
Guild system was stable as it produced necessary items rather than luxuries.
There was two types of guild :
Merchant guild-it was association of merchants engaged in particular trade in particular
locality. It protected the interest of the merchants and avoided competition amongst them. It
regulated the conduct of its members by prohibiting unfair trade practices.
Craft Guild-It was association of skilled artisans engaged in same occupation. It prescribed
standards of working and further controlled the conduct of its members.

Decline of guild system

The journeymens were not allowed to become masters, in fact mastership
became hereditary. Journey were prevented from becoming masters in following
ways:
(i) The period of apprenticeship was increased.
(ii) high fees was demanded by masters for training apprentice
(iii) Masters did not grant the full knowledge of making commodity to apprentice so he could not
produce masterpiece and that is why he could not become master.
Internal conflict started in guild between master and journeymen. Journeymens
formed their unions to protect their interest. The poor relationship between master
and journeymen led to intervention of town authorities which weakened the
power and autonomy of guild.
Guild restricted technological innovation, business development and
technological transfer which restricted output.
The wealth accumulated in the hands of monopolistic masters. In some cases this
wealth was used by masters to employ workers outside the guild and in some
cases wealthy masters gained full control over guilds and excluded other guild
members from voting in assembly. Thus masters gained full control over
techniques, tools and quality of products.
The monopolist masters were interested in producing products quickly and at
cheap rate. Due to this various sub-guilds developed .Thus in textile making
earlier one guild or worker produced the entire textile now there were sub-guilds
of textile like weaving guild, spinning guild, dyeing guild etc. Due to this there
started conflict in sub-guilds and guild controlling the final stage of production
flourished at the expense of others.
Besides the internal factors certain external factors like expansion of market
beyond local limit also led to decline of guild system. This increased the demands
of the goods which could not be met by traditional guilds since they did not allow
technological change.
Due to rising demand local craft had to depend upon importers of raw material.
Now the guilds produced goods not for customers but for merchants who
provided them raw material.
The demand of new products started increasing as market of manufactured goods
widened particularly overseas. The manufacturing of these products required
expensive imported raw materials, new tools and technique which guilds could
not bear. Hence the merchants who had the capital purchased the raw material and
provided this to independent workers and received finished products from them
and paid wages to them.
Difference between Feudal and Guild system
1. Feudal system is based on agriculture mode of production whereas guild is based on handicraft
mode of production.
2. The classes of feudal system are king, lords, knights and peasants where as classes of guild are
apprentice, journeymen and masters
3. There is reciprocal relationship between different classes of feudal where as it is not in guild
system
4. Feudal is rural based economy whereas guild is urban based.
5. Social structure of feudal is static whereas the structure of guild is dynamic
6. Feudal economy is subsistence whereas of economy of guild is dependent
7. There is no social mobility between different classes of feudal whereas in guild system there is
social mobility between different classes.
8. Feudal economy is barter economy whereas guild is money economy.
9. In feudal system there is inequality whereas in guild there is equality.
10. In feudal status is determined by birth whereas in guild it is determined by skills
DOMESTIC SYSTEM OR PUTTING OUT SYSTEM
Domestic system is a system of production where goods are produced at the home of worker.
This system flourished during middle of 15
th
century to middle of 18
th
century.
The Putting-out or Domestic System
The Putting-out or Domestic System is mode of production where goods are produced at
the home of workers. In this system merchant provides raw material to workers at their
home and worker after making products give it to merchants and in return worker receives
wages.
REASONS FOR EMERGENCE OF DOMESTIC SYSTEM
1. Guild system became inadequate and costly to meet the increasing demand of goods.
2. Domestic and foreign markets were continuously increasing demands for military
products but the guild system existed with its traditional techniques.
3.Under the above circumstances merchants masters had two options over guilds first to
monopolies guilds and other was to move to rural areas where surplus labour was available
due to breaking of feudal system.
4. Although the labour in rural areas was unskilled, but due to introduction of new
techniques work could be easily done.
5. Expasion of market with increase in trade led to increase in demand which could not be
met by guild system.
6. Internal conflict between guilds also led to development of domestic system.
Features of Putting-out or Domestic System
1. There are two classes worker and merchant and worker
2. Relation between worker and merchant is contractual.
3. Domestic mode of production was informal.
4. All family members of worker worked with him.
5. There was inequality in this system.
6. Goods were produce in homes of worker.
7. The worker was his own master descions regarding production was taken by him.
8.This system developed during 17
th
and 18
th
century.
9. This system was used in the production of cloth, ironware, pins, pots etc.
10. The working of the domestic system can be explained with the help of following
diagram:

sells

Pay wages Provide Raw material
and tools
Provide
Finished
products

(Works at home)
Advantage or merit s of Putting-out or Domestic System
1. This system led to economic development in Europe.
2. Technological changes were allowed which led to use of new techniques of production.
3. Workers could work at their home and at their own speed.
4. This system provided opportunity to merchants to bypass guild which was rigid system
as technological changes could not be easily done.
5. Domestic system was flexible.
6. It gave opportunity to women to work at home.
7. It provided opportunity to serfs to free themselves from feudal ties.
8. It increased the earnings of peasants which improved their quality of life.
9. The scale of production was large in comparison to guild.
Decline or disadvantage of Putting-out or Domestic System
1. It was extremely difficult to supervise the labour that was scattered.
2. The labour supply was uncertain and shifting.
3. The system proved to be a time consuming one as merchant had to spend too much time in
travelling for providing raw material to workers and collecting manufactured products.
4. The domestic system did not favour specialization or complex division of labour.
market
Worker
Merchant
5. It was almost impossible for the merchant to meet the ever increasing demand for goods.
6. Various inventions like spinning jenny, spinning mule, power loom etc. mechanized the
production of goods which could meet the increasing demand. These machines were large
and costly and therefore it could not be installed at the home of workers.
7. It was difficult to confirm to the uniform standard of production.
8. This system was inefficient as the techniques of production were old and it was difficult to
supervise the labour.
9. The place of work was unhealthy with little sunshine and air.


Industrialization
Industrialisation is the process of social , technological and economic change whereby a society
get transformed from a pre-industrial society into an industrial one.
Industrialisation is a wider economic growth process where social change and economic
development are closely related with technological innovation.
The process of industrialization is closely linked with the modernization of society. The
indicators of Industrialisation are the percentage of the labour force employed in the
manufacturing and service sector as compared to the agriculture sector.
Industrialisation is a socio-economic process of change marked by complex division of labour ,
domination of factory system and mechanization of work, universal application of scientific
method to problem solving , dominance of rational ideas and socially and geographically
mobile labour force.
Industrialisation also introduces a form of philosophical change where people obtain a different
attitude towards life i.e. rational attitude.

Factors promoting Industrialization / causes of Industrialization
1. Growth of population and increase in demand for products.
2. High capabilities in applied science and technological innovation.
3. High level of functional specialization and autonomy of economic systems from
government.
4. Abundant natural resources of various kinds.
5. Plentiful supply of relatively low cost , skilled and adaptable labour.
6. Favorable political-legal environment for industry and commerce.
7. Relatively open trading system with low duties on imports which stimulate industrial cost
efficiency and innovations.
8. Rapid learning capabilities among masses
9. Positive work ethics in populations at large, combined with skills in quickly utilizing new
technologies and scientific discoveries.
10. Expansion of market
11. ( Add features of factory system)


Characteristics of Industrialization
1. Industrialization involves production of goods and services on large scale.
2. In Industrialized society goods and commodities are produced by machines
3. Industrialization involves application of scientific methods in Industry inorder to improve
productivity and quality.
4. It leads to complex division of labour and specialization of work.
5. There is increase in social and geographical mobility of a labour.
6. Industrialization is characterized by process of urbanization.
7. Development of materialistic culture in society.
8. Rapid increase in international trade.
9. Dominance of nuclear families.
10. Growth of new classes of technical and professional employees.
11. Increase in national income and per capita income
12. Revolution in transport and communication.
13. Large proportion of population employed in secondary and tertiary sector of economy.
14. Dominance of rational ideas in society.
15. Availability of standardized products in market.
16. Increase in research in development.
17. Increase in education level of masses.
18. There is importance of achieved status rather than ascribed status.

Positive and negative impact of Industrialisation
Positive impact
1. Large scale production
2. Increase in standard of living
3. Rise in income of people
4. Increase in purchasing power of people
5. Increase in national income
6. Increase in education of level
7. Increase in trade
8. People became rational and scientific in their outlook
9. Disintegration of caste system
10. Religious tolerance
11. Political awareness
12. Better status of women
13. Existence of secular state
14. It absorbs surplus labour force.
15. It encourages growth of infrastructure
16. It meets the high demand of consumers by increasing production level.

negative impact
1. Concentration of wealth in few hands, so it has created economic inequality in society.
2. Unemployment of unskilled labour force
3. Increase in the level of industrial disputes
4. Commercialization of recreation
5. Increase in crime, corruption and competition
6. Environmental degradation
7. Urbanization, which is leading to problem of housing and results in increase in slum
areas
8. Break up of joint family
9. Decline of social control
10. Decline in community life and decline in feeling of sociability.

Impact of Industrialization on various Social Institutions
Impact of Mechanisation
When mechanization was introduced in industry, the machine was a device which directly
performed some industrial task, without direct human intervention.
Technological and scientific advances supplied the necessary conditions for mechanization. The
expansion of domestic and foreign market and growing demand of military promoted
mechanization.
Increased profibility of industry as well as improved commercial and financial conditions resulted in the
accumulation or large amounts of capital available for further investment in mechanization.
Effects of mechanization on social relations of work
1. The flow of work from machine to machine determined with whom a worker would have social
contacts as well as form and duration of such contacts.
2. The more automatic and stationary the machine, the fewer were the social contacts.
3. The noise of machine inhibits the social interaction.
4. Mechanization led to appearance of one class of workers who operated the machines, and other
class who supervised the machines.
5. Such new divisions led to new type of social relations, new power relations, new forms of
communication and new informal relationships.
Psychological effects of mechanization
1. The machine reduces the skill of the worker and destroys the need for skill in the process.
2. It standardized and reutilized work, making it repetitious.
3. The worker is exposed to the danger of monotony and boredom.
4. The worker was dominated by the meaninglessness of work and by a lack of interest in his job.
5. The machines caused a feeling of job insecurity among the workers.
Impact on Marriage
1. Marriage as a social contract
2. Higher age at marriage
3. Practice of non marrying
4. Practice of love marriage
5. Increase in divorce rate


Impact on Family
1. Role of family has changed and the process of socialization, education , rearing of
children and recreation takes place outside the family.
2. Breaking up of joint family
3. Emerging of nuclear family
4. Status of women has improved
5. Disintegration of family in urban society

Impact on Caste System
1. Disintegration of caste system and coming up of class system
2. Reduction in the influence of Brahmanism
3. Abolition of caste based function
4. Division of Labour based on specialization and not based on caste
5. Dilution of caste based code of conduct
6. Abolition of untouchability
7. Increase in Inter caste marriage


Impact on Social Stratification (i.e. division in society in different stratas is on the basis of
:-)
1. Occupation
2. Education
3. Income
4. Birth

Impact on Religion
1. decline of superstitious beliefs
2. development of Religious Tolerance
3. Emergence of secular state I.e. equal status is given to all religion, state will
not promote any particular religion and a person is free to practice any
religion.

Impact on Morals
1. Increase in rational outlook
2. Increase in materialistic outlook
3. Increase in individualism and decrease in community feeling
4. Increase in rate of crimes
5. Loosening of social control over individuals


Factory System
The Factory system superseded the Domestic system because of the economy of scale and
standardized product. Factory is a organized work place where non human means of production
are appropriated by the owner, where there is internal specialization of functions, where
mechanical power and machines are used.
Factory system as a method of manufacturing was first adopted in England.
Factory system is a system which gathered a number of workers under one roof, provided them
with tools and materials, supervised and trained them and paid cash wages .
Rational mentality was required fot the Factory System which is applied in manufacturing. The
factory system was a new way of organizing labour.

Factors that led to the emergence of factory System
The social , economic , technological and economic factors led to the emergence of the Factory
system.


The social factor which led to the emergence of factory system are:-
1. Raional Outlook
2. High degree of social mobility
3. Value of individualism
4. Modern values, norms and social institutions.
5. Increasing occupational differentiation
6. Growth of scientific knowledge
7. Secularization of belief
8. Transformation of the traditional social system into modern one.


Economic Factors
1. Increase in trade activities
2. Expansion of market
3. Increase in demand of product
4. Decline of the proportion of working population engaged in agriculture
5. Monetisation of economy
6. Development of capitalism


Technological Factors
1. Use of power driven machines
2. Development of maens of transport and communication
3. Scientific invention and new technological development
4. Invention of steam engine
5. Mechanical invention like steam spinning jenny, water frame , mule spinner
and power loom.
6. Revolution in iron making
7. Development of coal mining


Political Factors
1. Emergence of state
2. Development of democratic political institution
3. Political awareness.



Characteristics of Factory System
1. Large scale production
2. Mechanization
3. Automation
4. Management information system
5. Specialization
6. Standardization
7. Growth of industrial areas
8. Expansion of international trade
9. Research and development for innovation new products and ideas to decrease
cost of production, increasing quality and consumer satisfaction and raising
the standard of living of the people.
10. Cut throat Competition
11. A continuous and conscious inventing process