Running head: COGNITIVE THEORIES OF MOTIVATION AND REAL STUDENTS !

Cognitive Theories of Motivation and Real Students

Bethany J. Batson
University of New England












COGNITIVE THEORIES OF MOTIVATION AND REAL STUDENTS #
Cognitive Theories of Motivation and Real Students
Motivation is a key element of learning in every classroom. Unfortunately, there are
numerous obstacles to learning motivation for many children. Researchers of this topic have
developed theories to explain some of these obstacles. These theories can help educators develop
strategies to increase students motivation to learn. The self-determination theory, attribution
theory, expectancy-value theory, social cognitive theory, and goal orientation theory all attempt
to explain the complexities of motivation. Within the context of these five theories, I will
examine the behaviors of five real students and present possible ways to increase their academic
motivation. I will refer to these students using pseudonyms.
Ben was a 6-year-old first grade student. He and his older sister lived with his single
mother, and he saw his father on weekends. He missed approximately fifteen days of school
during the school year due to possible illnesses. Ben was at grade level in reading. He was very
proficient at math and spelling. His handwriting was generally decent, and it was very neat when
he took his time. He was often disruptive during whole group lessons, and would try to touch or
talk to other students. Ben was strong-willed and often challenged authority. He was very
interested in dirt bikes and snowmobiles.
It was clear that Ben was not motivated to learn when he was attempting to distract other
students during group lessons. Bens lack of academic motivation was most evident during
writing activities. He displayed many avoidance behaviors whenever he was supposed to write a
journal entry, a story, or answer a question by writing sentences. Some avoidance behaviors he
displayed included scribbling on his papers, breaking his pencil leads repeatedly by pushing very
hard, and writing large messy words. I had to coax him to attempt any writing activity. Even
when he had the choice to write about his interests, he would still give very little effort.
COGNITIVE THEORIES OF MOTIVATION AND REAL STUDENTS $
The self-determination theory can help explain why Ben behaved in the way he did.
Anderman and Anderman (2010) claimed that self-determination theorists focus on intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation. Perhaps using some external rewards for effort and use of proper writing
mechanics could give Ben external motivation for writing activities since this subject does not
intrinsically motivate him. Providing Ben with more writing choices could help meet his need for
autonomy. Breaking writing tasks into smaller, more manageable parts could help meet Bens
need for competence. Finally, having Ben share his writing with a partner or a small group may
help meet his need for relatedness.
Alex is a six-year-old first grade student in a multi-grade class. His parents are Russian,
and he is bilingual. Alex is below grade level in reading, and he also has an obvious speech
impediment. It is often difficult for others to understand what he says. Alex has a good
understanding of math. He struggles with writing. He generally has a positive attitude toward
school and is willing to put forth effort when he is coached.
Alex struggles with staying focused on independent work. He is easily distracted by
others talking and moving around him. He often appears unmotivated by academic tasks unless
he is working one-on-one or in a small group. During independent work, he will often play with
items on his desk or wander around the classroom. It seems that he exhibits these behaviors in an
attempt to avoid work that he believes is difficult.
The social cognitive theory would be useful in Alexs case. According to Albert
Banduras studies, personal attributes, environmental characteristics, and behaviors influence
and are influenced by each of the others (Anderman & Anderman, 2010, p. 5). One way to
encourage his academic motivation would be to change his environment. Since he is so easily
distracted by others, perhaps he would be more motivated to do his independent work in a quiet,
COGNITIVE THEORIES OF MOTIVATION AND REAL STUDENTS %
more secluded area of the room. Also, since the social cognitive theory claims that students can
be motivated to mimic behaviors they see in others, it may be beneficial for Alex to work with a
peer tutor in areas where he struggles.
Tim is a 5-year-old kindergartener in a multi-grade classroom. His 8-year-old brother is
in the same class. Tim has a strong personality, and is a very active boy. He loves playing sports.
Recess is his favorite part of the school day. He likes to be a leader, and he sometimes has
defiant behaviors. Tim is a beginning reader who sometimes struggles with reading and writing.
He is strong in math. He has a slight speech impediment. To help him manage his behavior, he is
on a behavior plan where he earns tickets for listening and following directions.
Tim often calls out answers in a small group setting. His lack of motivation is most
evident during small group work. When Tim is academically unmotivated, he will often try to
distract other students by talking to them or making silly faces. He seems to desire the attention
of others. He is not necessarily unmotivated because he thinks the task is too difficult for him.
Rather, his occasional lack of academic motivation seems to occur when a lesson or task is not
organized in a way he would prefer. From my observation, Tim is academically unmotivated
when he does not feel in control of the learning experience.
The attribution theory could help explain Tims lack of academic motivation. Stability,
locus, and control are the three dimensions of this theory (Anderman & Anderman, 2010). Since
Tim has such an independent personality, he may have negative feelings about situations where
the locus is external and he is not in control. Emotional consequences of attributions ultimately
affect individuals' subsequent motivation to engage in a particular behavior (Anderman &
Anderman, 2009). Providing Tim with some choices may help him establish more positive
attributions with academic situations.
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Anna is a 6-year-old first grader in a multi-grade class. Anna is a first generation
American in a Russian family. Her parents both speak English with strong Russian accents. She
is bilingual. Anna is quiet, but she has a great sense of humor. She thrives on one-on-one
attention. Anna is below grade level in reading, and she sounds out many sight words. She is
stronger in math than reading, but she often makes many small mistakes due to rushing or not
focusing on her work. Anna is a visual learner who benefits from demonstrations and modeling.
During independent work, Anna is easily distracted. She will often ask an adult for help
reading and explaining directions. With reading and writing tasks, Anna sometimes displays a
helpless attitude. I have noticed her rocking and fidgeting in her chair rather than focusing on her
work. She also looks around a lot and is aware of who is finishing their work before her. It
appears as though she does not want her peers to know when she is struggling.
The goal orientation theory may be useful with this student. Learning how to set mastery-
approach goals could help motivate her to understand new concepts and skills rather than
worrying about how she performs compared to her peers. When students are mastery oriented
they exert much effort at academic tasks, and they compare their current performance with their
own past performances at the same task (Anderman & Anderman, 2010, p. 6). Setting mastery
goals may motivate her to focus on the academic tasks that she finds challenging. Also,
celebrating her effort and mastery of goals could give her the added confidence she needs.
Daniel is a 5-year-old kindergarten student in a multi-grade class. He has a difficult time
following the class rules. Daniel is very easily distracted, and he is talkative and outgoing. Daniel
lives with his single mother. Daniel has phonemic awareness delays, which make reading
difficult for him. He is a tactile learner who enjoys movement and using manipulatives with
COGNITIVE THEORIES OF MOTIVATION AND REAL STUDENTS '
academic tasks. One-on-one attention is helpful and motivating for him, but he has a very short
attention span.
When Daniel is unmotivated to participate in academic tasks, he evinces many avoidance
behaviors. He wanders the room, uses the bathroom frequently, and plays with his pencil,
erasers, and other small items on his desk. Daniel realizes that reading is more difficult for him
than it is for some of his peers. Daniel does not seem to value certain academic tasks. He has a
difficult time understanding the future utility of the skills and content he is learning.
The expectancy-value theory helps explain Daniels lack of motivation in reading.
Because Daniel does not expect to succeed at reading tasks and because he does not value these
tasks greatly, he is unmotivated. Adjusting tasks to be properly challenging for Daniel is
important. If tasks are too challenging, he will not expect to succeed. However, if the task is
appropriately challenging, Daniel may expect that he can succeed at the task. This would
increase his motivation. Additionally, if Daniel does not understand how important reading is for
his future, he will continue to undervalue it. Providing Daniel with examples of how skills like
reading are used in everyday life could help him place more value on it, therefore, increasing his
motivation.
These five motivation theories may help explain why certain students are unmotivated by
academic tasks. By applying the theories to the situations of real students, educators can find
ways to help students increase their academic motivation.




COGNITIVE THEORIES OF MOTIVATION AND REAL STUDENTS (
Parent Letter
Dear Parents,

The intent of this letter is to inform you of my beliefs about classroom motivation, which
are rooted in cognitive theories of motivation. In my classroom, I strive to create a supportive
environment where every child is appropriately challenged. I endeavor to use praise and rewards
effectively, and I teach students how to set attainable and specific goals.
In order to create a supportive environment, I focus on getting to know each of my
students. I enjoy learning about their personal interests. Whenever possible, I like to incorporate
their interests in our learning activities because they are intrinsically motivated by these topics.
Every child learns at a different pace. For this reason, I believe in differentiating instruction to
meet the needs of all learners. Our class learning activities are adjustable so that every child is
challenged but is also able to be successful with effort. We build on successes and work toward
mastery of skills and concepts. I believe that when students experience success due to their hard
work, they build a positive self-concept. These positive feelings about their worth and abilities
give them the confidence and motivation to tackle similar, more challenging tasks.
Praise and rewards can be powerful motivational tools, but they can be detrimental to
childrens motivation to learn if they are used inappropriately. I strive to offer praise that is
genuine and specific. I seek to avoid using praise as a way to control and manipulate other
students behavior as this can draw negative attention and cause embarrassment (Anderman &
Anderman, 2010). I do not want my students to participate in learning activities in order to
receive external rewards. Therefore, I choose to use rewards sparingly as a response to success or
good effort rather than the reason. Unexpected rewards are a celebration of success and effort.
Additionally, research has shown that external rewards are more appropriately used in areas
COGNITIVE THEORIES OF MOTIVATION AND REAL STUDENTS )
where students lack intrinsic motivation. Otherwise, the reward could undermine the existing
motivation. Rewards are also occasionally used with practice tasks that require repetition and
memorization.
Thirdly, I have found that it is important to teach goal setting to my students. This allows
them to take more responsibility for their learning. According to Schunk (2009), students can
improve their learning, motivation, and self-regulation by setting goals that are specific,
proximal, and moderately difficult, receive feedback on their goal progress, focus their attention
on learning processes, and shift their focus to outcome goals as their skills develop. Students
learn how to set attainable and specific goals through modeling, and they refine their goals
through specific feedback. Good progress and reaching goals are causes for celebration.
My students academic motivation is very important to me. I endeavor to inspire them to
be lifelong learners. I believe that creating a challenging and supportive environment, using
praise and rewards effectively, and teaching them to set attainable and specific goals will result
in increased motivation to learn for all students.









COGNITIVE THEORIES OF MOTIVATION AND REAL STUDENTS *
References
Anderman, E. M., & Anderman, L. H. (2009). Attribution theory. Retrieved from
http://www.education.com/reference/article/attribution-theory/
Anderman, E. M., & Anderman, L. H. (2010). Classroom motivation. Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
Schunk, D. (2009). Goal setting. Retrieved from
http://www.education.com/reference/article/goal-setting/