Attachment Security in Couple Relationships: A Systemic Model and Its Implications for family dynamics. The sense of Attachment Security has been identified as a major variable explaining variations in the quality of dating and marital relationships. The authors review relevant published material on the association between the sense of Attachment Security and quality of couple relationships.
Attachment Security in Couple Relationships: A Systemic Model and Its Implications for family dynamics. The sense of Attachment Security has been identified as a major variable explaining variations in the quality of dating and marital relationships. The authors review relevant published material on the association between the sense of Attachment Security and quality of couple relationships.
Attachment Security in Couple Relationships: A Systemic Model and Its Implications for family dynamics. The sense of Attachment Security has been identified as a major variable explaining variations in the quality of dating and marital relationships. The authors review relevant published material on the association between the sense of Attachment Security and quality of couple relationships.
for Family Dynamics MARIO MIKULINCER, Ph.D. VICTOR FLORIAN, Ph.D. PHILIP A. COWAN, Ph.D. CAROLYN PAPE COWAN, Ph.D. Theory and research on adult attachment style emphasize the crucial role that the sense of attachment security plays in the formation and maintenance of couple re- lationships. In the present article, we review studies that have examined the contribu- tion of adult attachment style to relational cognitions, emotions, and behaviors as well as to the formation, quality, and sta- bility of dating and marital relationships. We discuss some of the measurement and design issues raised by this research. Based on the reviewed ndings, we pro- vide an integrative, systemic theoretical model delineating how the links between partners attachment security and the quality of their couple relationship occurs. Finally, we discuss the implications of this model for the understanding of how at- tachment style and couple relationships combine to affect the family system in gen- eral, and parent-child relationships and childrens developmental outcomes, in particular. Fam Proc 41:405434, 2002 I N the last two decades, the study of couple relationships and marital sat- isfaction has received ample attention in the professional literature. Several stud- ies have attempted to identify the major factors that may contribute to the quality of these relationships. One of the most promising and examined factors is the pattern of the individuals attachment or- ganization. Specically, the sense of at- tachment security has been identied as a major variable explaining variations in the quality of dating and marital relation- ships (see Feeney, 1999a, Shaver & Hazan, 1993, for reviews). In this article, we review relevant published material on the association between the sense of at- tachment security and quality of couple relationships. Then we present a systemic model, delineating the intervening paths between these two constructs and the re- ciprocal inuences between the two part- Both authors are Professors of Psychology, Dept. of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University and Co-Directors of the Peleg-Bilig Center. Send correspondence to Dr. Mikulincer, Department of Psychology, Bar- Ilan University, Ramat Gan 52900, Israel; e-mail: mikulm@mail.biu.ac.il // Dr. Florians e-mail: oriav@ mail.biu.ac.il Philip A. Cowan, Ph.D., Professor, e-mail: pcowan@Socrates.berkeley.edu and Carolyn Pape Cowan, Adjunct Professor, e-mail: ccowan@uclink4. berkeley.edu are afliated with The Institute of Hu- man Development, Department of Psychology, Uni- versity of California, Berkeley CA. 405 Family Process, Vol. 41, No. 3, 2002 FPI, Inc. ners, and extending it to other aspects of the family system. THE SENSE OF ATTACHMENT SECURITY According to Bowlbys (1973) theory, in- teractions with signicant others who are available and supportive in times of stress facilitate the formation of a sense of attachment security. Waters, Rodrigues, and Ridgeway (1998) viewed this sense as a set of expectations about others avail- ability and responsiveness in times of stress, which are organized around a ba- sic prototype or script. This script seems to include the following if-then proposi- tions: If I encounter an obstacle and/or become distressed, I can approach a sig- nicant other for help; I am a person wor- thy of receiving help; he or she is likely to be available and supportive; I will ex- perience relief and comfort as a result of proximity to this person; I can then return to other activities. In Bowlbys (1973) terms, the sense of attachment security provides an individual with a framework for maintaining wellbeing, formulating effective emotion-regulation devices, de- veloping positive models of self and oth- ers, and engaging in exploration, aflia- tion, and caregiving activities. Although the sense of attachment secu- rity may be formed during early interac- tions with primary caregivers, Bowlby (1988) contended that every meaning- ful interaction with signicant others throughout life may affect beliefs about others availability and supportiveness. Moreover, although the sense of attach- ment security may be quite general, it is also common for people to develop rela- tionship-specic beliefs organized around actual experiences with a specic partner. These beliefs do not necessarily t with the global sense of attachment security and may be inuenced by the quality of the specic relationship (Collins & Read, 1994). In fact, like every mental represen- tation, the sense of attachment security can be contextually activated by actual or imagined encounters with available g- ures, even in persons who have global doubts about others goodwill (Baldwin, Keelan, Fehr, et al., 1996). In the last 15 years, numerous studies have examined the sense of attachment security in adulthood. The most fre- quently used strategy is to examine as- sociations between the global sense of attachment security and theoretically rel- evant constructs. Specically, these stud- ies have focused on a persons attachment style and compared persons whose re- ports suggest a secure style with those whose reports suggest more insecure styles. This line of research has been guided by two different conceptual and methodological approaches (Hazan & Shaver, 1987; Main, Kaplan, & Cassidy, 1985) that use different assessment tech- niques and tap different aspects of attach- ment style. Main et al.s (1985) approach is based on a developmental perspective and assesses early attachment to parents through an intensive, reliable, and well- validated interview (the Adult Attach- ment InterviewAAI; George, Kaplan, & Main, 1985) that demands complex and skillful content and stylistic interpreta- tion of narrative accounts of relationship qualities. Hazan and Shavers (1987) ap- proach is based on a personality and so- cial psychology perspective and assesses current attachment orientations to signif- icant others (not only parents but also romantic partners) through self-report measures that have been found to be par- simonious and psychometrically sound. Recent advances in the conceptualiza- tion and assessment of adult attachment style indicate that this relational con- struct seems to be organized around two underlying dimensions (Brennan, Clark, & Shaver, 1998). The rst dimension, typ- ically called avoidance, reects the ex- tent to which people distrust others good- will and strive to maintain emotional dis- 406 / FAMILY PROCESS tance and remain independent from a relationship partner. The second dimen- sion, typically called anxiety, reects the degree to which people worry that a partner might not be available or support- ive in times of need. Persons scoring low on these two dimensions exhibit the se- cure style and are characterized by a pos- itive history of attachment interactions and a global sense of attachment security. Studies using both the AAI and self- report measures of attachment style have generally supported Bowlbys hypotheses about the psychological correlates of the sense of attachment security. First, per- sons having a sense of attachment secu- rity tend to react to stressful events with lower levels of distress than persons who score high on avoidance or anxiety dimen- sions (B.C. Feeney & Kirkpatrick, 1996; Mikulincer & Florian, 2001). Second, per- sons who hold a sense of attachment se- curity are more likely to cope with stress by relying on support-seeking than do persons who score high on avoidance or anxiety dimensions (Fraley & Shaver, 1998; Simpson, Rholes, & Nelligan, 1992). Third, securely attached persons hold more positive expectations about relation- ship partners than persons who score high on the avoidance dimension (Collins, 1996; Collins & Read, 1990). Fourth, se- curely attached persons hold more posi- tive self-views than persons who score high on the anxiety dimension (Bar- tholomew & Horowitz, 1991; Mikulincer, 1998). Fifth, persons who hold a sense of attachment security are more likely to en- gage in exploration and afliation activi- ties, and to be more sensitive and respon- sive to their partners needs than persons scoring high on avoidance or anxiety dimen- sions (Feeney, 1996; Mikulincer, 1997; Mikulincer & Selinger, 2001). In his writings, Bowlby (1979) also em- phasized the possible implications of at- tachment security for couple relation- ships. In his own words, there is a strong causal relationship between an individu- als experiences with his parents and his later capacity to make affectional bonds (p. 135). In particular, Bowlby (1979) highlighted marriage as the affectional bond in which the inuence of attachment history is most likely to be manifested. Following this theoretical formulation, studies have attempted to test empiri- cally whether relatively enduring differ- ences in attachment style would be man- ifested in the quality of adult couple rela- tionships and marriage. In the next two sections, we (1) outline briey some of the methodological issues involved in examining links between at- tachment style and couple relationship qualities, and (2) review the existing rel- evant studies. Based on the ndings, we then present a systemic model to suggest how the links between attachment and marital quality occur. Moreover, we dis- cuss the implications of our formulation for the understanding of how adult at- tachment and marital relationships com- bine to affect parent-child relationships and childrens developmental outcomes an endeavor that places attachment in the context of the family system and gives a central role to couple relationships as a potential mechanism in the transmission of attachment relationships across the generations. METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES The Assessment of Attachment As we noted above, two major methods of measuring attachment style in adult- hood were developed in the 1980s. Main and her colleagues (Main & Goldwyn, 1994; George, Kaplan, & Main, 1985) have relied on a narrative approach to elicit working models of attachment. The 60- to 90-minute AAI (see Hesse, 1999, for a description) asks interviewees to choose 5 adjectives to describe their relationships with mother and father, to MIKULINCER, FLORIAN, P. COWAN, & C. COWAN / 407 Fam. Proc., Vol. 41, Fall, 2002 supply anecdotes illustrating why they characterized each relationship with those adjectives, to speculate about why their parents behaved as they did, and to de- scribe change over time in the quality of their relationships with parents. Tracing their assumptions back to Ains- worths early formulations describing in- fants attachments (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978), the creators of the AAI assumed that attachment patterns were best conceptualized as categories or types. Coding of the AAI is based on an analysis of 5 continuous scales intended to capture the quality of early experi- ences, separately with mother and with father (e.g., loving, rejecting), and on 12 scales that describe a persons current state of mind regarding those experiences (e.g., derogation of attachment, coherence of the narrative). Based on a congura- tional analysis of these scales, which are thought to represent dominant discourse strategies (Main & Goldwyn, 1996), AAI narratives are coded as indicative of ei- ther secure, insecure-dismissing, or inse- cure-preoccupied working models of at- tachment.* The second main method of measuring adult attachment differs in three impor- tant ways from the AAI. First, the data come primarily from questionnaires (but see Scharfe & Bartholomew, 1995, for a comparison of questionnaire and inter- view methods). Second, the aim of these questionnaires is not to examine working models of early parent-child relation- ships, but rather to assess styles of at- tachment in adult close relationships. Third, items in these questionnaires focus explicitly on whether the self is worthy of love and whether the other will be avail- able for support when the need arises. Initially, these questionnaires adopted a categorical approach (Hazan & Shaver, 1987), asking individuals to choose among three brief prototypical descriptions of Se- cure, Avoidant, and Preoccupied attach- ment in adult intimate relationships. However, subsequent versions decon- structed the paragraphs into sentences (Collins & Read, 1990) and computed con- tinuous attachment scores (e.g., Fraley, Waller, & Brennan, 2000). An enduring concern, which has not been given the attention it deserves, is that there is not always correspondence between the narrative and questionnaire methods, or the categorical versus contin- uous scoring of questionnaires. Because the more intensive Adult Attachment Inter- view focuses on early parent-child rela- tionships and the various questionnaire attachment style measures focus on adult- adult intimate relationships, it should not be surprising to nd that the overlap is quite low at best (Shaver, Belsky, & Bren- nan, 2000; Cowan & Cowan, 2001). Com- paring the self-classication of attachment categories using the paragraph method and the classication based on dimen- sional analysis of questionnaire responses, Brennan et al. (1998) found highly statis- tically signicant results; yet, nearly half of the participants classied as secure on one measure were classied as insecure on the other. As we shall see, despite the fact that there is often low agreement be- tween methods of measuring attachment, different studies using different methods tend to produce similar trends concerning the connections between partners attach- ment and marital quality. A little-noted but important fact is that most of the items used to assess attach- ment are phrased in general terms (I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to others), but some investigators re-write the items to focus on specic relationships (I am somewhat uncomfortable being * Two additional categoriesUnresolved as a re- sult of loss and Cannot Classifyare part of the system, but the three primary categories represent the major alternative strategies for dealing with threats to attachment relationships. 408 / FAMILY PROCESS close to my partner). The two versions tend to be signicantly correlated in the .3 to .5 range (Cowan & Cowan, 2001). This modest correspondence leaves room for the suggestive ndings described below revealing that self-reported attachment style with ones partner shows higher cor- relations with marital satisfaction than self-reported general attachment style in relation to unspecied others. Measurement of Marital Quality Marital quality is measured in different ways in different studies. It is not prob- lematic that different studies use differ- ent questionnaires assessing marital sat- isfaction, since they all tend to be very highly correlated (Gottman, 1993). What is more at issue is that most researchers rely on an individuals self-report of the quality of his or her intimate relationship, while a few base their conclusions on ob- servations of marital interaction, often in laboratory settings. Although signicant correlations between self-reports and ob- servations are consistently found, it is rare that one measure explains more than 25% of the variance in the other (cf. Lev- enson & Gottman, 1983). Determining Sequence and Causal Connections The question at the heart of this article is whether attachment patterns can be described as antecedent to marital qual- ity, or, more strongly, as playing a causal role in partners ability to establish a pos- itive couple relationship. As we shall see, this question is difcult to answer from the data that are presently available. One obstacle to making causal inferences is that most studies of attachment style and couple relationship not only assess both constructs at the same time, but, as we have indicated, both kinds of data are ob- tained from the same person. Conclusions about the linkage between the two are then confounded by the information sourcea problem that Bank, Dishion, Skinner, and Patterson (1990) describe colorfully as glop. Our review will show that this does not pose an insurmountable problem, because studies with indepen- dent sources of attachment and couple re- lationship data support the hypothesis that the two are functionally related. More difcult to deal with is the nature of the functional relationship. Many in- vestigators assume that longitudinal de- signs will solve the problem, reasoning that if attachment measured at Time 1 predicts couple relationship quality as- sessed at Time 2, we can determine the direction of effects. But as two of us have noted elsewhere (Cowan & Cowan, 2002), it is possible that earlier couple relation- ship qualities produce the Time 1 attach- ment results. That is, causal hypotheses can be supported but not proven by lon- gitudinal designs. What we need, then, are experimental and quasi-experimental longitudinal designs in which earlier in- tervention-induced changes in attachment style result in later changes in relation- ship quality, or vice versa. Having raised a number of methodological concerns, we now review ndings on attachment and couple relationship. A REVIEW OF EMPIRICAL FINDINGS Relationship Expectations and Beliefs Adult attachment studies have pro- vided important information on the asso- ciation between the sense of attachment security and positive beliefs about couple relationships. For example, Hazan and Shaver (1987) found that participants who classied themselves as securely at- tached scored higher than insecure per- sons in beliefs about (a) the existence of romantic love and (b) the possibility that, although romantic feelings wax and wane, they may reach the intensity expe- rienced at the start of the relationship, and in some cases, never fade. Subse- MIKULINCER, FLORIAN, P. COWAN, & C. COWAN / 409 Fam. Proc., Vol. 41, Fall, 2002 quent studies have reported that, as com- pared to more insecure people, securely attached people held more optimistic be- liefs about love relationships and mar- riage (Carnelley & Janoff-Bulman, 1992; Pietromonaco & Carnelley, 1994; Whit- aker, Beach, Etherton, et al., 1999), were more likely to use a positive frame in thinking about couple relationships (Boon & Grifn, 1996), and were less likely to evaluate negative relational outcomes (Feeney & Noller, 1992) and to endorse dysfunctional beliefs about couple rela- tionships (Whisman & Allan, 1996). The formation and maintenance of long-term romantic relationships: Attach- ment studies have consistently reported that persons differing in attachment style vary in (a) the likelihood of being involved in long-term couple relationships, and (b) the vulnerability of these relationships to disruption. For example, more securely attached persons have been found among seriously committed dating couples or married couples than in samples of single individuals (e.g., Kirkpatrick & Davis, 1994; Kobak & Hazan, 1991; Senchak & Leonard, 1992). Accordingly, Hill, Young, and Nord (1994) found that persons who reported a secure attachment style were more likely to attain marriage/cohabita- tion and less likely to experience divorce than insecure persons. There is also extensive evidence that secure persons have more stable dating relationships than insecure persons (Feeney & Noller, 1990, 1992; Hazan & Shaver, 1987; Kirkpatrick & Davis, 1994; Kirkpatrick & Hazan, 1994; Shaver & Brennan, 1992). This nding was repli- cated in both cross-sectional and longitu- dinal studies. For example, Kirkpatrick and Hazan (1994) found that secure per- sons relationships were more likely to be intact after 4 years than insecure persons relationships. In contrast, avoidant per- sons were more likely 4 years later to be seeing more than one person or to be not seeing anyone and not looking, whereas anxiously attached persons were most likely to indicate that they were not seeing anyone and looking for a partner. Conceptually similar ndings were found by Klohnen and Bera (1998) among women who participated in a 31-year lon- gitudinal personality study. At ages 21, 27, 43, and 52, information was collected about their marital status. Participants also provided information about their commitment to marriage at age 21, mar- ital tensions at age 27, relationship satis- faction at age 43 and 52, and attachment style at age 52. Women who endorsed a secure attachment style at age 52 showed a different relationship trajectory from women with an insecure attachment style beginning as early as age 21. First, se- curely attached women were more likely to be married at age 52 and reported higher relationship satisfaction than women who endorsed an insecure style at the same age. Second, securely attached mid-life women had reported higher com- mitment to getting married and starting a family at age 21 than insecurely attached women and this early difference seemed to have come true 6 years later at age 27, when secure women were more likely to be married and report fewer marital tensions than women who endorsed an insecure style. However, one should be aware of the retrospective nature of this study as well as of the possibility that variations in relationship trajectory might have affected womens attachment style at age 52. In one of the only studies of attachment and marital stability using the narrative approach, Crowell and Treboux (2001) as- sessed 146 premarital dating couples with the AAI and with another interview fo- cused specically on their relationship as a couplethe Couple Relationship Inter- view (CRI). Five years later, they found that the AAI did not predict marital breakup, but couples in which both part- 410 / FAMILY PROCESS ners were categorized as insecurely at- tached on the CRI were more likely to have separated or divorced. The sense of attachment security has also been found to be inversely associated with problems in relationship formation and maintenance (Bartholomew & Horo- witz, 1991; Bookwala & Zdaniuk, 1998; Doi & Thelen, 1993; McCarthy & Taylor, 1999; Thelen, Sherman, & Borst, 1998). For example, Bartholomew and Horowitz (1991) assessed maladaptive interper- sonal behavior, as measured by the In- ventory of Interpersonal Problems, and found that securely attached persons did not score extremely high in any of the problem scales. In contrast, whereas at- tachment anxiety was positively related to scores of hard to be sociable, hard to be submissive, too responsible, and too controlling, attachment avoidance was positively correlated with scores of hard to be intimate. These ndings were rep- licated in self-reports and friend-reports. Overall, the ndings consistently show that secure persons, as compared to inse- cure persons, (a) are more likely to be involved in long-term couple relation- ships, (b) have more stable couple rela- tionships, and (c) suffer from fewer dif- culties and/or disruptions in the relation- ship. The fewlongitudinal studies suggest that attachment security antedates indi- ces of marital stability, but it is too early to claim that individuals attachment se- curity plays a direct role in whether cou- ples stay together or break up. Attachment security as a mate selection standard: Another relevant line of re- search has focused on mating preference and claimed that a person seeking to form a long-term couple relationship would prefer to mate with securely attached partners, because they hold a positive ori- entation towards this type of relationship. In support of this view, Pietromonaco and Carnelley (1994) and Chappell and Davis (1998) found that participants, regardless of their own attachment style, reported more positive emotions and less negative emotions when imagining a relationship with a secure rather than an insecure partner. Accordingly, Baldwin et al. (1996, Study 3), Frazier, Byer, Fischer, et al. (1996), and Latty-Mann and Davis (1996) constructed vignettes of potential partners differing in their attachment ori- entations and found that secure partners were preferred over insecure partners. The Quality of Dating Relationships The bulk of relevant data has been re- ported by studies that have focused on the association between attachment security and quality of dating relationships. Spe- cically, these studies have tested the hy- pothesis that secure attachment would be linked to the formation of satisfactory dating relationships, which are character- ized by emotional involvement, intimacy, commitment, trust, friendly communica- tion patterns, and caring. The hypothesized positive association between the sense of attachment security and satisfaction with dating relationships has been consistently documented in sev- eral cross-sectional studies using differ- ent measures of attachment style (e.g., forced-choice tripartite categorization, Adult Attachment Interview, Relation- ship Questionnaire) and different scales of relationship satisfaction (e.g., Relation- ship Rating Form, Dyadic Adjustment Scale, Marital Satisfaction Index). All these studies have found that attachment security is signicantly correlated with relationship satisfaction, with securely attached persons reporting the highest level of satisfaction and anxiously at- tached persons reporting the lowest level (for details of these studies in Table 1, see Appendix). Generally, this association was found in both men and women and has been replicated in prospective longi- tudinal studies (see Table 1). Moreover, some studies have found that the associ- MIKULINCER, FLORIAN, P. COWAN, & C. COWAN / 411 Fam. Proc., Vol. 41, Fall, 2002 ation between secure attachment and sat- isfaction with dating relationships cannot be explained by other personality factors, such as the big ve factors, depression, dysfunctional beliefs, self-esteem, and sex-role orientation (e.g., Carnelley, Pie- tromonaco, & Jaffe, 1994; Jones & Cun- ningham, 1996; Shaver & Brennan, 1992; Whisman & Allan, 1996). Using both global and relationship-spe- cic measures of attachment orientation, Cozzarelli, Hoekstra, and Bylsma (2000) found a signicant positive association between reports of secure attachment within a specic current dating relation- ship and reports of satisfaction with that relationship. Unexpectedly, reports of global attachment style in close relation- ships were not signicantly related to re- ported satisfaction with a specic dating relationship. The same pattern has also been found in a study of married couples (Cowan & Cowan, 2001). It seems that relationship-specic secure attachment is more relevant to explain satisfaction with a couple relationship than is a global mea- sure of attachment security. The sense of attachment security has also been found to contribute to other ba- sic characteristics of dating relationships. For example, signicant positive associa- tions have been found between reports of secure attachment and several measures of involvement and interdependence in dating relationships (e.g., Rubins Love scale, Dependency scale, Self-disclosure scale, Relationship Rating Form) in a number of cross-sectional (Collins & Read, 1990; Feeney, 1999b; Feeney &Nol- ler, 1991; Feeney, Noller, & Patty, 1993; Hazan & Shaver, 1987; Hendrick & Hen- drick, 1989; Levy & Davis, 1988; Miku- lincer & Erev, 1991) and longitudinal studies (e.g., Kirkpatrick & Davis, 1994; Kirkpatrick & Hazan, 1994; Simpson, 1990). Accordingly, ratings of attachment security were signicantly associated with greater commitment to a dating re- lationship, and ratings of attachment avoidance were signicantly associated with lower levels of commitment (Hen- drick & Hendrick, 1989; Kirkpatrick & Davis, 1994; Kirkpatrick & Hazan, 1994; Levy & Davis, 1988; Mikulincer & Erev, 1991; Pistole, Clark, & Tubbs, 1995; Pis- tole & Vocaturo, 1999; Shaver & Bren- nan, 1992; Simpson, 1990; Tucker & Anders, 1999). In a study of the quality of dating rela- tionships over a period of 4 months, Keelan, Dion, and Dion (1994) found that securely attached persons maintained high stable levels of commitment and trust in a dating relationship during the followup period. In contrast, insecure per- sons exhibited a decrease of commitment and trust over the same period. Moreover, secure persons reported a constant low level of perceived relationship costs (how much one invested in the relationship) over the 4-month period, whereas inse- cure persons showed increases in such perceived costs over time. The ndings imply that the relationship commitment of insecure persons may deteriorate over time and that time may exacerbate initial differences in relationship commitment between attachment groups. Persons differing in attachment style have been also found to differ in the qual- ity of their communication pattern with a dating partner. For example, Fitzpatrick, Fey, Segrin, and Schiff (1993) found that self-reports of secure attachment style were related to higher reported levels of positive mutual patterns of communica- tion and lower levels of demanding and withdrawal patterns. Accordingly, Guer- rero (1996) videotaped dating couples while discussing important personal problems and found that securely attached persons scored higher than avoidant persons in measures of trust-receptivity, gaze, facial pleasantness, vocal pleasantness, general interest in the conversation, and atten- tiveness to partners speech while dis- 412 / FAMILY PROCESS cussing problems with their partners. In addition, secure people scored lower in vocal and physical signs of distress than anxiously attached people. In the same vein, Tucker and Anders (1998) videotaped dating couples while discussing positive aspects of their rela- tionships and found that persons with a more secure attachment style tended to laugh more, touch their partner more, gaze more, and smile more during the interaction than insecure persons. Ac- cordingly, secure persons were rated as signicantly more nonverbally expressive and appeared to be experiencing more en- joyment than insecure persons. At a dy- adic level, couples in which both partners were securely attached were rated as ex- periencing more enjoyment during the conversation than couples in which at least one partner was insecurely at- tached. Importantly, similar patterns of nd- ings have been found in dyadic studies that examined the effects of a persons secure attachment on his or her dating partners reports of relationship satisfac- tion and quality (Collins & Read, 1990; Jones & Cunningham, 1996; Kirkpatrick & Davis, 1994; Mikulincer & Erev, 1991; Scharfe & Bartholomew, 1995; Shaver & Brennan, 1992; Simpson, 1990). In these studies, the two partners of dating cou- ples completed adult attachment scales and reported on their satisfaction with, and appraisal of the dating relationship. Generally, a persons secure attachment style was signicantly associated with the partners reports of relationship satisfac- tion and quality (e.g., intimacy, commit- ment). However, this dyadic effect was stronger and more consistent for womens than mens secure attachment. In addi- tion, both partners sense of attachment security made a signicant contribution to their joint relationship satisfaction. In fact, both partners were dissatised when at least one of the partners scored high on attachment anxiety or avoidance. Only one study (Whisman & Allan, 1996) found that a persons attachment style did not signicantly predict the partners satis- faction. Despite the strong evidence of associa- tion between security of attachment and relationship quality in dating couples, our cautionary notes at the beginning of this article indicate that we cannot infer cau- sality from correlational data. For exam- ple, the nding that secure persons have partners who report high levels of satis- faction may equally reect the possibility that (a) the behavior and attitudes of se- cure persons reinforce their partners sat- isfaction, (b) their partners high levels of satisfaction lead participants to feel more securely attached in the relationship, and (c) secure persons choose partners who are able or willing to maintain long last- ing satisfactory relationships. Given the ambiguity here, there are two alternative courses of action with regard to the for- mation of theoretical models. One is to wait until intervention studies establish the direction of effects. A second alterna- tive is to question the linear causal premise and wonder instead whether the linkage is bidirectional, with attachment and relationship quality involved in circu- lar patterns of inuence, as family system theories suggest (e.g., Wagner & Reiss, 1995). The Quality of Marital Relationships Studies of married couples have also provided strong supportive evidence on the link between attachment security and relationship satisfaction (see Table 2 in the Appendix). In a study of newlywed couples, Senchak and Leonard (1992) found that secure couples (both partners described themselves as securely at- tached) reported higher marital satisfac- tion and intimacy than mixed (one spouse chose the secure description and the other dened himself or herself as insecure) MIKULINCER, FLORIAN, P. COWAN, & C. COWAN / 413 Fam. Proc., Vol. 41, Fall, 2002 and insecure couples (both partners de- scribed themselves as insecurely at- tached). No signicant difference was found between mixed and insecure cou- ples, implying that the attachment inse- curity of one spouse may have an overrid- ing inuence on the quality of the mar- riage. However, because the couple was used as the unit of analysis in this study, the actual effects of each partners attach- ment style on relationship quality re- mained unassessed. In dealing with this problem, Feeney (1994) and Feeney, Noller, and Callan (1994) analyzed the effects of a persons attachment security on his or her own reports of marital satisfaction as well as on his or her partners reports after 12 and 21 months of marriage. Findings in- dicated that a persons attachment secu- rity was signicantly associated with both partners reports of high marital satisfac- tion. These ndings have been replicated and extended in a number of subsequent studies (e.g., Davila, Bradbury, &Fincham, 1998; Feeney, 1999c; Lussier, Sabourin, & Turgeon, 1997; Mikulincer, Horesh, Levy- Shiff, et al., 1998). Importantly, Davila, Karney, and Bradbury (1999) replicated these ndings at ve points of measure- ments during 3 years (every 6 months) in a sample of newlywed couples. In addi- tion, they reported that changes in hus- bands and wives reports of secure at- tachment predicted concurrent changes in the persons own and partners reports of marital satisfaction. Studies of marriage have also linked the sense of attachment security with more marital intimacy (Mayseless, Sharabany, & Sagi, 1997), less marital ambivalence (Volling, Notaro, & Larsen, 1998), and more positive climate within the marriage (Diehl, Elnick, Bourbeau, & Labouvie- Vief, 1998). Furthermore, Mikulincer and Florian (1999) found signicant associa- tions between spouses attachment style and their reports of marital cohesion and adaptability (FACES III). Whereas spouses who endorsed a secure style re- ported relatively high family cohesion and adaptability, spouses who endorsed an avoidant style reported relatively low lev- els in these two dimensions, and spouses who endorsed an anxious attachment style reported high family cohesion but low family adaptability. Attachment secu- rity has been also found to be associated with positive and constructive marital patterns of communication (Feeney, 1994; Feeney et al., 1994). Specically, both wives and husbands reports of secure at- tachment were related to more satisfac- tion, disclosure, and involvement in vid- eotaped marital interactions as well as to more mutual and less coercive patterns of communication during these interactions. In addition, secure spouses were more ac- curate than insecure spouses in the non- verbal communication of neutral and neg- ative message. Importantly, these ndings were also found when communication pat- terns and communication accuracy were measured nine months after the assess- ment of attachment style. Two studies found positive associations between attachment security and quality of videotaped married couple interac- tions, one using the Adult Attachment In- terview, the other using a self-report Q- sort method. With attachment coded from the AAI, Cohn, Silver, C.P. Cowan, et al. (1992) found that, although the attach- ment style classication was not signi- cantly related to self-reports of marital satisfaction, it was signicantly associ- ated with observers ratings of couple in- teractions in a laboratory setting. Specif- ically, husbands classied as secure on the AAI showed more positive and harmo- nious interactions with their wives than husbands classied as insecure. Though wives attachment classication was not directly related to the quality of marital interaction, Cohn, Silver, et al. (1992) concluded that the potential detrimental 414 / FAMILY PROCESS effect of wives attachment insecurity was buffered by husbands attachment secu- rity. Insecurely attached women married to securely attached men had more har- monious interactions than did insecure women married to insecure men. In an- other study, using an 84-item Q sort of attachment completed by each spouse, Kobak and Hazan (1991) examined the role that relationship-specic attachment representations play during problem- solving and conding (sharing a mar- riage-related disappointment with the partner) interactions. Findings revealed that husbands who held a more secure representation of marriage were less re- jecting and more supportive during a problem-solving interaction than insecure husbands. Secure wives were less likely than insecure wives to be rejected by their husbands in a conding task. A SYSTEMIC THEORETICAL MODEL The reviewed data clearly indicate that the sense of attachment security is asso- ciated with (a) positive beliefs about cou- ple relationships, (b) the formation of more stable couple relationships, (c) sat- isfaction with dating relationships and marriage, (d) high levels of intimacy, com- mitment, and emotional involvement within the relationship, and (e) positive patterns of communication and interac- tions in both dating and married couples. On this basis, one may wonder why and how this relational construct is so rele- vant to couple relationships. In the next paragraphs, we provide a systemic model that delineates the role of secure attach- ment in couple relationships (see the Fig- ure). Our analysis indicates that three main paths may underlie the association be- tween a sense of attachment security and the formation and maintenance of stable and satisfying couple relationships. First, the affective consequences of secure at- tachment interactions with a signicant otherdistress alleviation due to the maintenance of proximity to attachment gureswould lead to a positive orienta- tion toward togetherness and foster the organization of interaction goals around the pursuit of intimacy and closeness, which, in turn, would encourage involve- ment in long-lasting couple relationships. Second, the positive mental representa- tions of self and others that characterize the sense of attachment security would foster the development of a cognitive-af- fective framework for the management of conict and thus for maintaining satisfy- ing couple relationships. Third, the sense of attachment security would facilitate the satisfaction of other basic psychologi- cal needs (e.g., exploration, afliation, caregiving) within the couple relation- ship, which, in turn, would further in- crease relationship satisfaction. As can be seen in the Figure, our pro- posed model is derived from a systemic theoretical framework and fullls the four criteria delineated by family system the- orists (Wagner & Reiss, 1995). First, in- teractions between people are seen by ob- servers and also by family members as patterned, with regularities that permit rules to be inferred. In our model, marital interactions are patterned along intrapsy- chic and interpersonal regularities re- lated to each partners sense of attach- ment security. The arrows that connect the different components of the model represent these regularities. Second, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. This means that the structure or organization of the intrapsy- chic and interpersonal elements in the whole systemaffects howany one element interacts with any other element. In our model, the association between attach- ment security in one individual and his or her marital cognitions and behaviors de- pends in part on the attachment security of both partners. Accordingly, we propose that the partners inuence one another in MIKULINCER, FLORIAN, P. COWAN, & C. COWAN / 415 Fam. Proc., Vol. 41, Fall, 2002 complex, reciprocal and even cross-con- struct ways. For example, sense of attach- ment security in one partner can facilitate the acceptance of autonomy needs in the other, which, in turn, can foster that part- ners sense of attachment security. The bi-directional arrows connecting the wifes and the husbands diagrams represent this reciprocal inuence (see Figure). Third, intrapsychic and interpersonal inuences are circular rather than linear; it is difcult, if not impossible to tell where the rst cause of any behavior lies. In the exposition of the model pre- FIGURE. A Systemic model of attachment security in couple relationships. 416 / FAMILY PROCESS sented in the Figure, we mainly discuss the path from attachment to intervening mechanisms, to the quality of couple in- teraction. This line seems reasonable in the developmental lifespan sense that children develop secure or insecure at- tachments long before they become in- volved in intimate couple relationships. But as Bowlby (1973) implied early on, the formation and maintenance of attach- ment is a lifelong dynamic process in which real relationships (marriage, ther- apy) sometimes alter peoples schemas and expectations. Thus, we have drawn two-headed arrows in the Figure to ac- knowledge that the connection between attachment and couple relationship qual- ity has a chicken and egg quality be- cause we do not always know which comes rst. Fourth, family systems are self-regulat- ing. The domains of the family are dy- namically interconnected in the sense that changes in any aspect of the system can lead to changes in other aspects. At- tachment insecurity in one family mem- ber is likely to have ripple effects through- out the entire family system. Accordingly, changes that occur in some other aspects of the family system (e.g., parent-child relationship) can alter some aspect of the association between secure attachment and couple relationship quality. We view this property as an extension of our model to the family system and it is represented by the insertion of the partners diagrams within a larger family system framework. Affect Regulation and Interaction Goals Bowlby (1988) assumed that having a sense of attachment security reects a history of interactions with supportive and loving others who bring comfort and relief in times of stress. One implication of this assumption is that during these pos- itive interactions, securely attached per- sons might have learned that proximity maintenance is rewarding, that they can rely on attachment behaviors as an effec- tive means of affect regulation, and that they could organize interpersonal behav- iors around the basic goal of the attach- ment systemproximity maintenance. As a result, these persons would be prone to forming close relationships, and would be particularly ready to search for intimacy and interdependence in such relation- ships. Accordingly, they would put em- phasis on the benets of being together with a romantic partner, be more likely to dismiss potential relationship threats and wounds, and organize their interaction goals around the attainment and mainte- nance of intimacy and closeness. In this way, attachment security would enhance a persons motivation to be involved in long-lasting stable couple relationships. This path is in line with Kirpatricks (1998) contention that attachment secu- rity reects a positive orientation toward long-term mating strategies. Insecure persons experiences with non- responsive others teach them that attach- ment behaviors are painful and that other interaction goals and behaviors should be developed as defenses against the distress caused by attachment experiences (Bowlby, 1988). In response to this distress, anx- iously attached persons seem to construe their interaction goals around the hyper- activation of the attachment system and the unfullled need for security. There- fore, these persons would view couple re- lationships and partners as a means for achieving felt security via clinging and hypervigilant responses. Accordingly, al- though they would desire intimate rela- tionships, their tendency to hyperactivate the attachment system may lead them to feel a chronic sense of frustration and dis- satisfaction due to their unfullled needs for demonstrations of love and security. That is, this anxious form of insecurity would also motivate a move toward an attachment gure, but with a different approach than that of a person with a MIKULINCER, FLORIAN, P. COWAN, & C. COWAN / 417 Fam. Proc., Vol. 41, Fall, 2002 secure working model of attachment. In contrast, avoidant persons seem to react to distress by organizing their interac- tion goals around the deactivation of the attachment system and a search for au- tonomy and control. As a result, when distressed, these persons would take distance from partners and be reluctant to form interdependent relationships (Bowlby, 1988). These hypothesized attachment-style differences in interaction goals received strong empirical support in Mikulincers (1998, Studies 2 and 4) studies of the sense of trust in close relationships. In these studies, participants who classied themselves as securely attached tended to emphasize intimacy enhancement as the most important trust-related gain and to show relatively high accessibility of thoughts about intimacy in a trust-re- lated context. For these persons, episodes that validate their sense of trust may con- tribute to the formation and maintenance of intimate close relationships, while be- trayal of trust may raise concerns about closeness and intimacy. Whereas anxiously attached persons tended to emphasize security enhance- ment as the most important trust-related gain and to show relatively high accessi- bility of thoughts about security in a trust-related context, avoidant persons tended to emphasize control goals and to show high accessibility of thoughts about control in trust-related contexts (Miku- lincer, 1998). For anxiously attached per- sons, security seeking seems to be a cen- tral component of their sense of trust. Ep- isodes in which partners behave in a responsive way may be appraised as con- tributing to security feelings, while be- trayal of trust may be appraised as a threat to these feelings. Avoidant persons seem to organize their sense of trust around concerns about control. For these persons, this pursuit of control seems to be necessary to validate their sense of self-reliance and to insure the attainment of desired outcomes in the absence of con- dence that the partner will voluntarily respond to their needs. Avoidant persons may perceive their partners responsive- ness as a validation of the control they exert over partners behaviors, whereas betrayal of trust may raise doubts about the control they have in the relationship. These ndings highlight the fact that the sense of attachment security is more related to relational goals of closeness and intimacy than to intrapersonal, egoistic needs of security and control. It is possible that the internalization of the sense of attachment security satises these in- trapersonal needs and frees cognitive and emotional resources for the regulation of relationship quality. On this basis, se- curely attached persons could develop a more open, seless, and caring attitude toward their close relationship partners. They could become active agents respon- sible for their partners welfare and rela- tionship quality rather than passive re- cipients of caring and comfort, and thus could move from egocentric to more recip- rocal relationships. This is particularly important in the realm of dating relation- ships and marriage, in which the attach- ment and caregiving systems should maintain a balanced and dynamic equilib- rium, and both partners are equally re- sponsible for the maintenance of a satis- fying, stable relationship. Securely attached persons desire for in- timate relationships is also manifested in their proneness to disclose and share per- sonal information and feelingsone of the most basic means for the formation of intimate relationships. In a series of studies, Mikulincer and Nachshon (1991) found that participants who classied themselves as securely attached persons reported that they tended to disclose more personal information to relationship part- ners than avoidant persons, and showed more disclosure exibility and reciprocity 418 / FAMILY PROCESS than insecure persons. Moreover, secure persons were found to disclose more per- sonal information and to feel better inter- acting with a high than lowdiscloser part- ner. In contrast, avoidant persons self- disclosure and emotional reactions were not affected by their partners disclosures. These ndings have been replicated in subsequent studies (Keelan, Dion, & Dion, 1998; Pistole, 1993; Tucker & Anders, 1999). It seems that secure persons are not only able to disclose personal information but they are also highly responsive to oth- ers disclosure. In our view, self-disclosure is a necessary but not sufcient behavior for creating intimacy and closeness. A partner moving toward intimacy should be responsive to the partners communi- cation, reinforce the partners condence in their good intentions, and promote more intimate disclosure. On this basis, we can conclude that secure persons re- sponsiveness to a partners disclosure seems to be a suitable strategy for devel- oping stable and satisfactory relation- ships. Overall, there is consistent evi- dence that the sense of attachment secu- rity is related to a positive orientation toward togetherness and to the organiza- tion of interaction goals around the pur- suit of intimacy and closeness. In our view, this relational orientation would motivate people to engage in intimate in- teractions and to invest efforts in re- lationships that would be characterized by intimacy, commitment, emotional in- volvement, trust, and supportiveness. On this basis, secure persons positive orien- tation toward togetherness would contrib- ute to the stability and quality of couple relationships. Mental Representations of Self and Others Bowlby (1973) asserted that the attain- ment of a sense of attachment security would be manifested in the development of a positive self-image. In Bowlbys terms, . . . the model of the attachment gure and the model of the self are likely to develop so as to be complementary and mutually conrming (Bowlby, 1973, p. 205). When a person interacts with non- responsive and unavailable others, he or she will likely experience himself or her- self as incompetent and unlovable. By contrast, when a person anticipates oth- ers availability and responsiveness, he or she will consequently experience himself or herself as competent and valuable. Em- pirical research has consistently found that the sense of attachment security is related to high self-esteem (e.g., Bar- tholomew & Horowitz, 1991) and to the ability to manage stressors while main- taining a sense of optimism and self-ef- cacy (see Mikulincer & Florian, 2001, for a review). Self-representations and Couple Rela- tionships: In our view, these positive mod- els of self would also contribute to the formation and maintenance of stable and satisfying couple relationships. Securely attached persons feel accepted and loved by their partners, which, in turn, would encourage them to reciprocate this love and further strengthen their willingness to care for the partner in times of need. In addition, these positive representations include a sense of self-efcacy in dealing with threats and life problems, which may lead to the adoption of a more con- dent attitude toward relationship obsta- cles as well as to the adoption of more constructive interpersonal problem solv- ing strategies. On this basis, secure per- sons would be able to deal with interper- sonal conicts without appraising them in a catastrophic way and letting them lead to conict escalation. This constructive conict management strategy would di- rectly contribute to the stability of couple relationships. There is extensive evidence of an association between secure attach- ment and the adoption of constructive MIKULINCER, FLORIAN, P. COWAN, & C. COWAN / 419 Fam. Proc., Vol. 41, Fall, 2002 strategies as couples attempt to resolve problems (Gaines, Reis, Summers, et al., 1997; Gaines, Granrose, Rios, et al., 1999; Levy and Davis, 1988; Lussier et al., 1997; Pistole, 1989; Scharfe & Bar- tholomew, 1995; Simpson, Rholes, & Phil- lips, 1996). We are not aware of research that re- lates attachment styles or working mod- els directly to the emotion regulation strategies that centrally affect both the quality and stability of marital relation- ships (Gottman, 1993). Cowan, Cohn, Cowan, and Pearsons (1996) nding that AAI-assessed attachment security in men and women was connected with low mar- ital conict suggests that such a link might exist. Secure attachment itself can be viewed as an emotion regulation strat- egy in which a person experiencing threat or loss seeks out another for soothing and support. Also, the ability to maintain a coherent narrative during the AAI when discussing personal and often highly emo- tional issues is indicative of an ability to regulate negative emotion in the service of problem solving. We speculate that in individuals or pairs with secure models of attachment, the ability to regulate nega- tive emotion helps the partners avoid es- calating negative interchanges in a way that leads to loss of controla pattern that is one of the major risks for both decline in marital satisfaction and mari- tal dissolution (Gottman & Levenson, 2000). Representations of Others and Couple Relationships: The sense of attachment security also includes positive models of others (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991) expectations that others will behave in a caring and benevolent manner. These positive representations may contribute directly to several positive aspects of close relationships that could maintain and en- hance relationship satisfaction over time. First, these representations would be manifested in the sense of trust toward a partner. According to Rempel, Holmes, and Zanna (1985), trust involves (a) the appraisal of a partner as reliable and pre- dictable, (b) the belief that a partner is concerned with ones needs and can be counted on in times of need, and (c) feel- ings of condence in the strength of the relationship. Data from several studies support this view, in that secure persons have been found to report higher levels of trust toward their partner than insecure persons (e.g., Collins & Read, 1990; Miku- lincer, 1998; Simpson, 1990). Second, the readiness to disclose one- self and share personal feelings with a partner may be fostered by the positive models of others that characterize se- curely attached persons. It demands a be- lief that the partner can be trusted and would not abuse the disclosed emotions, thoughts, and information. Therefore, se- cure persons who hold such positive be- liefs about others intentions and goodwill would be those who would be particularly ready to disclose personal feelings and thoughts to their partner. As a result, these persons would tend to form rela- tionships characterized by openness and emotional involvement, which, in turn, may contribute to relationship satisfac- tion. Third, the belief of the supportiveness of the partner would promote good feel- ings toward the partner, such as grati- tude, warmth, and love. Moreover, due to their positive representations of others, secure individuals would interpret unex- pected behaviors by partners in less rela- tionship-threatening terms. In this way, they would avoid unnecessary conicts and prevent escalation of negative emo- tions toward partners. These relationship-enhancing apprais- als of partners behaviors were docu- mented by Collins (1996), who asked par- ticipants to explain negative partner be- haviors and to report on the causes of these behaviors. Secure participants gave 420 / FAMILY PROCESS generally more positive and relationship- enhancing explanations of negative rela- tional events. Compared to insecure per- sons, secure persons were less likely to view a partners behavior as intentional, negatively motivated, stable over time, and global across relationship areas. Im- portantly, Collins also found that secure persons relationship-enhancing explana- tions of negative partner behaviors buff- ered negative affect toward a partner as well as the arousal of relationship con- icts. More direct support for the role of rep- resentations of others in the association between attachment security and rela- tionship satisfaction is provided by Mor- rison, Urquiza, and Goodlin-Jones (1997) and Whisman and Allan (1996) who found that positive attributions for partner be- haviors appeared to mediate the associa- tion between the sense of attachment se- curity and relationship satisfaction in dating couples. Satisfaction of Other Basic Needs Beyond emphasizing the psycho-evolu- tionary nature of the attachment system, Bowlby (1969) identied other needs that are also placed in an evolutionary context and maintain a dynamic interplay with attachment needs. In Bowlbys (1969) terms, the experience of inner distress and the disruption of ones sense of at- tachment security may activate prox- imity-related cognitions and behaviors, which, in turn, may inhibit the activation of cognitions and behaviors related to other basic needs (e.g., exploration, af- liation, caregiving). Moreover, because they are preoccupied with regulating their own distress, they may have fewer available resources for engaging in afli- ation, exploration, and/or caregiving ac- tivities. Persons who hold a sense of attachment security would have more available re- sources to engage in afliation, explora- tion, and caregiving behaviors with their partners. Accordingly, these persons would hold a positive and accepting atti- tude toward these behaviors in their part- ner. Since they feel condent in a part- ners supportiveness, they would be sen- sitive to the partners exploration and afliation needs and tolerate his or her explorative and afliative behaviors even if these activities imply a momentary ab- sence of the partner as an attachment gure. Moreover, since they rely on sup- port-seeking as an affect regulation de- vice, they would accept and even encour- age a partners caregiving behaviors. Overall, secure persons would feel that a close relationship is an adequate inter- personal setting for satisfying not only attachment needs but also for accomplish- ing other important life tasks. As a result, the fulllment of these basic needs would further contribute to both partners satis- faction with their couple relationship. Exploration Needs: In human develop- ment, one of the basic evolutionary needs is to explore the environment and to learn new abilities and skills (Bowlby, 1969). In adulthood, this explorative activity is manifested in career development, work- related activities, and the learning of new adaptive skills, which, in turn, may fur- ther develop a personal sense of auton- omy, mastery, achievement, and control. These activities demand energy and time that otherwise might be spent with a close relationship partner. In couple relationships, the need for ex- ploration can be encouraged or frustrated by the relational attitudes and behaviors of both partners. When one feels condent in the partners availability and respon- siveness in times of need and/or the part- ner is attentive and supportive of ones need for exploration, even when this comes at expense of time spent together, the satisfaction of this need may be facil- itated. As a result, the individual would feel free to develop his or her own poten- MIKULINCER, FLORIAN, P. COWAN, & C. COWAN / 421 Fam. Proc., Vol. 41, Fall, 2002 tialities and be more willing to reciprocate his or her partners need for exploration. Mutual respect, understanding, and mar- ital satisfaction would thus be enhanced. Accordingly, partners would appraise their couple relationship as promoting rather than inhibiting their own sense of autonomy and their personal develop- ment. In the long run, the satisfaction of exploration needs could contribute to re- lationship stability and diminish unnec- essary conicts related to possible differ- ences in the partners trajectory of per- sonal development. In contrast, the satisfaction of explora- tion needs would be frustrated when one partner restrains the others attempts to spend energy and time outside the rela- tionship and/or threatens with separation and divorce if his or her wishes and de- mands are not being fullled. Accord- ingly, when a person is afraid of the part- ners reactions and is not secure about his or her availability and responsiveness, he or she may inhibit exploration in advance and give up any attempt to develop an autonomous personality in order to please the partner. In most of these cases, one may expect that many nuclei of frustra- tion, tension, conict, and dispute may arise within the couple. Furthermore, the individual may develop negative feeling toward the partner and the relationship, such as a sense of suffocation and coer- cion, a sense of limitation of personal choices and activities, or a sense of self- derogation in order to satisfy a partners egoistic needs. As a result, marital satis- faction would decrease and the likelihood of separation may increase. Indeed, adult attachment studies have found that securely attached persons were more likely than insecure persons to engage in exploration activities and to open their cognitive structures to new ev- idence (e.g., Green-Henessy & Reis, 1998; Mikulincer, 1997; Mikulincer & Arad, 1999). Second, a persons sense of attach- ment security would also encourage a partners exploration attempts. On this basis, the sense of attachment security would contribute to the satisfaction of both partners exploration needs. Afliation Needs: Afliation needs refer to the phylogenetically evolved tendency to be sociable with others (Bowlby, 1969). They drive people to spend time in the company of others, to be involved in friendships, and to engage in a wide vari- ety of social activities, such as play, alli- ance against outsiders, and squabbles (Weiss, 1998). In his taxonomy of social interactions, Weiss suggested that at- tachment and afliation behaviors differ in the level of perceived exclusiveness, permanence, and emotionality. First, at- tachment behaviors demand exclusivity from the provider of a secure base, be- cause relationships between this provider and a third person may reduce his or her availability when needed. In contrast, af- liation behaviors may not necessarily demand exclusiveness. Rather, the incor- poration of other persons in an afliation relationship may be perceived as a posi- tive outcome because these persons can advance common interests, facilitate learning, and strengthen potential alli- ances (Weiss, 1998). Second, whereas at- tachment relationships may persist over time, afliation relationships may be ended with relative ease (Weiss, 1998). Third, attachment behaviors may involve stronger emotions than afliation behav- iors. In attachment behaviors, people ex- perience a cycle of tension and relief, ac- companied by feelings of anxiety, fear, and gratitude (Bowlby, 1988). These emo- tions may be weaker or even irrelevant when people seek others for companion- ship or play (Weiss, 1998). In couple relationships, afliation needs could be manifested in two different ways: (1) a persons motivation to develop a friendship relationship with his or her partner by attempting to engage in com- 422 / FAMILY PROCESS mon activities and recreations and to spend time together with the same friends; (2) a persons motivation to maintain his or her own separate network of friends, which sometimes may come at expense of the energy and time devoted to the part- ner. In this way, the satisfaction of afli- ation needs may contribute to both the sense of couples togetherness and the sense of individuation and personal freedom within the couple. The issue of balancing these two issues is at the heart of most theories of what makes for satis- fying couple relationships (Gottman, 1993). We believe that the sense of attachment security would directly contribute to the satisfaction of both partners afliation needs. First, the sense of attachment se- curity would encourage afliative activi- ties within the couple relationship be- cause secure persons put strong emphasis on togetherness. Moreover, the sense of attachment security would facilitate af- liative activities outside the couple rela- tionship because the person is condent that the partner would continue to love him or her even if energy and time is spent with other friends. Indeed, Miku- lincer and Selinger (2001) found that se- cure persons were more likely than inse- cure persons to engage in afliative activ- ities and to hold a exible balance between attachment and afliation goals in close relationships. Caregiving Needs: Caregiving needs are designed to provide protection and sup- port to others who are either chronically dependent or temporarily in need, and they are guided by an altruistic orienta- tionthe alleviation of others distress (Bowlby, 1969). These needs drive us to help, assist, and comfort signicant oth- ers, and motivate us to protect these per- sons from any threat or danger. These caregiving activities often entail personal sacrice in terms of time, resources, and mental efforts. Although caregiving needs in one individual are very responsive to the arousal of attachment needs in his or her partner, Bowlby (1969) viewed them as two separate motivational systems. Whereas attachment needs imply that the person seeks support and protection, caregiving needs imply that the person seeks to be an active provider of support and protection. The satisfaction of caregiving needs seems to play an important role in couple relationships. We hypothesize that in long-lasting, satisfying relationships, peo- ple will be attentive to partners needs and to learning when, how, and in which areas the partner wishes or expects sup- port and protection. In addition, persons would be expected to learn to accept the partners offer of support and comfort and to appraise it as a sign of love and caring, not as a sign of a patronizing or unequal relationship. In other words, persons would be expected to learn to accept their partners caregiving efforts without feel- ing a loss of personal control or tension due to a power struggle. In contrast, caregiving needs would be frustrated when the partner is not able or willing to accept the others assistance and support or when he or she reacts with hostility, suspicions, or even rejection to the partners caring efforts. These needs can be also frustrated when the person, due to his or her personality or relational history, is not attentive to the partners needs and is not able to relieve success- fully the partners suffering and pain. These reactions can elicit interpersonal conicts around issues of trust, coopera- tion, reciprocity, and the provision and receipt of support. Furthermore, they may lead to feelings of personal alien- ation, low self-esteem, neglect, and inferi- ority. Specically, the person may develop a sense of being stuck in the unequal po- sition of the weak, needy, and/or eter- nal infant. The most probable outcome of this kind of interaction is dissatisfaction MIKULINCER, FLORIAN, P. COWAN, & C. COWAN / 423 Fam. Proc., Vol. 41, Fall, 2002 and a desire to leave the frustrating rela- tionship. In our view, the sense of attachment security would contribute to the satisfac- tion of both partners caregiving needs. First, a persons sense of attachment se- curity would encourage his or her own caregiving attempts, because he or she would have available resources to attend to a partners needs and provide adequate care for alleviating distress. Moreover, se- cure persons positive models of others would be likely to foster the perception of others as deserving help, and motivate people to provide the necessary support to restore or maintain a partners welfare. Indeed, adult attachment studies have found that self-reports of attachment se- curity are associated with relatively high levels of reported responsiveness to a ro- mantic partners needs (e.g., Carnelley, Pietromonaco, & Jaffe, 1996; Feeney, 1996; Kunce & Shaver, 1994). Accord- ingly, secure persons have been found to offer spontaneously more comfort and re- assurance to a romantic partner in times of need than insecure persons (e.g., Col- lins & Feeney, 2000; Fraley & Shaver, 1998; Simpson et al., 1992). Second, be- cause of their reliance on support seeking as an affect regulation device and their high sense of self-esteem, secure persons would hold a positive and accepting atti- tude toward their partners supportive and caring behaviors, thereby leading to the satisfaction of the partners caregiv- ing needs. EXTENSION OF MODEL TO THE FAMILY SYSTEM We have focused on couple relation- ships and only indirectly on the intergen- erational transmission of attachment. Given the space limitations here, we can offer only a sketch of possible intergen- erational linkages in the model we have presented and how the dynamics might play out in the life of a family. A growing body of research nds relatively high con- cordance between mothers working mod- els of attachment, based on their re- sponses to the Adult Attachment Inter- view, their infants security of attachment after a brief separation (Ainsworth et al., 1978; van IJzendoorn, 1995), and mea- sures of childrens adaptation with peers in later years (Sroufe, Carlson, & Shul- man, 1993). These ndings have been used to support hypotheses about the con- tinuity of relationship quality across the generations. The high degree of concor- dance between adults attachment styles and their childrens attachment styles and peer relationship quality is especially impressive because it occurs across meth- ods (adult narratives, observations of par- ent-child interaction, peer reports), across measurement contexts, and across time. And yet, we know surprisingly little about the mechanisms that underlie this conti- nuity or how to explain what appears to be a strong tendency to repeat relation- ship patterns from one generation to an- other. It has been widely assumed that the quality of parent-child relationships is the linking mechanismthat adults who are themselves securely attached tend to provide a secure base for their children and there is substantial evidence for this kind of association in studies of infants (Haft & Slade, 1989), toddlers (Crowell & Feldman, 1988), and preschoolers (Cohn, Cowan, Cowan, & Pearson, 1992). For ex- ample, Cohn and colleagues found that fathers who gave coherent narratives of their early family relationships provided more warmth and structure to their pre- schoolers during challenging tasks than fathers whose narratives were not coher- ent. We offer here the idea that the quality of the relationship between the parents plays a central role in the generational transmission of working models of attach- ment. Two studies of different samples of 424 / FAMILY PROCESS fathers and mothers with preschoolers and kindergartners (Cohn et al., 1992; Cowan, Bradburn, & Cowan, in press) support this hypothesis. Based on the AAI continuous ratings of (a) whether the par- ents in the study described their own par- ents as loving, and (b) whether the par- ents were still angry with their parents (the childrens grandparents) in ways that disrupted their AAI narratives, less securely-attached men and women were in marriages that tended to be more con- ictful (observational data) and in parent- child relationships with their own chil- dren that were less effective (observation- al data). In turn, when parents were assessed as less securely attached when their children were preschoolers, the chil- dren were signicantly more likely to be seen by their kindergarten teachers as having internalizing or externalizing problems in school one and two years later. Over and above measures of parent- ing style, both attachment and marital data from the parents contributed signif- icantly to predicting the childrens adap- tation to school. Other analyses of data from the second Cowan et al. study (Cowan, Cowan, & Heming, in press) re- vealed that preventive interventions in the form of couples groups designed to foster more effective marital and parent- child relationships resulted in positive outcomes for the parents and for their children. These ndings lead us to conclude ten- tatively that marital quality may play a causal role in affecting parenting style and childrens adaptation. The question remains: how does this occur? One possi- bility is that conicted parent-child rela- tionships spill over to interfere with the relationship between one or both parents and the child. The second possibility, sug- gested by Davies and Cummings (1998), is that marital conict has a direct effect on the child, disrupting attachment rela- tionships and creating emotional insecu- rity that plays out in the childs outside- the-family relationships. Extrapolating from these ndings, and subject to replication and extension of the results, we conclude that the transmis- sion of attachment relationships from grandparents to parents to children is not simply a matter of parenting. When a per- son learns early on that he or she is wor- thy of love, and that adults will be respon- sive and available in times of need, he or she is more likely to establish satisfying relationships with other partners, and to have the inclination and ability to work toward solving relationship problems and regulating emotions so that they do not escalate out of control. The family envi- ronment established by couples who can regulate emotions and solve problems ef- fectively facilitates both mother-child and father-child relationships that, in turn, foster a childs ability to explore newideas and relationships (Byng-Hall, 1999). All of these processes appear to foster the childrens cognitive, social, and emotional development. CONCLUDING REMARKS The eld of family psychology still struggles with the eternal question of why some couples succeed in maintaining a long-lasting, satisfactory relationship while others fail in this relational task. From our point of view, attachment the- ory is one of the main promising concep- tual frameworks for raising and testing useful hypotheses concerning the psycho- logical and ecological factors that contrib- ute to positive relational outcomes. This theoretical framework allows the exami- nation of the role that inner resources, such as the sense of attachment security, may play in the dynamic relational pro- cesses that characterize the different stages of marriage and family develop- ment. New research is beginning to show that the links between attachment and couple relationships have consequences MIKULINCER, FLORIAN, P. COWAN, & C. COWAN / 425 Fam. Proc., Vol. 41, Fall, 2002 for childrens development. Because of the universality of attachment processes, this theoretical framework could be used in examining marital and family processes across different ethnic, cultural, and reli- gious groups. Despite important differ- ences in methods of measuring attach- ment, and issues in the conceptualization of attachment as a categorical or contin- uous phenomenon, the accumulation of knowledge that has been achieved in the last two decades provides a clear, coher- ent picture of the consistent connections between a sense of attachment security and the formation and maintenance of stable and satisfactory couple relation- ships. Furthermore, research has pro- vided relevant empirical data on the psy- chological processes that help explain the positive relational outcomes associated with a sense of security of attachment. The model presented in this article sug- gests some of the mechanisms that may underlie these processes. Nevertheless, some important issues that have not been addressed here could be examined in fu- ture studies. First, future studies should be designed to expand and deepen our understanding of (a) the interplay be- tween attachment processes and the sat- isfaction of other basic needs within cou- ple relationships, and (b) how this dy- namic interplay may contribute to relationship satisfaction and quality. Sec- ond, there is a need for additional empir- ical efforts that attempt to integrate at- tachment theory and research with data on family dynamic processes and mecha- nisms. Third, most of the existing re- search has focused on the early stages of couple relationships and marriage. For a fuller understanding of the links between security of attachment and couple rela- tionship quality, it will be important to examine the role that attachment pro- cesses play in later stages of marriage and family development (e.g., in midlife and aging couples). Fourth, the emphasis in this article has been on consistency and coherence across domains, as if attach- ment operates as a template for the de- velopment of other intimate relation- ships. The correlations we reported are far from perfect. More research is needed on the possible effects that specic couple and family relationships may have on each partners sense of attachment secu- rity. More theoretical and empirical efforts should be invested in applying the cumu- lative knowledge gleaned from adult at- tachment research to enhancing and im- proving interventions in marital and fam- ily therapyto nd modiable aspects of attachment that can facilitate family re- lationships and modiable aspects of fam- ily relationships that can enhance the se- curity of each individuals attachment. This endeavor is necessary not only to improve the life of men, women, and chil- dren living in families. 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Manuscript received August 2, 2001; revision submitted and accepted January 24, 2002. 432 / FAMILY PROCESS APPENDIX TABLE 1 Studies Demonstrating a Signicant Attachment-Satisfaction Link in Dating Couples Authors Year N Sample Attachment Measure Satisfaction Measure Levy & Davis 1988 391 Individuals Single Tripartite Items RRF Hendrick & Hendrick 1989 391 Individuals Single Tripartite Items RRF Pistole 1989 137 Individuals Tripartite categorization DAS Collins & Read 1990 71 Couples Adult Attachment Scale DAS Simpson 1990 144 Couples Adult Attachment Questionnaire 11-items scale Feeney & Noller 1991 116 Individuals Tripartite categorization Free reports Shaver & Brennan* 1992 242 Individuals Tripartite categorization RRF Feeney et al. 1993 193 Individuals Tripartite categorization Single item Carnelley et al., Study 1 1994 163 Individuals Relationship Questionnaire; 51-item attachment measure Single item Feeney 1994 361 Couples 13-item Avoid/Anxiety Scale QMI Keelan et al.* 1994 137 Individuals Tripartite categorization Investment Scale Kirkpatrick & Davis* 1994 354 Couples Tripartite categorization RRF Brennan & Shaver 1995 242 Individuals Tripartite categorization and Brennan et al. (1989) scale RRF Scharfe & Bartholomew* 1995 64 Couples Peer Attachment Interview 7-items scale Carnelley et al. 1996 52 Couples 48-item Avoid/Anxiety Scale Single Item Frazier et al. 1996 83 Couples Adult Attachment Scale MRQ Jones & Cunningham 1996 186 Couples 13-item Avoid/Anxiety Scale 6-item scale Whisman & Allan 1996 68 Couples Adult Attachment Scale DAS Morrison et al. 1997 385 Individuals Adult Attachment Scale MSI Bookwala & Zdaniuk 1998 85 Individuals Relationship Questionnaire Simpson scale Diehl et al. 1998 304 Individuals Relationship Questionnaire Family APGAR Klohnen & Bera* 1998 100 Individuals Tripartite Categorization 3-items scale Feeney 1999b 72 Couples 13-item Avoid/Anxiety Scale QMI Feeney 1999c 238 Couples 13-item Avoid/Anxiety Scale QMI McCarthy 1999 40 Individuals Single Tripartite items APFA Tucker & Anders 1999 61 Couples Adult Attachment Questionnaire Simpson scale Collins & Feeney 2000 93 Couples Adult Attachment Scale 25-item scale Cozarelli et al. 2000 112 Individuals Relationship Questionnaire Hendrick scale Notes: * longitudinal design; APFA Adult Personal Functioning Assessment; DAS Dyadic Adjustment Scale; QMI Quality Marriage Index; MRQ Multidimensional Relationship Questionnaire; MSI Marital Satisfaction Inventory; RRF Relationship Rating Form. MIKULINCER, FLORIAN, P. COWAN, & C. COWAN / 433 Fam. Proc., Vol. 41, Fall, 2002 TABLE 2 Studies Demonstrating a Signicant Attachment-Satisfaction Link in Married Couples Authors Year N Sample Attachment Measure Satisfaction Measure Kobak & Hazan 1991 40 Couples Tripartite categorization DAS Marital Q Sort Senchak & Leonard 1992 322 Couples Tripartite categorization FAM Cohn, Silver, et al. 1992 35 Couples Adult Attachment Interview DAS Berman et al. 1994 18 Couples Attachment Style Inventory DAS Carnelley et al., Study 2 1994 48 Individuals Relationship Questionnaire; 51-item attachment measure DAS Feeney et al.* 1994 35 Couples 13-item Closeness-comfort and relationship anxiety scales QMI Fuller & Fincham* 1995 53 Couples Tripartite categorization and Hazan & Shaver (1988) scale MAT Rholes et al. 1995 44 Individuals 13-item Avoid/Anxiety scale DAS Feeney 1996 229 Couples 13-item Avoid/Anxiety scale QMI Gerlsma et al. 1996 578 Individuals Tripartite Categorization RISS Lussier et al. 1997 263 Couples 15-items Tripartite Scale DAS Davila et al. 1998 289 Couples 13-item Closeness-comfort and relationship anxiety scales MAT; Semantic Differential Mikulincer et al. 1998 80 Couples Tripartite Categorization DAS Volling et al. 1998 62 Couples Tripartite Categorization Single Item Davila et al.* 1999 172 Couples Adult Attachment Scale MAT Notes: * longitudinal design. DAS Dyadic Adjustment Scale; FAM Family Assessment Measure; QMI Quality Marriage Index; MAT Marital Adjustment Test; RISS Relational Interaction Satisfac- tion Scale. 434 / FAMILY PROCESS