Chapter I

Theories of translation
Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by
means of an equivalent target-language text. Whereas interpreting undoubtedly antedates
writing, translation began only after the appearance of written literature; there exist
partial translations of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh ca. !""" #$%& into Southwest
'sian languages of the second millennium #$%. The word translation derives from the
(atin translatio which itself comes from trans- and fero, together meaning )to carry
across) or )to bring across)&. The modern *omance languages use words
for translation derived from that source and from the alternative (atin traduco )to lead
across)&. The +ermanic except ,utch& and Slavic languages li-ewise use calques based
on these (atin sources
.
.
The 'ncient +ree- term for translation, /012345678 metaphrasis, )a spea-ing
across)&, has supplied %nglish with metaphrase a )literal,) or )word-for-word,)
translation& 9 as contrasted with paraphrase )a saying in other words), from
:542345678, paraphrases&. Metaphrase corresponds, in one of the more recent
terminologies, to )formal equivalence); and paraphrase, to )dynamic equivalence .)
Strictly spea-ing, the concept of metaphrase 9 of )word-for-word translation) 9 is an
imperfect concept, because a given word in a given language often carries more than one
meaning; and because a similar given meaning may often be represented in a given
language by more than one word. ;evertheless, )metaphrase) and )paraphrase) may be
useful as ideal concepts that mar- the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to
translation.
The translator, before being a <writer= as such, is primarily a <message
conveyor.= >n most cases, translation is to be understood as the process whereby a
message expressed in a specific source language is linguistically transformed in order to
be understood by readers of the target language. Therefore, no particular adapting wor- is
usually required from the translator, whose wor- essentially consists of conveying the
meaning expressed by the original writer.
.
Sofer, ?orry; The Translator Handbook; Schreiber @ublishing A.S.'., pag. B>
."
%veryone -nows, for instance, that legal translation leaves little room for
adaptation and rewriting. Similarly, when it comes to translating insurance contracts,
style-related concerns are not paramount to the translating process; what the end reader
needs is a translated text that is faithful to the source text in meaning, regardless of
stylistic prowess from the translator.
Cet, in a number of cases, the translator faces texts which are to be used within a
process of <active communication= and the impact of which often depends on the very
wording of the original text. >n these specific cases, the translator sometimes finds it
necessary to reconsider the original wording in order to both better understand the source
text this also sometimes occurs in plain technical texts& and be able to render it in the
target language. This is the moment when the translator becomes an active lin- in the
communication chain, the moment when his communication s-ills are called upon to
enhance the effect of the original message
!
.
Translation means to move a shape, without rotating or flipping it. )Sliding= and
the shape still loo-s exactly the same, Dust in a different place. >n +eometry, )Translation)
simply means moving.
When we translate boo-s, texts, paragraphs etc., translation means rendering of
something into another language or into oneEs own language from another, a version in a
different language, the act or process of translating, the state of being translated, a
written communication in a second language having the same meaning as the
written communication in a first language. The translation process here becomes to foldF
firstly, the translator needs to detect potential discrepancies and flaws in the original text
and understand the meaning they intend to convey. To do this, the translator often needs
to contact the writer of the text to be translated or any other person who is familiar with
the contents of the text& in order to clarify the ambiguities he has come across. Secondly,
once this first part of the wor- is over, the translator will undo the syntactic structure of
the original text and then formulate the corresponding message in the target language,
thus giving the original text added value in terms of both wording and impact. >t is
important to stress that this wor- will always be carried out in cooperation with the
!
Sofer, ?orry; The Translator Handbook; Schreiber @ublishing A.S.'.
..
original writer, so that the translator can ma-e sure the translated message corresponds to
the meaning the writer originally intended to convey; remember, the translator is
essentially a message conveyor, not an author.
G
Translation is an intricate process which is central to our understanding of the
world. #ecause of its all-pervasive nature, it is far from easy to describe this complex
phenomenon
H
.
Translation is also a crucial human activity of a profoundly transformative nature.
Ience, some statements on translation eulogiJe its potential humanitarian and political
frontiers, and of uniting different nations. >n a time of rapid and radical social change, no
understanding or communication is possible without translation.
Translation theory is the <traditional= name that was given to the general
-nowledge about translation. ;owadays, this term, as a name for a differently oriented
discipline, has become somehow obsolete being mainly associated with the old
normative, but also prescriptive writings on the ways in which good literally translations
could be achieved. They belong to authors and translators such as ?artin (uther .KG"&,
%tienne ,olet .KH"&, Lohn ,ryden .MN"& 'lexander Tytler .OP!&, Qriederich
Schleiermacher .N.G&, Lohann Wolfgang von +oethe .N.P& etc. Seen from this
perspective, translation theory is as old as the practice itself and covers considerable part
of the !"
th
century as well, with the names of Walter #enaDamin .P!K&, +eorge Steiner
.POK&, (ouis Relly .POP& and many others. ?ore and more individual scholars or
representatives of various schools tend to refer to their field as translation studies, a more
flexible term, which better and compasses the variety of approaches to translation and
better suggests the interdisciplinarity of the subDect. *omanian will probably adopt=
traductologie= as a more suitable term for the status of the new subDect.
The term <translation studies= was coined by Lames Iolmes, a scholar belonging
to the (ow $ountries +roup, in a seminal paper presented in .PO! at the G
rd
>nternational
$onference of 'pplied (inguistics in $openhagen, <The ;ame and ;ature of Translation
G
Qederic- Ioubert,Translation Journal,Translation as a Communication rocess,Bol.!,;o.G,Luly .PPN,
pag. !M
H
Ieylen, *omana (eona; Theories of Translation! "rom #ormative $pproach to%ards &ocio'Cultural
(escription; The Aniversity of >owa, .PNO, pag..
.!
Studies=. Ie even suggested a map of the discipline with all the branches it had to
include, which still wor-s as a landmar- for the research underta-en by some scholars
today
K
F
Translation studies
'&@ure #&'pplied
Theoretical ,escriptive
+eneral @artial @roduct @rocess Qunction Transl. Transl. Transl.
Sriented Sriented Sriented Training 'ids $riticism
?edium 'rea *an- Text-Type Time @roblem
*estricted *estricted *estricted *estricted *estricted *estricted
>n more recent years and for primarily methodological reasons 'mparo Iurtado
'lbir .PPH, .PPM passim& has revised IolmesTs schema so as to better outline the
position of the three main branches of translation studies theoretical, descriptive and
applied, with the descriptive branch holding a central place&, the close connections
between them as well as the concrete types of research that can be either general or
partial& they can engender. Ier diagram reproduced in an adapted from here, is also a
valuable tool for integrating and connecting various -inds of research already underta-en
in the discipline.
Translation is <the substation of a text in one language for a text in another
language=L.$.$atford .PMK&;TTan attempt to replace a written messageU statement by the
same messageUstatement in another languageTT@.;ewmar- .PN.&.Translating means= to
reproduce in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence in the source language
message ,first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.=%. ;ida .PMH&.
K
,imitriu, *odica Theories and ractice of Translation, >nstitutul %uropean !""!, pag. ."
.G
Translation has also been defined as a <bilingually mediated communication= L.,elisle
.PNN;'.;eubert .PP!,.PPM,passim& and as <rewriting of the original text .*ewriting is
manipulation underta-en in the service of power.=S.#assnett and '.(efevere,+eneral
editorsT preface in the collection <Translation Studies=, *outledge @ublishing
Iouse&.%ven if sometimes there are apparent similarities between these definitions of
translation and translating , they have been formulated from fairly different perspectives.
's $andace Seguinot shows,=translation has been the obDect of study or the window onto
other obDects of study in a wide variety of disciplines, from the humanities orientation of
literary criticism and semiotics to the physical and social sciences aspects of psychology,
euro and sociolinguistics and ethnography. %ach of these fields has its ideological
perspectives, which determine whether translation will be viewed as a product, a process
or simply as a methodological tool. These disciplinary constraints also determine the
li-elihood of insights from one field influencing the research in other
specialiJations.=.PPOF."H&
Since the early M"Ts discourse on translation has developed from a strictly
linguistic stance, focusing on the word and sentence levels, to broader pragmatic, textual
and functionalist perspectives, and from the examination of texts in isolation to the whole
communicative socio-cultural context in which texts are produced and received. Qrom a
semiotic perspective, *oman La-obson .PKP& integrates translation with a wider and
more coherent theory of communication. Ie distinguishes between intralingual
translation inside the same language, whenever we explain something using paraphrase
or replace a word using synonym, etc.&, interlingual translation between different
languages& and intersemiotic translation possible because of the existence of the codes,
i.e. the musical code, the colour code, etc., whose message can also be <translated= i.e.
explained&.
(inguistics is concerned with the theory and description of language for its own
sa-e, translation studies with the theory and description of recreating concrete text,
whether literary, specialiJed or general.
Sociology and sociolinguistics reveal social aspects of the two communities
brought into contact by the translating act, their findings also supporting translation in
.H
matters related, for instance, to non-linguistic factors affecting translation, to issues of
ideology and power, to the varieties of language used in producing and translating textsF
dialects, sociolects, registers, etc.
@sychological investigations try to account for the operations that ta-e place in the
translatorsT minds during the translating process, to provide a more scientific, basis when
discussing the translatorsT intuition or creativity. @sycholinguistics and cognitive
linguistics support translation studies by shedding light, through empirical methods
including experiments, on the cognitive aspects of translating.
Qor the particular case of literary texts, literary theory, criticism and history,
aesthetics, and, more recently, manipulation studies, post-colonial studies and womenTs
studies can all Dustify the translatorsT options for particular texts, their translation
strategies, the importance of translations in a particular culture, at a particular time, etc.
(i-e any writer, a translator has to ta-e account of the range of -nowledge
available it hisUher readers and the expectations they are li-ely to have about such things
as the organiJation of the world, the organiJation of language in general, the organiJation
and conventions of particular text-types, the structure of social relations, the
appropriateness or inappropriateness of certain -inds of linguistic and non-linguistic
behavior, etc.
Specific recurrent questions which hold the attention of most theorists studying
translation can be grouped under three headingsF practical, theoretical and metatheoretical
questions. @ractical problems usually relate to specific languages or genres e.g. have to
translate idioms, metaphors titles, proper names, institutional and cultural terms&.
Theoretical problems often concern the notion of translation equivalence and the unit of
translation
M
.
Translation studies owes its development to the attempts of certain linguists such
as *ussian 'ndreD Qedorov and the 'merican %ugene '. ;ida, who used the insights of
linguistics and the findings of logic semantics information and communication theory to
discover in translation certain regularities which could be described in the form of
M
Ieylen, *omana (eona; Theories of Translation! "rom #ormative $pproach to%ards &ocio'Cultural
(escription; The Aniversity of >owa, .PNO, pag. !
.K
generaliJing statements. Translation studies was thus soon considered a special branch of
linguistics which subsumed is as one of its specific fields application.
Translation studies also contain a subdiscipline which concerns ancillary
disciplines as well as applicationsF the development of lexicographic, contrastive-
grammatical and comparative stylistic tools, translation criticism and translation training.
<%quivalence= is considered to ensure the accuracy of translation.
'lexander TytlerT s <%ssay on the @rinciple of Translation= .OP.& is generally
considered to be the first theoretical essay of translation in %nglish. Tytler introduces his
essay with a description of a <good translation= and is establishes the <general rules=
derived from that description. 'lthough it attempts to be a systematic study of the
translation process in %nglish, TytlerT s essay is essentially a manual for eighteenth
century professional and amateur translators. The general, normative rules areF .-the
translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original wor-; !-the style
and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; G-the
translation should have all the ease of the original composition
O
.
' more recent example of such a normative translation theory is %ugene '. ;ida
and $harles *. TaberTs <The theory and practice of translation=. Their guideboo- for
what should be done in specific instances of translating establishes certain <fundamental
sets of prioritiesF .-contextual consistency has priority over verbal consistency or word-
for-word concordance&; !-dynamic equivalence has priorities over formal
correspondence; G-the aural heard& form of language has priority over the written form;
H-forms that are used by and acceptable to the audience for which a translation is
intended have priority over forms that may be traditionally more prestigious=.
Translation requires a linguistic -nowledge, more specifically grammatical
-nowledge and versatility in semantic analysis.
;ida recommends one type of translation based on dynamic equivalence;
;ewmar- suggests two types, <semantic= and communicative translation.
$atford argues that translation is an <operation performed on languages= and that
<any theory of translation draw upon a theory of language V a general linguistic theory=.
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,imitriu, *odica Theories and ractice of Translation, >nstitutul %uropean !""!, pag. ..
.M
Translation is situated in the domain of linguistic but is not given any autonomous
epistemological status. ?oreover, of translation is <essentially a theory of applied
linguistic= as well as <a branch of $omparative linguistics.
$ontrastive linguistics defines translation as inter lingual transfer, the two codes
involved being to different natural languages or rather their underlying systems Toury&.
Translational communication is more than the transfer of linguistic data, more than <the
communication of verbal messages across a cultural V linguistic border= Lacobson,
quoted in Toury&.
Translators therefore, have to deal with the constraints exerted by both the
linguistic and socio-cultural systems of the receiving culture.
Translation only partially involves linguistic transfers and languages in contact.
;o linguistic disciplined can fully account for the phenomenon of translation or the
translating process which is determined by other factors besides linguistic once.
Translation theory has to deal with a variety of texts and thus is far less concerned with
the comparison of language systems as such. Translation as a product is a textual
phenomenon.
The activity of the translator involves more than translating sentence after
sentence in isolation, however grammatically accurate. ' translator bears in mind the
interaction between sentences and their semantic and stylistic implications. >n general, a
translator does not produce random accumulations of this connected sentence but is
concerned with interrelated sequence of sentences. The quality of translation depends on
its textual cohesion.
Translation typologies are established on the bases of some characteristics of a
source text with the assumption that a translation or target text will serve a closely
related, if not identical purpose.
Semantic translation focuses upon the semantic content as well as upon the
syntactic structures of the source text. >n semantic translation, the reader can find the
connotations of the source text and thought-processes of the original author.
.O
$ommunicative translation focuses upon the comprehension and the response of
its readers. >n communicative translation the reader finds the intention of the translator.
Translation always involves a process of cultural negotiation or the application of
a cultural filter. 'ny translation or any evaluation of a translation involves interpretation.
>n an axiomatic theory it could be claimed that a translation does not change the
character of a text since it belongs to a particular type, sort, etc.
?ost linguistic and textual approaches to translation are based on the notions of
<equivalence= and the <unit of translation=. The <unit of translation= is perceived as the
<invariant= core of a translation which ma-es it equivalent to the corresponding source
text.
The notion of <equivalence= as well as the <unit of translation= has triggered
maDor disagreements among theorists of translation.
Iow does a translation correspond to its originalW The answer to this question is
of crucial importance to normative translation theorists. Statements on the standard
relationship between original and translation mainly differ because of the emphasis on
different aspectsF .-translating is a practical activity; !-translations as products with their
own functions in concrete circumstances.
$atford generaliJes the condition for translation equivalence as followsF
<Translation equivalence occurs when a source language and a target language text or
item are relatable to the same relevant features of situations substance=
N
.
The notion of <equivalence= also figures in semiotic approaches to translation that
are concerned with the identification of translation.
#oth the notions of <equivalence= and <unit of translation= define weather a text
can be considered as a translation. They form part of an overall substitution theory of
translation. The translator is not interested in a purely mechanical segmentation of a text.
>n order to capture the sense of a message, the unit of translation must be functional.
The unit of translation indicates the levels& at which normative theorists of
translation establish equivalence. ?oreover, with this notion certain theorists try to
N
,imitriu, *odica Theories and ractice of Translation, >nstitutul %uropean !""!, pag. .!
.N
determine at which levels& translation has to be adequate. (inguistic theories of
segmentation approach the processing of a text through the sequence of words, phrases,
clauses and sentences.
' hermeneutic approach emphasiJes that translation is first and foremost an act of
interpretation. The translator mediates or brings to understanding what is foreign, strange
or an unintelligible in the medium of his or her language. Qoreign texts are explained and
appropriated in the translatorTs own words. The translator mediates between two worlds,
the world of the foreign text and the world of its receiving audience.
>n his essay <'n 'pproach to Translation= ;ewmar- defines a translation as <The
attempt to produce approximate equivalence or respectable synonymy between to chun-s
of different languages on various levels of which the two main once are though which
includes difference of national culture& and linguistic form meaning and language, ideas
and proper words in proper places, etc.&.
?ost definitions of the notion of <equivalence=, in one way or another raise
questions which many theorists too easily overloo-. Translation equivalence cannot be
defined in mathematical terms. Translation is not a <symmetrical= but, rather, a unilateral,
irreversible relationship between a translation and a source text. Since translation is a
teleological activity, the relationship between a translation and an original is one-
directional. This also accounts for the fact that many renderings of the same source text
are possible. >f we ta-e into consideration that texts are historically determined and only
function in a particular socio-cultural environment, the plurality of translations of the
same text is not Dust a possibility but even a necessity. (inguistic approaches only
concentrate on the functionally relevant features of the communicative situation
$atford&, whereas textual approaches only analyJe the functionally relevant features of
the type of the text *eiss&. >n both of these approaches, the criteria for functional
equivalence lie in the linguistic system language&. Translation, however deals with
actual language parole&, and translators are far less interested in the underlying system
language&.
Seles-ovitch has been criticiJed by ;ewmar- for failing to distinguish between
spo-en and written language. Ie praises her method as an escape from literalism in
.P
written translation, but he also warns practicing translators against the dangers involved
in following this method. Ie obDects that her method ignores subsidiary meanings and
that it oversimplifies. Ie reaffirms that <translation is concerned with words, that it is
only partially a scienceXand that in as far as it is a science, it can only be based on
linguistics .PN.FPP&.>t is in his reaction to Seles-ovitchTs model of translation as
interpretation that we can most clearly see ;ewmar-Ts ultimate reDection of the
hermeneutic method in favor of linguistic approaches to translation as a communication
process, completely agrees with Seles-ovitchTs theory. While translating Lohn Stuart
?ill, Qreud read the original text passage by passage, closing the boo- before translating
each passage. #uhler admits that Qreud method might be rather exceptional. Cet for her,
too, <the most rapid and reliable method of translation both speed and reliability being
important for professional wor-& seems to be to translate more or less from memory, by
only retaining the sense, and to approach the source text in its surface structure, as far as
seems possible and desirable, only in subsequent revisions of the translation product. She
therefore suggests a systematic study of successive drafts of translation which could serve
as a descriptive study of the translation process.
#uhler distinguishes two phases in the translation processF decoding and
encoding, or analysis and synthesis. These two phases involve the understanding of the
source text and verbal restructuring of the translation. >n her essay she focuses on that
phase in the translation process that involves the understanding and the of the source text,
<since it is here that problems specific to translation may arise=. She considers translators
to be unique interpretersF <>t can be assumed that the decoding of a source text required
from translators or interpreters in doing their wor- differs in some respect from that of a
normal reader or listener=
P
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,imitriu, *odica Theories and ractice of Translation, >nstitutul %uropean !""!, pag. .H
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Chapter II
Theories . Classification. Considerations
2.1 Theories of phrasal verbs
ma-e up give in loo- after carry on
blow out put off put up with call off
pull through drin- up ta-e down brea- up
pass out turn into loo- up come to
These are Dust a few examples of the many %nglish phrasal verbs, which constitute
one of the most distinctive features of the %nglish language. The phrasal verb consists of
a verb, usually a monosyllabic verb of action or movement such as go, put, ta-e, and one
or more particles. The particle may be an adverb, a preposition, or a word that can act as
either adverb or preposition. Sften the meaning of these verb phrases is idiomatic and
cannot be determined by -nowing the meaning of their individual parts .#ecause of this,
phrasal verbs are often difficult to master for students of %nglish as a second language.
' phrasal verb is a type of verb in %nglish that operates more li-e a phrase than a
word. Tom ?c'rthur in <Sxford $ompanion to the %nglish (anguage= notes that these
verbs are also referred to by many other names such verb phrase, discontinuous verb,
!.
compound verb, verb adverb combination, verb-particle construction B@$&, 'm % two-
part word U verb .,avid $rystal in the $ambridge %ncyclopedia of the %nglish (anguage
calls this linguistic phenomenon a <multi-word verb= that is best described as a lexeme, a
unit of meaning that may be greater than a single word
."
.
>tTs li-e coo-ingF combine flour and water, stic- it in the oven for a bit, and you
have bread. >f you combine a verb and an adverb, and stic- it somewhere in a sentence,
you have a phrasal verb. Iowever, ba-ing the dough in a gas oven will obviously result
in a different flavor than ba-ing the dough over the fire; phrasal verbs donTt require such
varied treatment to have a different meaning, even if you are wor-ing with the same two
words .Sometimes all thatTs required is that phrasal verb is being used in a different room
of the house.
The phrasal verb is an interesting linguistic phenomenon-syntactically.
Iistorically , although the phrasal verb has been present in %nglish for many centuries,
the term was first used in print in .P!K?c'rthur OO!&.@hrasal verbs were found in
?iddle %nglish, common in Sha-espeare, and often used to define verbs of (atin origin.
?c 'rthur states that the famous lexicographer of the eighteenth century, Samuel
Lohnson, was one of the first to consider these formations carefully.
,wight #ollinger, in The @hrasal Berb in %nglish, answers the question of why
there are so many of these formations in %nglish. Ie states,=They are words. The
everyday inventor is not required to reach for elements such as roots and affixes that have
no reality for him. >t ta-es only a rough familiarity with other uses of head and off to
ma-e them available for head off, virtually self-suggesting when the occasion for them
comes up, which is not true of learned formations li-e intercept.
>n addition, he notes that phrasal verbs are more expressive than the synonyms
they replace .Ie contrasts insult with to Dump on, exult with to Dump up and down with
Doy and assault with to Dump at.
@hrasal verbs are extremely common, especially in spo-en %nglish, and are used
more informally than their (atinate synonyms, e.g. use up vs. consume, gather together
vs. assemble, put out vs. extinguish. %nglish grammarians note that phrasal verbs have
increased significantly since the mid-nineteenth century and especially so in mid V
."
Lohnson, Samuel; The English hrasal )erbs - (ictionary of English *anguage; pag. .P
!!
twentieth century 'merican %nglish. ?any phrasal verbs can be replaced, with little
change of meaning, by single word verbsF give in by yield, loo- after by tend, carry on by
continue, put up with by tolerate. >n most cases the phrasal verb is less formal, more
colloquial and more image Vand U or emotion-laden than the single word. @hrasal verbs
and their noun derivatives account for a significant number of new words now being
coined in the %nglish language
..
.
<@hrasal verbs= are a specific category of very used verbs in %nglish. These are
different of other verbs because they are composed with one or more particles
prepositions and adverbs& which change the significance of the main verb. Qrom a
number of main verbs, relatively reduced, appears a big number of <phrasal verbs=,
because a verb can be combined with tens of prepositions and adverbs. Then, the same
<phrasal verb= can have different significances which give birth to many idiomatic
expressions. So, it can be said that <phrasal verbs= often appear from an informal or
idiomatic usage of the language and then to enter in the official language and to ta-e part
of it. >n %nglish it prefers the usage of generic verbs followed by a particle, besides the
equivalent specific verbs often of latin ethimology and being part of the cultural and
formal language&.
%.g. TheyTre going to turn up at M.G" p.m. informal&
TheyTre going to arrive at M.G" p.m. formal&
.!
'nother aspect of phrasal verbs that is often overloo-ed is the number of new nouns
derived from them. 'ccording to #ollinger, the phrasal verb is=next to the noun Y noun
combinations, probably the most prolific source of new nouns in %nglish.=
*unaway from run away
?a-eup from ma-e up
#rea-out or outbrea- from brea- out
Ap-eep from -eep up
' phrasal verb has a meaning which is different from the original verb. ThatTs
what ma-es them fun, but confusing. Cou may need to try to guess the meaning from the
context, or, failing that, loo- it up in a dictionary.
..
The %nglish @hrasal Berb, Samuel Lohnson, @reface , ,ictionary of the %nglish (anguage ,.OKK, pag.K
.!
%nglish Today ,Apper >ntermediate (evel, $ourse boo- two, .Hth volume
!G
They are also -nown as <compound verbs=, <verb adverb combinations=, =verb-particle
constructions=, <the two-part wordsUverbs= and <three-part wordsUverbs= depending on
the number of words&.
@hrasal verbs can have literal significances and idiomatic significances. >n the
first case, the significance is analogue with of that of the main verb, but the particle that
follows it enriches the nuances, adding information on the mode of action and of space.
The significance of phrasal verbs it is easy to -now from the combination of the meaning
of the verb and of the particle. >n the second case , the particle changes entirely the
significance of the main verb , ma-ing a totally new verb which meaning isnTt the sum of
significances of the particle with the main verb, but it have to be learned as it is about a
new verb. Some sentences show a literal usage and an idiomatic one of the same phrasal
verb-<go out=F
%.g. > went out with some friends last night.
The fire has gone out.
> pic-ed up the pen.
Ie pic-ed up some Qrench while he was in @aris.
The phrasal verb <pic- up= is made up from the preposition ZupT which expresses
the movement of the hand from down to up and from the verb Zpic-T which means Zto
gather, to riseT.
#ut, in the second case, the significance of <pic- up= it is completely different from the
first example, having an idiomatic usage
.G
.
The meanings and structures of phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs and free
combinations differ in many ways. Iowever, Dust three criteria are usually sufficient for
distinguishing among the types of multi-word combinations.
-whether or not there is an idiomatic meaning
-whether or not particle movement is possible
-how the who-question is formed
The nature of multi-word expression is determined by whether or not there is a
following noun phrase. When there is no following noun phrase e.g. shut up or go
a%ay&, there are only two possible interpretations. >t must be either an intransitive phrasal
.G
%nglish today , 'dvanced (evel , $ourse boo- one, .Nth volume
!H
verb, or a free combination of verbY adverb. >f there is a following noun phrase e.g. find
out the meaning&, there are three possible interpretations. %ither it is a transitive phrasal
verb, a transitive prepositional verb, or a free combination of verb adverbial prepositional
phrase.
Some linguists differentiate between phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs, while
others assume them to be part of one and the same construction, as both types are phrasal
in nature.
Idiomatic meaning and usage
@hrasal verbs are compound verbs more than one word& that result from combining a
verb with an adverb or a preposition. The resulting compound verb is idiomatic e.g. its
meaning cannot be derived from the dictionary meaning of its parts&.Qor instance, <ta-e
bac-= is a phrasal verb consisting of the verb =ta-e= and the adverb =bac-=. 's a phrasal
verb, its meaning becomes <to retract a statement=, > ta-e bac- my comment on the
discussion&, which cannot be derived solely by combining the dictionary meanings of the
original verb and adverb.
Such phrasal verbs are the main way new verbs enter the %nglish language. They
usually begin in casual speech where they become part of our everyday vocabulary and
eventually become recogniJed as acceptable standard usage.
Cou wonTt be able to figure out the meaning of the phrasal verbs Dust by loo-ing
at the two or three words involved. %ach phrasal verb is capable of having several
meanings, and the meanings can also vary from place to placeF if %nglish isnTt your first
language, be sure you understand the local idiomatic interpretation of a phrasal verb so
you donTt end up getting your face slapped. Qor instance, you can loo- at a baby who is
Dust learning to wal- and say <She really gets around=; you donTt want to say that about a
twenty-three year old woman. +rammarly Iandboo-&
#ut because their meanings are idiomatic, there is no logical pattern or formula
for learning them. 'nd to ma-e matters worse, many phrasal verbs have more than one
idiomatic meaning. Qor instance,=ta-e bac-= can also mean to return merchandise for a
refund. Lohn went to the mall to ta-e bac- the sweater he bought&.
The difficulty in learning phrasal verbs is two-fold, the unpredictability of their
idiomatic meaning and the rules describing how they may be entered into the rest of the
!K
sentence. Qor the first difficulty, only two solutions exist -memoriJing the phrases and
immersing yourself in the %nglish language.
TipF ' good strategy for memoriJing phrasal verbs is to ma-e flash cards of
phrases that you can come across. Cou can write the phrase on one side of the card and
draw or cut out a picture that depicts the phrase on the bac- of the card .Qlash cards are
very useful and can prove to be very successful.
'lways remember that there can be several different idiomatic meanings for Dust
one phrasal verb.
Qor the second difficulty, there are several different solutions depending on the
construction of the phrasal verb. Qirst of all, it is important to -now that phrasal verbs can
either be transitive the verb ta-es a direct obDect& or intransitive the verb cannot ta-e a
direct obDect&.
Transitive phrases are those that can ta-e a direct obDect. Some transitive verbal
phrase is separable. That is, the verb can be separated from the preposition by a direct
obDect.
$hec-ing for an idiomatic meaning is especially useful when there is no following
noun phrase, and you wish to distinguish between an intransitive phrasal verb and a free
combination. >ntransitive phrasal verbs usually have an idiomatic meaning, while the
words in free combinations retain their own meanings. Qor example, the intransitive
phrasal verbs come on, shut up, get up, get out, break do%n, gro% up all have idiomatic
meanings beyond the separate meanings of the two parts e.g. gro% up means to actU
become more mature, not literally to grow in an upward direction&.>n contrast, both the
verb and the adverb have separate meanings in free combinations li-e come back, come
do%n, go back, go in, look back..
[>ntransitive phrasal verbsF
Shut up you fool\
$ome on\ Tell us then\
[>ntransitive free combinationsF
>f this was new, > wouldnTt let people go in.
$ome bac-, or >Tll fire.
Ie was afraid to loo- bac-..
!M
The figurative or idiomatic application in everyday speech ma-es phrasal verbs so
important.
> hope you will get over your operation quic-ly.
Wor- hard, and get your examination over %ith.
The literal meaning of <to get over=, in the sense of <to climb over something to
get to the other side=, no longer applies to explain the subDectTs enduring an operation or
the stress of an examination which they have to overcome. >t is when the combined
meaning of verb plus adverb, or verb plus preposition is totally different from each its
component parts, that the semantic content of the phrasal verb cannot be predicted by its
constituent parts. Sther idiomatic usages of phrasal verbs show a verb Y direct obDect Y
prepositionU adverb Y indirect obDect construction.
>dioms which are formed from phrasal verbs, such as <let the cat out of the bag=,
have a meaning which is different from the meaning of the single words, and usually
have a fixed word order.
Some grammarians, such as ?artha Rolln in Anderstanding %nglish +rammar,
ta-e the view that phrasal verbs define only those combinations that form an idiom, a
phrase whose meaning cannot be predicted from the meaning of its parts. This is the
holistic or semantic view, which focuses mainly on the meaning of the verb combination.
Qor example, Rolln would say that go up in this sentence is not an example of a phrasal
verbF The balloon went up into the s-y, because the sentence can be rephrased as Ap the
balloon went into the s-y .Rolln would designate up as an adverb modifying went .Rolln
also applies the test of meaning to phrasal verb as in these examplesF give in can be
replaced by surrender, pull through, by recover and come, by acquire and brea- up, by
end. %ach phrasal verb could be replaced by a single verb with the same general meaning.
Iowever , ?c'rthur in his treatment of the phrasal verb states that phrasal verbs cover
both the literal and figurative U idiomatic uses. +rammarians who ta-e this position
classify phrasal verbs based on their use in sentence patternssyntactical properties& and
as new word formationsmorphological properties& as well as by the overall meaning of
these verb combinationssemantic properties&.The examples below illustrate the same
phrasal verb having both a literal and figurative meaningF
She put down the boo- literal&
!O
The army put down the rebellion. figurativeUidiomatic&
.H
Literal usage
?any verbs in %nglish can be combined with an adverb or a preposition and
readers or listeners will easily understand a phrasal verb used in a literal sense with a
prepositionF
[=Ie wal-ed across the square.=
Berb and adverb constructions can also easily be understood when used literallyF
[=She opened the shutters and loo-ed outside.=
[=When he heard the crash, he loo-ed up.=
'n adverb in a literal phrasal verb modifies the verb it is attached to, and a
preposition lin-s the verb to the obDect.
Berb and adverb constructions are also easy to understand when used literally.
<She opened the shutters and looked outside.=
<When he heard the crash, he looked up.+
'n adverb in a literal phrasal verb modifies the verb it is attached to, and a
preposition lin-s the subDect to the verb.
2.2 Classification of phrasal verbs
@hrasal verb is classified in four categoriesF
1) Intransitive compound phrasal verbs with a particleF are those verbs
followed by a single particle preposition or adverb&, but without an obDect, as <come on=,
<ta-e off=
<The plane to (ondon takes off at five oTcloc-.=
<When > entered the room he looked up.
<Ap= is here an adverb and does not have an obDect.
<The party broke up when we turned in.
Come on\ Cou are late\
The plane took off at P.
.K
.H
Lohnson, Samuel; The English hrasal )erbs - (ictionary of English *anguage, pag.!.
.K
,English Today+; Apper >ntermediate (evel, $ourse boo- Two, (itera, !"."
!N
>ntransitive verbs are extremely common in conversation and fiction, but
extremely rare in news and academic prose. Sne reason for this difference is that most
phrasal verbs are colloquial in tone.
>n fact, the most common intransitive phrasal verbs are activity verbs that are used
as directives. They often occur as imperatives .Since imperative clauses are most
common in conversation and fiction; it is not surprising that these intransitive phrasal
verbs are also most common in those registersF
hut up\ Lust forget it\ $S;B&
!o off to bed now. $S;B&
tand up straight\ @eople are loo-ing\ Q>$T&
>n declarative clauses, the common intransitive phrasal verbs usually have human
subDects underlined below&F
;o, he came over to the study. $S;B&
$rowe sat up and stared at Qrederica. Q>$T&
> sat down behind my des-. Q>$T&
The intransitive combination come on in conversation is the most common phrasal verb
in any register. This verb has three maDor functionsF
-as an exclamation in a call for actionF
Come on let 'ndy do it. $S;B&
-as a pre-departure summons to moveF
Come on" we better go. $S;B&
-'s the main verb in a clause, meaning <to start= or <become activated=.
The heating didnTt come on this morning. $S;B&
The intransitive phrasal verb go on is extremely common .Go on is similar to come on in
having a number of different functions. Iowever, unli-e come on, go on is used often in
both written and spo-en registersF
-as an exclamatory call for action li-e come on above&F
>tTs alright, rub it in. !o on\ $S;B&
-to express continuationF
> Dust ignored her and went on. > didnTt have time to tal-. $S;B&
-to express continuationF
!P
> Dust ignored her and went on .> didnTt have time to tal-. $S;B&
's time went on, (iebig developed his thesis. '$',&
-to mar- continuation of some general action as a transitive verb with a
complement ing- or to-infinitive clause as direct obDect&F
(abor would go on getting the publicTs support by constructing strong unity of
purpose. ;%WS&
#Dornsson went on to study the newspapers of .. countries. '$',&
-to mar- an unspecified activity, with a meaning similar to <happen=F
Thin- whatTs going on. >tTs dreadful. Q>$T&
.M
Iere are some examples of intransitive phrasal verbsF
!row upF Lane grew up in >ndia, but she moved to $anada after graduation from
university.
Take offF IarryTs plane too- off at noon after a long delay.
Turn upF Lill was surprised but pleased when Tom turned up half an hour early.
#ack downF ,ic- first refused to do the Dob , but he bac-ed down when Iarry threatened
to fire him.
Catch onF 't first, Sarah didnTt understand what Iarry was doing, but she soon catch on.
$ie outF Tom explained to his students that the practice of foot binding had died out
nearly a hundred years earlier.
lip upF Lill usually does an excellent Dob of organiJing IarryTs appointments, but
recently sheTs slipped up a few times.
Since they have no obDects of any -ind, intransitive phrasal verbs do not exhibit
the characteristic of <separability=F Their identity as phrasal verbs is established by the
fact that they are verb-particle combinations which have unitary meanings .(i-e other
types of phrasal verb; they exhibit varying degrees of idiomaticity and informality.
Susan began to catch on after he read the directions several times. <,irections <is
the direct obDect of the verb-read, not the obDect of the verb <catch on=.&
Susan began to catch on to the directions. <,irections= is the obDect of the
preposition it is not the direct obDect of the sentence.
.M
,ouglas, #iber; $onrad, Susan; (eech, +eofrey; ,*ongman! &tudent Grammar of &poken and -ritten
English+, Qirst @ublish !""!, Qourth impression !""K, (ongman
G"
The following chart is a brief list of intransitive, inseparable phrases and several
of their meanings.
Berb ?eaning
#ac- down *etreat from a position in an argument, to
go down something bac-wards
$ome through Succeed, to be approved, to produce or
perform as promised for someone or a
group, to survive something
,rop in To stop by for a casual or unexpected visit
Qall behind To lag behind schedule, to lag behind
someone or something
@ic- on To harass or bother someone or something
usually unfairly
Show off #oast by words or actions
Watch out To -eep loo-ing for someone or something,
be careful
There is no difficulty in distinguishing between intransitive phrasal verbs and
prepositional verbsas there can be in the case of transitive phrasal verbs& since all
prepositional verbs have prepositional obDects .There is however a possibility of
confusion between intransitive phrasal verbs and <free combinations= of verb Yadverbial
particle. Qor example, in the sentence When Lill called, Lac- ran up, <up= is an adverbial
indicating the direction in which Lac- ran. #y contrast in the sentence. When Lill called,
Lac- frea-ed out, the particle =out= is a part of the intransitive verb= frea- out=meaning
<to become very upset or afraid=&
;otice that of the seven examples given above, one,=ta-e off=, does not allow for
single Vword substitution. >t could be replaced only by another multi-word item such as
<become airborne= or <ta-e flight= or by a paraphrase such as <leave the ground=.
@lausible substitutions are available for the othersF =mature= for <grow up=, =arrive= for
<turn up=, <relent= for =bac- down=, =understand= for <catch on=, =disappear= for <die
out=, =err= for= slip up= .Sf these, however , only <arrive= and <disappear= are fully
satisfactory, and they cannot be regarded as synonyms because both these phrasal verbs
have other senses for which the same substitution could not be made. The other
substitutions would almost certainly never be used by a native spea-er except, perhaps in
the course of trying to explain one of the phrasal verbs to an %S( student. 'nd even in
G.
that situation it should be -ept in mind that contemplating the substitutions only serves to
emphasiJe the semantic distinctnessand therefore the semantic value& of phrasal verbs.
2) Transitive separable phrasal verbs made with a single particleF are those
verbs followed by an adverb and an obDect, as <find out=,=pic- up= .The obDect can be
placed before and after the particle, when itTs about a noun. When the obDect is a
pronoun, this is placed between the verb and the adverbF
.O
> found the news out by chance.
> found out the news by chance.
> found it out by chance.
Transitive phrasal verbs are more evenly spread across written and spo-en registers. Qor
example, verbs such as put on, ma-e up, and find out are relatively common in both
conversation and the written expository registersF
Some people they read the top bit and read the bottom bit and sort of ma-e up the
bit in the middle.
#ecause you might find out it wor-s.
IavenTt you found that out yetW
Qor the modern mathematician these numbers would ma-e up the ordered pair.
>n fact, a few transitive phrasal verbs are actually more common in expository writing
than in conversation. These include carry out, ta-e up, ta-e on, set up and point outF
>t is common practice to carry out a series of design point calculations.
The rule also affected Ienry $otton, who too- up the post at *oyal Waterloo,
#elgium, in .PGG.
When the Spanish arm of the operation needed assistance he was as-ed to ta-e on
a supervisory role.
The %>T was set up last year to help fund university research.
+ushchin pointed out many of the wea-nesses of these attempts.
The combination turn out is unusual in that it is a common phrasal verb that can function
as a copular verb.
.O
,English Today+; Apper >ntermediate (evel, $ourse boo- Two, (itera, !"."
G!
Rnowing how to correctly use transitive verbs doesnTt require much thought, once
you -now the rules. %nglish doesnTt distinguish between transitive and intransitive verbs,
so we must loo- at how weTre using the verb in each sentence.
>n order to determine these there are some useful instructionsF
.. %xamine the word <transitive= .>t comes from a (atin word which means= to go
across=. ' transitive verb is a verb that goes across to a direct obDect.
!. ,etermine if you need a direct obDect to get your message through to your
reader. ' direct obDect receives the action of the transitive verb, as in <The dog chased the
squirrel=. =$hased= is the transitive verb carrying the action across to the squirrel, which
is the direct obDect.
G. Shorten the sentence to the subDect and verb to simplify matters if youTre
uncertain.= > turned= completes the though if you mean that you yourself turned. >f you
mean that you turned something, you must include the direct obDect which changes
<turned= into a transitive verb, as in=> turned the computer on=.
H. Ase transitive verbs when you want youTre writing to move. Some intransitive
verbs, such as <sleep=,=stand= and <sit= can stall the action.
K. $hoose lively transitive verbs to carry your meaning across. >nstead of
writing,= Ie quic-ly pic-ed up the boo-=, substitute <grabbed= or <snatched= to present a
more precise mental picture of what you mean.
Transitive phrases are those that can ta-e a direct obDect. Some transitive verbal
phrase is separable. That is, the verb can be separated from the preposition by a direct
obDect. >f the direct obDect is a noun it may or may not come between the verb and the
preposition; however, if the direct obDect is a pronoun, it must come between the verb and
the preposition. There are no rules for helping you to determine which transitive phrases
are inseparable; you Dust have to memoriJe them. >n these cases the verb and the
preposition or adverb cannot be separated by the direct obDect.
Transitive verbs ta-e a direct obDect, are separable and inseparable. 't the
separable onesF
-direct obDect can separate the verb and the preposition
-direct obDect]noun-it may or may not come between the verb and the preposition
-direct obDect]pronoun-it must come between the verb and the preposition.
GG
's stated earlier, in some transitive phrases the verb can be separated from the
preposition or adverb so that a noun or pronoun the direct obDect& can be inserted
between them.
Qor exampleF 'll three of these sentences are correct.
.. $an you add up the total in your headW
>n this sentence, you see that the phrase is not separated. The direct obDect comes
after the phrase <add up=.
!. She added it up in her head.
>n this sentence the phrase is separated by the direct obDect, it, which is a pronoun.
#ecause the direct obDect is a pronoun, it must come between the verb and the
preposition.
G. She added the total up in her head.
>n this sentence you see that the phrase is separated by the direct obDect, the total,
which is a noun. The direct obDect comes between the verb and the preposition.
The following chart is a brief list of transitive, separable phrases and several of
their meanings. #y no means is this a complete list. >t is important to remember that there
can be several idiomatic meanings for Dust one phrasal verb.
Berb ?eanings&
$alm down To relax, to cause someone or some
creature to be less active or upset
$arry out Qulfill, complete, accomplish perform, to
lift up and move someone or something out
Iand down @ass something to someone on a lower
level, to issue a ruling, pass something
down through many generations
Reep up $ontinue, -eep the same pace, maintain a
certain behavior
@ut on dress in, deceive or full
Set up 'rrange, to place someone or something in
an upright position
Ta-e down *emove from a high position, write from
dictation, to write something down in
GH
something, to move someone or something
to a lower position
Thin- through $onsider from beginning to end
Wear out Ase until no longer usable, the greatly
Transitive, inseparable
*emember that some prepositions cannot be separated because they are required
by certain verbs for a specific meaning. >f these words were to be separated, it would
change the idiomatic meaning of the phrase.
Qor exampleF
.. 'lthough Lason has been very ill this year and has missed a lot of school,
he does not want to drop out of school.
Qor this sentence to -eep its idiomatic meaning, to .uit school, the phrase cannot
be separated.
The following chart is a brief list of transitive, inseparable phrases and several of
their meanings. #y no means is this a complete list.
Berb ?eanings&
#ac- out of To desert, fail to -eep a promise, to move
out of something bac-wards
$ome across Qind accidentally, to be perceived as a
particular type of person by other people
,rop out of To resign from a cease being a member of
something, to let someone or something fall
out of out something
See to 'rrange, supervise, to tend to or care for
someone or something
Stand up for Support, demand
Ta-e after To behave in the same way as someone
else, resemble
Tal- bac- to 'nswer impolitely
Turn into #ecome, to change into someone or
something
Wait up To slow down and pause for someone or
something to catch up, to delay going to
GK
bed while waiting for someone or
something
%) Inseparable compound phrasal verbs with a particle& are those verbs
followed by a particle and an obDect, as <loo- for= a cauta & and <come across= a da
peste&. They can be transitive, but they canTt have the direct obDect in the middle of the
phrasal verb. ?ost of the time, this ma-es life a little easier for the new %nglish writer as
there arenTt as many variables or meanings to consider. The obDect always follows the
particle
.N
F
>Tm loo-ing for my soul mate.
>mi caut sufletul pereche.
She came across the pictures of Lac- and Sharon.
%a a descoperit a dat peste& din intamplare fotografiile cu Lac- si Sharon.
>n inseparable phrasal verbs, the particle is always U usually a preposition run into a
friend, run into him&. >f <phrasal verb= is used to mean <multi-word verb=, <run into= can
be called a prepositional verb. Some other examples are call on, care for, come across,
cope %ith, go into ,look at.
There is a smaller category of inseparable phrasal verbs, where the particle cannot
be separated from its verb. Some linguists would argue that the inseparability is due to
the fact that what we are calling a particle is really a preposition, and thus would
naturally precede its obDect. #ecause the two words appear to have a syntactic affinity
and together have a meaning beyond what each word contributes individually, we feel
that it ma-es good pedagogic sense to have a category of inseparable phrasal verbs.=
.P
') Compound of two particles phrasal verbsthree-word phrasal verbs& are
those verbs compound with two particles as <get along with=a fi de accord cu, a se
intelege cu& and <loo- forward to= a astepta cu nerabdare sa&. %ventually the obDect
follows every time the verb and the two particlesF
She gets along well with her flat mates.
%a se intelege cu colegii ei de apartament.
.N
,English Today+; Apper >ntermediate (evel, $ourse boo- Two, (itera, !"."
.P
The 'merican Ieritage ,ictionary of the %nglish (anguage, Qourth %dition !""G by Ioughton ?ifflin
$ompany, !""G
GM
2.%.Considerations on phrasal verbs.
Within the %nglish verbs, there is a large group which combines with other parts
of speech such as prepositions and adverbs in connected speech. These combinations
vary according to the following criteriaF degree of lexical cohesion, i.e. whether the
combination forms a single unit of meaning or not structure, i.e. the type of components
forming the combination functional and syntactic behavior, i.e. syntactic function of
those components, as well as the possibility or impossibility of separating them.
$onsidering these criteria, two maDor types of combination may be told apartF phrasal
verbs and extended verb phrases. The former -ind of combination ma-es up a compound
word or a lexico-grammatical unit containing a verbal basic stem and a particle attached
to it. The latter type of combination includes a verb head connected with other lexically
and grammatically independent words. >n spite of the fact that both combinations differ
as to their degree of lexical coherence and their functional-syntactic behavior, many
authors ma-e no distinctions between them. 'ctually, both types of combination verbal
basic stem Y attached prepositionU adverb, and verb head Y independent prepositional U
adverbial phrase& are generally termed <phrasal verbs= which is a groundless
simplification of this issue.
@hrasal verbs are of two types, prepositional and adverbial, according to the particle
attached to the verbal basic stem. >t is our intention to differentiate prepositional phrasal
verbs from apparently similar structures, namely combinations of verb head Y
prepositional phrase.
' prepositional phrasal verb may be defined as an integral verbal lexico-
grammatical unit consisting of a verbal basic stem and a particle of prepositional origin.
The components of such <composite= verb forms are inseparable. They fuse so as to form
a cohesive unit denoting an integral lexical meaning of process, and performing a single
syntactic function.
>t will be demonstrated the applicability of this definition by ma-ing a contrastive
analysis between prepositional phrasal verbs and combinations of verb head Y
prepositional phrase.
GO
Ta-ing for granted that both structures differ lexically and functionally, meaning
and syntactic behavior will serve as distinctive indicators in the contrastive analysis. 's
regarded to semantics, prepositional phrasal verbs have an integrated lexical meaning,
while the apparently similar combinations of verb headY prepositional phrase do not, as
in the example belowF
@repositional phrasal verb $ombination of verb head Y
integrated lexical meaning& prepositional phrase
not integrated lexical meaning&
%.g. Ie came across some interesting e.g. The host came across the room
letters. to greet his guests.
To come across]to find by chance to comeF to move toward or
enter a scene of action.
'crossF to the opposite side of
>t is necessary to point out that, in some cases, the meaning of the prepositional
phrasal verb cannot be inferred from the meaning of its components e.g. allow for]to
ta-e into consideration; call on]to visit, to invite; cheat on]to deceive by usually having
sexual relationship with someone else than spouse&.
>n other cases, its meaning is deducible from the meaning of its constituent parts, though
it is not the simple sum of them e.g. run into]to encounter or meet by chance; loo-
after]to ta-e care of; s-im through]to read rapidly&.
*egarding the syntactic behavior, prepositional phrasal verbs are inseparable, while in the
corresponding combinations in questions, the preposition belongs to the prepositional
phrase and not to the verb head. This may be tested through the following
transformationsF
@repositional phrasal verbs $ombinations of verb head Y
@repositional phrase
.. The prepositional particle cannot be ..The preposition together with
?oved to front position as inF its obDect may be moved as a
'& relative clauses; unitF
The letters across which he came a& relative clauses;
#elonged to his former wife. The room across which the host
>ncorrect example& came to greet his guests was
b& $left constructions; huge.
>t was across letters belonging to b& cleft constructions;
GN
Iis former wife that he came >t was across a huge and
>ncorrect example& illuminated room that the host
came to greet his guests.
c& WI-questions; e.g. across what c& WI-questions; e.g. across
letters did he comeW >ncorrect what room did the host comeW
%xample& d& thematic transformations;
'cross a huge and nicely
,& thematic transformations; furnished room we came before
'cross highly valuable old coins he getting to the office.
came. >ncorrect example&

!. The insertion of adDuncts !.The insertion of adDuncts
$omplements or obDects& is not ' verbal complement may be
allowedF inserted between the verb
Ie came later across some letters head and the prepositionF
that belonged to his former wife. The host came ceremoniously
incorrect example& across the room to greet his
guests.
G. The particle is usually not repeated
in coordinationF G.The preposition may be
%.g. Ie came across some ancient repeated in coordinationF
coins and across some old stamps. %.g. we came across a huge
>ncorrect example& hall and across a nice sitting
room before getting to the
office.
SummariJing, both structures, apparently similar, are completely different. Sn the
one hand, prepositional phrasal verbs are compound words, i.e. lexico-grammatical units
in which the attached particle of prepositional origin is inseparable from the verb basic
stem. This unit is, therefore, characteriJed by a lexical and syntactic solid cohesion. Sn
the other hand, the combinations of verb head Y prepositional phrase are pure words
Doined together by connected speech; they show a lexical and syntactic split nature. The
verb head and the prepositional phrase belong to different members of the sentence, core
of the predicate and verbal complementU oblique obDect respectively.
GP
Chapter III
Translating phrasal verbs. ( methodological approach
@hrasal verbs are combinations of ordinary verbs li-e put, ta-e, come, and go and
particles li-e in, out, on, and off. They are a very important part of everyday %nglish.
%very student of %nglish needs a basic understanding of the most common phrasal verbs
and also of common nouns and adDectives made from phrasal verbs.
?ost phrasal verbs are nor informal, slang, or improper for educated speech or
formal writing. %xactly the opposite is true 9 most phrasal verbs are acceptable at all
levels of spo-en or written %nglish. >n fact, for many of the phrasal verbs in this
textboo-, there is no alternative to the phrasal verb 9 there is no other way to say it.
Some phrasal verbs are very easy to understand. Qor example, it is not difficult to
understand sit do%n or come in because their meanings are obvious. #ut many phrasal
verbs are very idiomatic. >diomatic means that there is no way to -now what the verb and
particle mean together by -nowing what the verb and particle mean separately. Qor
example, every beginning-level student learns what the words call, run, off, and out
mean, but that does not help the student to -now that call off means cancel or that run out
means use all of something. 'nd no differentiation is made between recogniJed
adDectives derived from past participles and past participles with adDectival meaning. The
adDectival use of past participles both phrasal and non-phrasal& is an extremely important
aspect of spo-en %nglish 9 something every student of %nglish should be familiar with
9 yet the dividing line between true adDectives derived from past participles and passive
sentences employing past participles with adDectival meanings is ill-defined and
problematic. ;ative spea-ers of %nglish regularly use past participles in superficially
passive sentences with purely adDectival meaning. Whether the past participles are verbs
or actually adDectives is of no concern to the native spea-er and is entirely irrelevant to
the student of %nglish. *ather than distract the student with an unnecessary element of
confusion, both are referred to as participle adDectives.
!"
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@hrasal verbs are often a particular problem for learners of %nglish. There are
several reasons for this. Sne reason is that in many cases, even though students may be
familiar with both the verb in the phrasal verb and with the particle, they may not
understand the meaning of the combination, since it can differ greatly from the meanings
of the two words used independently. Qor example, make, put, out and off are all very
common words which students will encounter in their first wee- of learning %nglish, and
yet the combinations make out and put off are not transparent. Make out can mean
<perceive= or <imply= and put off can mean <postpone= or <deter=, amongst other
meaningsF the meanings are unrelated to the meanings of the individual words in the
combinations. The fact that phrasal verbs often have a number of different meanings adds
to their complexity. There are some particular grammatical problems associated with
phrasal verbs. Qor example, there are restrictions on the positions in which an adverb can
be replaced in relation to the obDect of a verb. Some particles, such as about, over, round,
and through can be used as both adverbs and prepositions in particular phrasal verbs
combinations, although in other combinations are used with pronouns as obDects, others
are normally only used with pronouns as obDects.
There are other difficulties, such as the fact that there are frequently strong
collocational associations between phrasal verbs and other words. Thus, in some cases a
particular word or small set of words is the only one normally found as the subDect or
obDect of a particular verb. >t is often said that phrasal verbs tend to be rather <colloquial=
or <informal= and more appropriate to spo-en %nglish than written and even that it is
better to avoid them and choose single-word equivalents or synonyms instead. Cet in
many cases phrasal verbs and their synonyms have different ranges of use, meaning, or
collocation, so that a single word synonym cannot be substituted appropriately for a
phrasal verb. Single-word synonyms are often much more formal in style than phrasal
verbs, so that they seem out of place in many contexts and students using them run the
ris- of sounding pompous or Dust unnatural.
!.
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?c$arthy, ?ichael; Qelicity ST,ell; ,English hrasal )erbs in /se+, $ambridge Aniversity @ress,
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Students of %nglish realiJe very early on their learning career that prepositions
present a problem. They collocate with nouns, adDectives, past participles and verbs,
without rules or logic .Students simply have to learn that interested is followed by in, and
good is followed by at, and go home has no preposition. ?ulti-word verbs or phrasal
verbs as they are often referred to, present a very special problem. ?ulti-word verbs exist
throughout the language. They express every day actions such as Turn on the light ;they
can also have a variety of meanings such as Things %orked out %ell, -e %orked out the
problem, &he %orked out in the gym, 01ve never been able to %ork him out, The final
price %orks out at 23 4.
+iven the complexity of the area, the surprise is that learners are very -een to
master it. They seem to sense that multi-word verbs are a vital component of %nglish and
spo-en %nglish in particular. There is also the feeling that an understanding of common
idioms will increase their comprehension, though most students instinctively avoid trying
to produce them. The best time to address these areas is at upper-intermediate and
advanced levels, when students already have a certain grammatical and lexical
foundation.
The set of %nglish phrasal verbs is constantly growing and changing. ;ew
combinations appear and spread. Cet these new combinations are rarely made on a
random basis, but form patterns which can to some extent be anticipated. @articles often
have particular meanings which they contribute to a variety of combinations, and which
are productiveF that is, these fixed meanings are used in order to create new
combinations.
There is a general shading of meaning from one extreme to the other, but it is
possible to point to four main types of combination of verbs with particles.
.. combinations where the meaning of the whole cannot be understood by
-nowing the meanings of the individuals verbs and particles. %xamples are go off
5e6plode7, put off 5postpone7 and turn do%n 5re8ect.7
!. combinations where the verb is always used with a particular preposition
or adverb, and is not normally found without it. %xamples are refer to and rely on. We
also include similar cases where a verb is always used with a particular preposition or
adverb in a particular meaning.
H!
G. combinations where the particle does not change the meaning of the verb,
but is used to suggest that the action described by the verb is performed thoroughly,
completely or continuously. Qor example, in spread out, the verb spread has its basic
meaning, and the adverb out adds ideas of direction and thoroughness. >n link up, the
particle up adds an idea of completeness to the idea of connection. >n slave a%ay and
slog a%ay, the particle a%ay adds an idea of continuousness to the idea of hard wor-.
These combinations are sometimes called <completive intensives=.
H. combinations where the verb and particle both have meanings which may
be found in other combinations and uses, but where there is overwhelming evidence in
our data that they occur together. Qor example in the combination fight back, the verb
fight has the same meaning that it normally does in isolation and bac- is used in a similar
way in other combinations such as phone back and strike back. Cet fight and back
frequently occur together. Such combinations are sometimes called <literal phrasal
verbs=. There are thirty-eight common verbs which occur in a large number of
combinations with different particles, and which have many non-transparent meanings.
These verbs are especially problematic for students of %nglish. The thirty-eight verbs areF
brea-, bring, call, cast, come, cut, do, fall, get, give, go, hang, hold, -eep, -ic-, -noc-,
lay, lie, live, loo-, ma-e, move, pass, play, pool, push, put, run, send, set, sit, stand, stay,
stic-, ta-e, tal-, throw and turn.
?ulti-word verbs are verbs that combine with one or two particles a preposition
and U or an adverb&, for exampleF
The letters ##$ stand for #ritish #roadcasting $orporation.verbY preposition&
This mil- tastes awful. > thin- itTs gone off. verb Y adverb&
She couldnTt attend the meeting so Ielen stood in for her. verb Y adverb Y
preposition&
The particle changes the meaning of the verb, thus it is called a phrasal verb and it
has an idiomatic meaning-the phrase means something different from its component
parts. There are many different types of phrasal verb.
HG
@hrasal verbs have literal meaningF Ie ran up the hill. Iere the meaning of the
verb and the particle has not changed. Ie ran up. Ie ran Y up in the direction of the top
of the hill&
@hrasal verbs have also non-literal meaning. Sometimes the addition of the
particles creates a multi-word verb that has a completely different meaning from its
components. >t has idiomatic meaning.
Ie ran up a large telephone bill. >n this sentence to ran up] to increase the
amount of money you owe.
Some multi-word verbs have a semi-literal meaning. The basic meaning of the
verb remains the same, but the particle adds an extra meaning.
There is an exampleF 'fter stopping for fuel in ;ew Cor-, the plane fle% on to
(os 'ngeles; the particle on gives the idea of continuing to fly.
There are also examples where on has the same general meaning of continuing
%ith something.
> thought of leaving my Dob, but my boss persuaded me to stay on.
We thought the ship would stop and pic- us up, but it sailed on.
The road conditions were dreadful, but we decided to drive on.
We camped near a village for a few days and then decided to move on.
The soldiers fought on despite heavy casualties.
Some particles have the same general meaning when they form both semi-literal
and non-literal multi-word verbs. Qor example the particle out gives the meaning of
something stopping completely.
a. This species of bird died out in the .Pth century ] the species became extinct, it
stopped existing.
b. The room was so hot and airless she passed out. ]she fainted, she stopped
being conscious.
>n a. the verb has semi-literal meaning; the basic meaning of the verb ZdieT has not
changed in b, the verb has non-literal meaningF to pass out ]to faint, to lose
consciousness. Iowever, in both cases the general meaning of the particle out remains
the same.
HH
Rnowing the general meaning of some particles when used with certain groups of
verbs can help with learning and remembering them. The same particle can have different
general meanings when used with different groups of verbs.
?ost particles convey a number of different senses. Qor example, over can have various
meanings, includingF
a& changing position, e.g. in fall over fall to the ground& or move over change
the place where you are sitting or standing to ma-e room for someone else&.
b& an idea of thoroughness , e.g. in read over read thoroughly& or talk over
discuss something thoroughly before ma-ing a decision.&
>n teaching phrasal verbs it is essentially to learn our students where does the
particle goW With verbs that have an obDectF
-sometimes the particle has to go before the obDect of the verbF
e.g. >Tm looking for my -eys not F>Tm looking my -eys for&
-sometimes it must go after the obDect,
e.g. > have a lot of wor- on not > have on a lot of wor-&
-sometimes the particle may go before and after the obDect.
e.g. The thunder %oke up the children or The thunder %oke the children up.
>f the obDect is a pronoun e.g. him, them& then the particle must go after it,
The thunder %oke them up notF The thunder %oke up them.&
To understand better the phrasal verbs there are made several types of
dictionaries, exercises, texts, test-types including gap-filling, crosswords ,multiple-
choice, pattern drills and picture exercises. @hrasal verbs can also be found in songs, for
example the #eatlesT <>Tll get by with a little help from my friends= or <*oll over
#eethoven=, #ob ?arleyTs <+et up, stand up= and *ed Iot $hili @eppers <Rnoc- me
down=. They can be found in film titles such as <The %mpire Stri-es #ac-=, <Spirited
away=, <'long $ame @olly= or <$ast 'way=. They are very frequent in newspapers
headlinesF <$ountryTs misplaced pride holds bac- in democracy=, <$over-up raises fears
over bird flu.=These improve the %nglish learnersT -nowledge about all sorts of phrasal
verbs.
HK
Qirst of all learners of %nglish have to -now what a phrasal verb means, to be
aware of their formation, to -now the common verbs that form part of the phrasal verbs;
also they have to -now that a phrasal verb has multiple meanings .
e.g. .& Ie got on the bus. entered the bus&
!& Lim and >an get on really well. li-e each other and are friendly&
G& Shh\ >Tm trying to get on with my wor-. continue doing my wor-&
@hrasal verbs have also literal and metaphorical meaning and learners have to
-now that a metaphor is a way of expressing something by comparing it with something
else that has similar characteristics.
e.g. literal meaning
blow up a balloon - blow up a building
inflate or fill with air& - ma-e it explode&
metaphorical meaning
someone blows up suddenly becomes very angry&
'nother important aspect of phrasal verbs is register. @hrasal verbs are typical of
spo-en %nglish or informal writing, e.g. letters to friends and articles in popular
Dournalism.
There are often one-word equivalents, or synonyms, for use in a more formal
spo-en or written style .Qor exampleF miss out a question or omit a question.
Students have to -now that there are some different uses from one geographical
area to another. Qor example, #ritish, 'merican and 'ustralian users of %nglish all tal-
of cleaning up a room putting things away tidily&, but only #ritish and 'ustralian
spea-ers would use tidy up as a synonym.
To have basic -nowledge regarding phrasal verbs learners have to -now the most
common verbs that form part of phrasal verbs asF brea-, bring, call, come, cut, get, give,
go, -eep, -noc- ,loo-, ma-e, pass, pic-, pull, put, run, set ,ta-e ,turn.
They also have to be aware of the fact that there are also adDectives which are
based on phrasal verbsF e.g.F a broken do%n vehicle vehicle whose engine had stopped
wor-ing&, a brea-down truc- truc- which helps drivers who have bro-en down&,
blocked-up drains drains where the water cannot flow properly&.
HM
' good methodological approach is when students wor- on their own through
tests which can be designed to produce lively and interactive group wor- when used in
class. >n order for the new words to become <fixed= in learners mind, they need to test
themselves again and again. Qor this there is a method they can use to help they learn the
wordsF
.& *ead through the instructions carefully for the test they are going to try. Then try the
test, writing the answers in pencil.
!& When they have finished, chec- their answers and correct any mista-es they have
made. *ead through the test again, paying special attention to the words they didnTt -now
or go wrong.
G& Try the test again five minutes later. They can do this either by covering up the words
for example, in the picture tests& or by as-ing a friend to test himU her. They can repeat
this until they can remember all the words.
H&*ub out their answers.
K& Try the test again the following day They should remember most of the words.&
M& Qinally, plan to try the test at least twice again within the following month. 'fter this
most of the words will be <fixed= in their mind.
!!
'nother methodological approach is represented byF
-artwor- and introductory discussion question to get students thin-ing around the main
topic of the unit&
-put students in pairs or groups to discuss opening questions and then get feedbac- from
the class.
Students need a noteboo- or file so that they can write down the phrasal verbs that
they study as well as any others that they come across elsewhere. #eside this they also
need to have access to a good dictionary.
(earners of %nglish are aware that phrasal verbs represent an important area
which they need to confront. Sften students are able to avoid using them by replacing
them with (atinate <equivalents=, for example, tolerate in place of put up %ith. This can
!!
'llsop, La-e; ,Test 9our hrasal )erbs+, @enguin #oo-s, .PP"
HO
result in students sounding, at best, unnatural, and, at worst, pompous. ;evertheless they
may succeed in communicating their basic meaning.
' first example of exercise is that of discovering phrasal verbs from some extracts
from three articles. Students have to underline the respective phrasal verbs and if they are
not able to do this by their previous -nowledge, they can loo- for the meaning of these
phrasal verbs in a dictionary, in this way they can memoriJe better.
>n the first article there are three phrasal verbsF
.& set X off]cause something to start
The burglars set off an alarm when they bro-e the window.
Set off]leave on a Dourney
WeTre setting off about eight oTcloc- so weTll be there by twelve.
Set off]cause something to explode
We need a volunteer to stay behind and set off the explosives.
!& get out]leave a car or building
The car stopped and the driver got out.
G& bro-e in]enter, using force
The fireman broke in and rescued the children from the house.
>n the second article there are five phrasal verbsF
H& put up with]tolerate
> canTt put up with his interference any longer.
K& ringsXup]phone
Sne of your friends rang up\
M& hold on]wait
Iold on a moment, >Tll see if sheTs in.
O& carry on]continue
The secretaries carried on wor-ing as if nothing had happened.
N& hung up]put down the telephone receiver
,onTt hung up. >Tm going to change phones.
'nd in the last article there are four phrasal verbsF
P& pay off]pay the money you owe
> should have paid off my debts by the end of the year.
HN
."& turn down]refuse, reDect
The boss turned do%n my request for a day off.
..& piled up]increase
Wor- really piled up when > was away on business.
.!& crac- up]have a nervous brea-down
CouTll crack up if you -eep wor-ing so hard.
'nother example of exercise is that of filling in the blan-s with the correct form
of the verbs given and the particle A@.
.& put X up ] give someone food a bed for the night; resist , fight against someone
or something; increase, provide money, choose a candidate for an election.
!& come up]come near to be mentioned, arise, appear.
G& set up]organiJe, start
H& ta-e X up]start a Dob or hobby&,use, occupytime, space&raise a topic, shorten.
K& ma-e up]invent a story; become friend again after an argument.
M& went up]rise; be heard ;approach; start to burn.
O& pic- up]learn without much effort; stop a vehicle and collect ; win a priJe, pay
the bill.
N& give X up]stop permanently; abandon; end; stop because it seems pointless.
HP