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Alfred Adler

Alfred Adler joined Freud's analytic society in 1902 and was even named the first president in 1910.
However, after growing disagreements he left with several other theorists in 1911, starting his own group
named the 'Individual Psychology,' perhaps as a means to differentiate Adler as an independent theorist in
his search for overcoming his perceived inferiority.
Psychodynamics and teleology
Adler maintained that human psychology is psychodynamic in nature, yet unlike Freud's metapsychology
that emphasizes instinctual demands, human psychology is guided by goals and fueled by a yet unknown
creative force. Like Freud's instincts, Adler's fictive goals are largely unconscious. These goals have a
"teleological" function. Constructivist Adlerians, influenced by neo-Kantian and Nietzschean ideas, view
these "teleological" goals as "fictions" in the sense that Hans Vaihinger spoke of (fictio) fictions.
Vaihinger believed that ultimate truth would always be beyond us, but that, for practical purposes, we need
to create partial truths. He called these partial truths fictions.
Vaihinger, and Adler, pointed out that we use these fictions in day to day living as well. We behave as if we
knew the world would be here tomorrow, as if we were sure what good and bad are all about, as if
everything we see is as we see it, and so on. Adler called this fictional finalism. You can understand the
phrase most easily if you think about an example: Many people behave as if there were a heaven or a hell
in their personal future. Of course, there may be a heaven or a hell, but most of us don't think of this as a
proven fact. That makes it a "fiction" in Vaihinger's and Adler's sense of the word. And finalism refers to the
teleology of it: The fiction lies in the future, and yet influences our behavior today.
Usually there is a fictional final goal which can be deciphered alongside of innumerable sub-goals. The
inferiority/superiority dynamic is constantly at work through various forms of compensation and over-
compensation. For example, in anorexia nervosa the fictive final goal is to "be perfectly thin"
(overcompensation on the basis of a feeling of inferiority). Hence, the fictive final goal can serve a
persecutory function that is ever-present in subjectivity (though its trace springs are usually unconscious).
The end goal of being "thin" is fictive however since it can never be subjectively achieved.
Teleology serves another vital function for Adler. Chilon's "hora telos" ("see the end, consider the
consequences") provides for both healthy and maladaptive psychodynamics. Here we also find Adler's
emphasis on personal responsibility in mentally healthy subjects who seek their own and the social good.
Inferiority
Obviously, everyone suffers from inferiority in one form or another. For example, Adler began his
theoretical work considering organ inferiority, that is, the fact that each of us has weaker, as well as
stronger, parts of our anatomy or physiology. Some of us develop heart problems early in life; Some have
weak lungs, or kidneys, or early liver problems; Some have diabetes, or asthma, or polio; Some have weak
eyes, or poor hearing, or a poor musculature; Some of us have innate tendencies to being heavy, others to
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being skinny; Some of us are retarded, some of us are deformed; Some of us are terribly tall or terribly
short;
Adler noted that many people respond to these organic inferiorities with compensation. They make up for
their deficiencies in some way: The inferior organ can be strengthened and even become stronger than it is
in others; Or other organs can be overdeveloped to take up the slack; Or the person can psychologically
compensate for the organic problem by developing certain skills or even certain personality styles. There
are, as you well know, many examples of people who overcame great physical odds to become what those
who are better endowed physically wouldn't even dream of!
But Adler soon saw that this is only part of the picture. Even more people have psychological
inferiorities. Some of us are told that we are dumb, or ugly, or weak. Some of us come to believe that we
are just plain no good. In school, we are tested over and over, and given grades that tell us we aren't as
good as the next person. Or we are demeaned for our pimples or our bad posture and find ourselves
without friends or dates. Or we are forced into basketball games, where we wait to see which team will be
stuck with us. In these examples, it's not a matter of true organic inferiority -- we are not really retarded or
deformed or weak -- but we learn to believe that we are.
If you are overwhelmed by the forces of inferiority -- whether it is your body hurting, the people around you
holding you in contempt, or just the general difficulties of growing up -- you develop an inferiority
complex.
There is another way in which people respond to inferiority besides compensation and the inferiority
complex: You can also develop a superiority complex. The superiority complex involves covering up your
inferiority by pretending to be superior. If you feel small, one way to feel big is to make everyone else feel
even smaller! Bullies, braggarts, and petty dictators everywhere are the prime example. More subtle
examples are the people who are given to attention-getting dramatics, the ones who feel powerful when
they commit crimes, and the ones who put others down for their gender, race, ethnic origins, religious
beliefs, sexual orientation, weight, height, etc. etc.
Parenting and Birth Order

Parenting Styles. Adler emphasized both treatment and prevention. As a psychodynamic psychology, he
emphasize the foundational importance of childhood in developing personality and any tendency towards
various forms of psychopathology. The best way to inoculate against what are now termed "personality
disorders" (what Adler had called the "neurotic character"), or a tendency to various neurotic conditions
(depression, anxiety, etc.), is to train a child to be and feel an equal part of the family. This entails
developing a democratic character and the ability to exercise power reasonably rather than through
compensation. Hence Adler proselytized against corporal punishment and cautioned parents to refrain from
the twin evils of pampering and neglect. The responsibility to the optimal development of the child is not
limited to the Mother or Father but to teachers and society more broadly. Adler argued therefore that
teachers, nurses, social workers, and so on require training in parent education in order to complement the
work of the family in fostering a democratic character. When a child does not feel equal and is enacted
upon (abused through pampering or neglect) they are likely to develop inferiority or superiority complexes
and various accompanying compensation strategies.
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Adler did agree with Freud on some major issues relating to the parenting of children and the long term
effects of improper or inefficient child rearing. He identified two parental styles that he argued will cause
almost certain problems in adulthood. The first was pampering, referring to a parent overprotecting a child,
giving him too much attention, and sheltering him from the negative realities of life. As this child grows
older, he will be ill equipped to deal with these realities, may doubt his own abilities or decision making
skills, and may seek out others to replace the safety he once enjoyed as a child.

On the other extreme is what Adler called neglect. A neglected child is one who is not protected at all from
the world and is forced to face life's struggles alone. This child may grow up to fear the world, have a
strong sense of mistrust for others and she may have a difficult time forming intimate relationships.

The best approach, according to this theory, is to protect children form the evils of the world but not shelter
them from it. In more practical terms, it means allowing them to hear or see the negative aspects of the
world while still feeling the safety of parental influence. In other words, don't immediately go to the school
principal if your child is getting bullied, but rather teach your child how to respond or take care of herself at
school.

Birth Order. Simply put, Adler believed that the order in which you are born to a family inherently effects
your personality. First born children who later have younger siblings may have it the worst. These children
are given excessive attention and pampering by their parents until that fateful day when the little brother or
sister arrives. Suddenly they are no longer the center of attention and fall into the shadows wondering why
everything changed. According to Adler, they are left feeling inferior, questioning their importance in the
family, and trying desperately to gain back the attention they suddenly lost. The birth order theory holds
that first born children often have the greatest number of problems as they get older.

Middle born children may have it the easiest, and interestingly, Adler was a middle born child. These
children are not pampered as their older sibling was, but are still afforded the attention. As a middle child,
they have the luxury of trying to dethrone the oldest child and become more superior while at the same time
knowing that they hold this same power over their younger siblings. Adler believed that middle children
have a high need for superiority and are often able to seek it out such as through healthy competition.

The youngest children, like the first born, may be more likely to experience personality problems later in
life. This is the child who grows up knowing that he has the least amount of power in the whole family. He
sees his older siblings having more freedom and more superiority. He also gets pampered and protected
more than any other child did. This could leave him with a sense that he can not take on the world alone
and will always be inferior to others.

Psychotherapy
Adler was concerned with the overcoming of the superiority/inferiority dynamic and was one of the first
psychotherapists to discard the analytic couch in favor of two chairs. This allows the clinician and patient to
sit together more or less as equals. Clinically, Adler's methods are not limited to treatment after-the-fact but
extend to the realm of prevention by preempting future problems in the child. Their success depends on
cooperation. The tasks of life are not to be considered in isolation since.

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Individual Psychology
Adler's School is in reference to the Latin individuus meaning indivisibility, a term intended to emphasize
holismis both a social and community psychology as well as a depth psychology. Adler was an early
advocate in psychology for prevention and emphasized the training of parents, teachers, social workers
and so on in democratic approaches that allow a child to exercise their power through reasoned decision
making whilst co-operating with others.
On feminism
Adler was also an early supporter of feminism in psychology and the social world, believing that feelings of
superiority and inferiority were often gendered and expressed symptomatically in characteristic masculine
and feminine styles. These styles could form the basis of psychic compensation and lead to mental health
difficulties.
Social interest
Second in importance only to striving for perfection is the idea of social interest or social feeling (originally
called "community feeling"). As social animals, we simply don't exist, much less thrive, without others, and
even the most resolute people-hater forms that hatred in a social context!
Adler felt that social concern was not simply inborn, nor just learned, but a combination of both: It is based
on an innate disposition, but it has to be nurtured to survive. That it is to some extent innate is shown by the
way babies and small children often show sympathy for others without having been taught to do so. Notice
how, when one baby in a nursery begins to cry, they all begin to cry.
On the other hand, a lack of social concern is, for Adler, the very definition of mental ill-health: All failures --
neurotics, psychotics, criminals, drunkards, problem children, suicides, perverts, and prostitutes -- are
failures because they are lacking in social interest.... Their goal of success is a goal of personal superiority,
and their triumphs have meaning only to themselves.
Psychological types
Although all neurosis is, for Adler, a matter of insufficient social interest, he did note that three types could
be distinguished based on the different levels of energy they involved:
The first is the ruling type. They are, from childhood on, characterized by a tendency to be rather
aggressive and dominant over others. Their energy -- the strength of their striving after personal power -- is
so great that they tend to push over anything or anybody who gets in their way. The most energetic of them
are bullies and sadists; somewhat less energetic ones hurt others by hurting themselves, and include
alcoholics, drug addicts, and suicides.
The second is the leaning type. They are sensitive people who have developed a shell around themselves
which protects them, but they must rely on others to carry them through life's difficulties. They have low
energy levels and so become dependent. When overwhelmed, they develop what we typically think of as
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neurotic symptoms: phobias, obsessions and compulsions, general anxiety, hysteria, amnesias, and so on,
depending on individual details of their lifestyle.
The third type is the avoiding type. These have the lowest levels of energy and only survive by essentially
avoiding life -- especially other people. When pushed to the limits, they tend to become psychotic,
retreating finally into their own personal worlds.
There is a fourth type as well: the socially useful type. This is the healthy person, one who has both social
interest and energy. Note that without energy, you can't really have social interest, since you wouldn't be
able to actually do anything for anyone!
Striving for Success or Superiority
The sole dynamic force behind peoples actions is the striving for success or superiority.
The Final Goal
o The final goal of success or superiority toward which all people strive unifies personality
and makes all behavior meaningful.
The Striving Force as Compensation
o Because people are born with small, inferior bodies, they feel inferior and attempt to
overcome these feelings through their natural tendency to move toward completion. The
striving force can take one of two coursespersonal gain (superiority) or community
benefit (success).
Striving for Personal Superiority
o Psychologically unhealthy individuals strive for personal superiority with little concern for
other people. Although they may appear to be interested in other people, their basic
motivation is personal benefit.
Striving for Success
o In contrast, psychologically healthy people strive for the success of all humanity, but they
do so without losing their personal identity.
Subjective Perceptions
Peoples subjective view of the worldnot realityshapes their behavior.
Fictionalism
o Fictions are peoples expectations of the future. Adler held that fictions guide behavior,
because people act as if these fictions are true. Adler emphasized teleology over
causality, or explanations of behavior in terms of future goals rather than past causes.
Physical Inferiorities
o Adler believed that all humans are blessed with physical inferiorities, which stimulate
subjective feelings of inferiority and move people toward perfection or completion.
Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality
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Adler believed that all behaviors are directed toward a single purpose. When seen in the light of
that sole purpose, seemingly contradictory behaviors can be seen as operating in a self-consistent
manner.
Organ Dialect
o People often use a physical disorder to express style of life, a condition Adler called organ
dialect, or organ jargon.
Social Interest
o Human behavior has value to the extent that it is motivated by social interest, that is, a
feeling of oneness with all of humanity.
Origins of Social Interest
Although social interest exists as potentiality in all people, it must be fostered in a social
environment. Adler believed that the parent-child relationship can be so strong that it negates the
effects of heredity.
Importance of Social Interest
o According to Adler, social interest is the sole criterion of human values, and the
worthiness of all ones actions must be seen by this standard. Without social interest,
societies could not exist; individuals in antiquity could not have survived without
cooperating with others to protect themselves from danger. Even today an infants
helplessness predisposes it toward a nurturing person.
Style of Life
o The manner of a persons striving is called style of life, a pattern that is relatively well set
by 4 or 5 years of age. However, Adler believed that healthy individuals are marked by
flexible behavior and that they have some limited ability to change their style of life.
Creative Power
o Style of life is partially a product of heredity and environmentthe building blocks of
personalitybut ultimately style of life is shaped by peoples creative power, that is, by
their ability to freely choose a course of action.
Abnormal Development
Creative power is not limited to healthy people; unhealthy individuals also create their own
personalities. Thus, each of us is free to choose either a useful or a useless style of life.
General Description
o The most important factor in abnormal development is lack of social interest. In addition,
people with a useless style of life tend to (1) set their goals too high, (2) have a dogmatic
style of life, and (3) live in their own private world.
External Factors in Maladjustment
o Adler listed three factors that relate to abnormal development: (1) exaggerated physical
defects, which do not by themselves cause abnormal development, but which may
contribute to it by generating subjective and exaggerated feelings of inferiority; (2) a
pampered style of life, which contributes to an overriding drive to establish a permanent
parasitic relationship with the mother or a mother substitute; and (3) a neglected style of
life, which leads to distrust of other people.
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Safeguarding Tendencies
o Both normal and neurotic people create symptoms as a means of protecting their fragile
self-esteem. These safeguarding tendencies maintain a neurotic life style and protect a
person from public disgrace. The three principal safeguarding tendencies are (1)
excuses, which allow people to preserve their inflated sense of personal worth; (2)
aggression, which may take the form of depreciating others accomplishments, accusing
others of being responsible for ones own failures, or self-accusation; and (3) withdrawal,
which can be expressed by psychologically moving backward, standing still, hesitating,
or constructing obstacles
Masculine Protest
o Both men and women sometimes overemphasize the desirability of being manly, a
condition Adler called the masculine protest. The frequently found inferior status of
women is not based on physiology but on historical developments and social learning.
Applications of Individual Psychology
Adler applied the principles of individual psychology to family constellation, early recollections,
dreams, and psychotherapy.
Family Constellation
o Adler believed that peoples perception of how they fit into their family is related to their
style of life.
Early Recollections
o A more reliable method of determining style of life is to ask people for their earliest
recollections. Adler believed that early memories are templates on which people project
their current style of life. These recollections need not be accurate accounts of early
event, but true or false, they have psychological importance because they reflect a
persons current view of the world.
Dreams
o Adler believed that dreams can provide clues to solving future problems. However,
dreams are disguised to deceive the dreamer and usually must be interpreted by another
person.