Long-term evaluation of biomass production and quality of

two cardoon (Cynara cardunculus L.) cultivars for energy use

Luciana G. Angelini
a,
*, Lucia Ceccarini
a
, Nicoletta Nassi o Di Nasso
a
, Enrico Bonari
b
a
University of Pisa, Dipartimento di Agronomia e Gestione dellAgroecosistema, Via S. Michele degli Scalzi, 2, 56100 Pisa, Italy
b
Scuola Sant Anna, Piazza Martiri della Liberta` , 33, 56100 Pisa, Italy
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 31 August 2007
Received in revised form
7 November 2008
Accepted 22 December 2008
Published online 22 January 2009
Keywords:
Cynara cardunculus L.
Cardoon
Energy crop
Biomass production
Biomass chemical characteristics
Energy balance
a b s t r a c t
Cardoon (Cynara cardunculus L.) is an herbaceous species indicated as one of the most
suitable energy crop for southern European countries. The aim of this work was to outline
the productivity of two cardoon cultivars, Bianco Avorio (BA) and Gigante di Romagna (GR),
over 11 years of cultivation in rain fed eld conditions in the temperate climate of Central
Italy. The quantitative and qualitative aspects of its biomass (caloric value, ultimate and
proximate analyses, ash composition) as well as its energy balance (energy efciency, net
energy yield) have been determined. Crop dry yield was not different between the two
cultivars and it was rather stable with a mean value (averaged from year 3 to 11) of 14 and
13 t ha
1
for GR and BA respectively. Furthermore the biomass dry matter content was
higher in BA than GR (51% vs 42%). The chemical analysis of cardoon biomass showed
a similar composition in both cultivars with good caloric value (15 MJ kg
1
) but with an
ash content (13.9% d.w.) higher than other herbaceous energy crops. The total energy input
was higher in the establishing than in the following years, however from the planting year
onward, both cardoon crops were characterised by a positive energy balance. Even if its
mean net energy is lower than other perennial energy crops (182 GJ ha
1
year
1
), cardoon
can be easily propagated by seed with important advantages for crop management and
production costs.
The results conrmed cardoons good biomass yield and favourable energy balance even in
cultivation systems characterised by limited water input. Moreover future works are
necessary in order to improve cardoon biomass quality and to evaluate the possibility of
using it in blends with other biomass sources.
2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Cardoon (Cynara cardunculus L., Asteraceae family) is a peren-
nial herbaceous species native to the Mediterranean region.
Its adaptation to the south European environmental
conditions, characterised by dry and hot summer, and its high
yield suggested it could be useful for production of solid
biofuel [13]. Cardoon characteristics that support this
application are the following: relatively low crop input, a large
biomass productivity, low moisture content and high caloric
value [1]. Thereafter it can be used also to produce seed oil and
pharmacological active compounds [15]. Studies of cardoon
as a solid fuel have been carried out in the framework of
several European projects [24,6]. These studies have outlined
yield variability in relation to different crop management
and different climatic condition, mainly rain distribution
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 39 (0)50 2218901; fax: 39 (0)50 2218970.
E-mail address: angelini@agr.unipi.it (L.G. Angelini).
Avai l abl e at www. sci encedi r ect . com
ht t p: / / www. el sevi er . com/ l ocat e/ bi ombi oe
0961-9534/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2008.12.004
b i o ma s s a nd b i oe ne r g y 3 3 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 8 1 0 8 1 6
(1020 t ha
1
of dry biomass for mature crop with at least
500 mm of seasonal rainfall). Moreover, cardoon biomass
heating value, approximately 14 MJ kg
1
[4,6] suggests that
this species can be a candidate as energy crop, however few
information are available on biomass quality and its
variability.
In consideration of a possible development for C. carduncu-
lus L. as renewable sources of energy in the European
agriculture systems, aims of this work are to investigate the
long-termproductivityof twocardooncultivars, their chemical
characteristics of biomass andthecropsystemenergybalance.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Crop culture
A eld study was conducted at the Experimental Centre of
Dipartimento di Agronomia University of Pisa, in Pisa country-
side, Central Italy (43

40
0
N, 10

19
0
E, 5 m a.s.l.) from 1992 to 2002.
The soil was a typical Xerouvent, representative of the lower
Arno River plan and it was characterised by a supercial water
table, 120 cm deep in driest conditions, physical and chemical
soil properties were as follows: 15.5% sand, 65.5% silt, 18% clay,
8.1pH, 1.2%organicmatter, 1.2 g kg
1
total nitrogen, 18.8 mg kg
1
P available and 119 mg kg
1
K exchangeable, C/N 6.6.
Two C. cardunculus L. var. altilis DC. cultivars, Bianco Avorio
(BA) and Gigante di Romagna (GR), were compared in a rand-
omised block experimental design with four replications.
Four-week-old cardoon plants with threefour true leaves
were transplanted on March 1992 with a plant density of
20,000 plants ha
1
with inter-row and intra-row spacing of
1 m and 0.5 m. Plot size was 25 m
2
(5 5 m).
Tillage was conducted in the autumn of 1991 and consisted
of medium-depth ploughing (30 cm). Seed bed preparation
was conducted immediately before planting, by a pass with
a disk harrow. Pre-plant fertiliser was distributed at a rate of
100 kg P ha
1
(triple superphosphate) and 100 kg Kha
1
(potassium sulphate). Nitrogen fertiliser was applied in the
establishment year (1992) as 50% pre-plant and 50% side
dressing when plants were 0.30 m tall. In the following years,
P and K fertilisers were distributed during the winter while
50 Nkg ha
1
were applied (as urea) in winter and 50 kg ha
1
at
the start of growth in the spring (approximately during
March). Plots were kept weed-free by hoeing. No crop diseases
were detected during the experimental period.
Following each growing season, harvests were carried out
in summer (beginning of August) when the capitula were in
the seed lling stage. Twenty plants (10 m
2
) standing in the
middle of eachplot were harvested at the beginning of August.
The border plants in the outermost row were not included in
the harvested area.
Harvested plants were immediately weighed to determine
fresh weight. Height, stem diameter and dry biomass (stalks,
leaves, and heads) were also determined. The moisture
content of biomass was measured by weighing a sub-sample
of plant material and placing it in a thermoventilated oven at
60

C until constant weight was reached.
Changes in air temperature and rainfall were recorded
throughout the eld experiments by using a weather station,
properly equipped to the purpose. Growing Degree Days
(GDD) were calculated for each year from plant sprouting to
harvest, with NOAA method, above a base temperature of
10

C and a maximum cut-off temperature of 35

C as
GDD
P
S2
S1
T
m
b
0
. T
m
was the mean daily temperature, b
0
the base temperature (10

C) and S
1
and S
2
were plant
sprouting and the harvest time respectively, expressed in
Giulian days.
The aridity index (AI) was calculated as
P
S2
S1
R
i
=
P
S2
S1
ETo
where R
i
was the rainfall, ETo was the reference evapotrans-
piration measured using the Hargreaves formula [7]; and S
1
and S
2
indicate annual vegetative re-growth and harvest date
as Julian days.
2.2. Biomass analysis
After sampling, all biomass was milled in a Retsch SM 1 rotor
mill to <297 mm. The milled samples, spread in a thin layer
were exposed to air for several days to equilibrate with
atmospheric moisture. Carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen
contents were determined by means of a Leco CHN 600
instrument and sulphur content by a Leco SC 432. Caloric
value was determined using a Leco AC 300 calorimeter
according to the ASTM D2015 standard method. Proximate
analysis was carried out using an automatic Leco MAC 500
instrument, adopting the temperature conditions and heating
rate prescribed by the ASTMD3173, D3174 and D3175 standard
methods [8,9]. Afterwards, ash composition was accom-
plished using ASTM D 3682-78 method in order to determine
the main biomass components expressed as oxides.
2.3. Energy balance
Energy analysis of biomass production was carried out by
determining energy costs for machinery fabrication and
repairs, for fertiliser and planting material and for fuel
consumption for the various operations following the
approachsuggested by Heichel [10]. Energy costs for delivering
the production outside the eld, for storage and drying were
not calculated. Energy inputs for machinery were determined,
following Doering [11], by estimating energy consumption for
the fabrication and the repair of the machinery utilised for
cardoon cultivation, and by calculating the annual per hectare
machinery cost. The energy input for fabrication and repair
parts and materials of the machinery was calculated taking
into account their weight and using an energy cost of
386 kJ kg
1
year
1
[12]. We assumed that machinery and tools
wereusedon200 ha, andmachinelifewas 10years. Theenergy
cost for fertiliser manufacturing was 59.9, 5.5, and 5.6 MJ kg
1
for N, P, and K, respectively [13]. The fuel costs of various
management operations were calculated by determining
diesel consumption and by multiplying those values by the
heat of diesel fuel combustion (44.4 MJ kg
1
). Lubricant
consumptionwas calculatedfor eachoperationandmultiplied
by the energy coefcient of 80 MJ kg
1
. The energy balance was
assessedconsideringtheenergycosts of productioninputs and
the energy output obtained by the transformation of the nal
product. The efciency of crop energy production was evalu-
ated as net energy yield (calculated as the difference between
energy output and energy input per hectare) and as energy
b i oma s s a nd b i o e ne r g y 3 3 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 8 1 0 8 1 6 811
production efciency (as ratio between energy output and
energy input per hectare).
2.4. Statistical analysis
In each year all variables were submitted to ANOVA analysis
using a randomised block experimental design with four
replications to test the effects of genotypes. Signicantly
different means were separated at 0.05 and 0.01 probability
level by the Last Signicant Difference (LSD) test. All analyses
used the statistical software CO-STAT Cohort 6.201, registra-
tion number 101240.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Growth cycle
During the 11 years eld trial the site was characterised by
mean annual rainfall about 860 mm against 941 mm as long-
term average. The most rainy period goes from October to
December (370 mm vs 351 mm long-term mean value) while
from July to August the most dry conditions occur (56 mm vs
67 mm long-term mean value). The environment is charac-
terised by air temperatures which increase from February to
August when values over 28

C are recorded. The rainy season
is characterised by maximum air temperatures of 16

C and
minimum mean values of 7.6

C (Table 1).
In this environment both cardoon cultivars show a very
similar annual growth development from spring to summer.
In the spring of the rst year the plants grow in a rather slow
but steady way to form a rosette plant. The reproductive cycle
is completed by summer. By late spring onward the plants
develop a leaf-branched oral stem bearing several heads.
After full blossom, when the seed ripening starts, aerial
biomass dries up. In this period the plants belonging to GR and
BAcultivars gain the maximumdevelopment and the biomass
dry matter is above 40%. About 4050 days fromharvest, when
the weather conditions become milder (with the rst autumn
rainfalls), the buds on the basal crown sprout and cardoon
plants re-grow developing a new rosette. The plants pass
through winter in this stage tolerating low air temperatures
up to 10

C. After the winter period the growth starts again
and fromMarch newleaves and stemare produced. In Central
Italy from vegetative re-growth (September) to nal harvest
(August) both cardoon cultivars accumulated 2425

C in 321
days. During the same period the water supply received by
rainfall was 785 mm (mean from 2 to 10 years) (Table 2).
3.2. Biometric characteristics and yield
The results concerning biometric parameters have been
shown in Table 3. The mean plant height was 232 cm in GR
Table 1 Climatic conditions along the 19922002
experimental period in comparison with long-term
average (19181982) at the eld experimental station
(Pisa countryside, Italy, 438N; 108E).
Months Total monthly
Rainfall
(mm)
Maximum air
temperature
(

C)
Minimum air
temperature
(

C)
1992
2002
Long-
term
1992
2002
Long-
term
1992
2002
Long-
term
January 63.9 89 11.9 11.2 2.8 2.8
February 40.2 80 13.7 12.7 2.5 2.3
March 40.9 79 15.8 15.1 4.4 5.3
April 82.4 78 17.6 18.3 7.0 8.1
May 52.9 67 23.1 22.4 11.5 11.6
June 61.4 46 26.1 26.1 14.4 15
July 14.1 25 28.5 29.1 16.4 17.2
August 41.5 42 29.5 29.2 17.4 17
September 93.2 84 25.2 26.2 13.8 14.8
October 149.3 134 21.2 21.3 11.5 11
November 135.5 118 15.6 15.8 7.3 6.9
December 84.4 99 12.0 12 4.1 3.7
Total or
mean
859.7 941 20.0 20.0 9.4 9.6
Table 2 Harvest dates, cycle length (days), total rainfall
(mm), Growing Degree Days (GDD) (8C) calculated from
plant sprouting to harvest time and aridity index (AI)
from June to the harvest time, in cardoon crops grown in
the eld. Mean data from the two cultivars.
Year Harvest date Cycle length Rainfall AI GDD
1993 10-Aug. 329 792 0.05 2558
1994 04-July 292 828 0.72 1976
1995 08-Aug. 327 1065 0.56 2462
1996 05-Aug. 324 806 0.76 2271
1997 30-Aug. 319 635 0.66 2260
1998 03-Aug. 322 571 0.45 2436
1999 09-Aug. 328 549 0.59 2457
2000 02-Aug. 321 832 0.21 2377
2001 02-Aug. 321 986 0.15 2854
2002 07-Aug. 326 787 1.31 2596
Mean 321 785 0.54 2425
Table 3 Mean(standard dev.) plant height and basal
stem diameter of two cultivars of cardoon (Gigante di
Romagna [GR and Bianco Avorio [BA) from crop
establishment (1992) to 2002. For eachyear and character,
values followed by different letters are signicant
different at P 0.05 according to LSD test.
Year Height (cm) Basal Stem
Diameter (mm)
GR BA GR BA
1992
1993 246.1(25.1) 240.6(12.7) 29.7(2.1)b 34.1(1.1)a
1994 193.9(10.9) 192.9(18.1) 22.6(3.2) 25.9(2.8)
1995 278(21.9)a 224.7(13)b 24.9(1.9) 26.1(2.4)
1996 259.4(13.1)a 222.9(16.1)b 25.4(2.4) 26.9(1.9)
1997 211.2(17.5)a 158.5(12.3)b 28.3(1.8) 23.3(1.9)
1998 228.2(15.9)a 193.1(18.9)b 24.2(2.1) 24.4(1.5)
1999 226(18.9)a 189.1(16.1)b 22.6(0.9) 22(1.3)
2000 211.6(14.8)a 169.4(16.5)b 23.6(2.4) 23.9(2.1)
2001 197.5(16.6)a 168.2(5.9)b 25(2.6) 21(2.4)
2002 269.4(6.8)a 165.5(11.4)b 30(1.1)a 25.5(1.4)b
Mean 232.1 192.5 25.6 25.3
b i o ma s s a nd b i oe ne r g y 3 3 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 8 1 0 8 1 6 812
and 193 cm in BA. GR showed plants signicantly higher than
BA from year 4 onward. The greater plant development of this
cultivar was also conrmed by other authors [3] comparing
the same cultivars in 4 years of growth (197 and 222 cmGR and
BA plant height respectively). However, the plants of GR
showed stems with a basal diameter similar to those
belonging to BA cultivar (25.6 mm GR and 25.3 mm GR) and
lower than values recorded in other Mediterranean areas
(36 mm BA and 29 mm GR) [3].
Above ground dry matter yield of BA and GR, determined
from the establishment year to the 11th year of growth is
reported in Fig. 1. In the climatic condition of Central Italy the
crop yield for each cultivar, was very poor in the rst year
(mean 5.2 t ha
1
) that can be considered as a crop stabilization
stage. Thereafter the biomass yield increased rapidly from the
young to the mature stands (72% from 1st to 2nd year-old-
crop) without signicant differences between the cultivars.
From 2nd to 4th year-old-crop biomass dry yield
increased 19%while it decreased from6th year onward. Both
cardoon cultivars displayed similar production trends char-
acterised by two yielding phases: a maturity phase from 2nd
to 5th year of growth and a decreasing phase from 6th to 11th
year of growth. In the maturity stage no signicant differences
have been observed between BA and GR and dry yield aver-
aged 19 t ha
1
year
1
. From6th to 11th year a decreasing trend
was observed with 9.6 t ha
1
year
1
dry biomass mean value.
In this phase the two cultivars differed signicantly only in
years 6 and 11 when GR produced higher dry yield than BA
(37% and 27% respectively). The mean dry yield has been
plotted against total rainfall, GDD (Growing Degree Days in

C)
and AI (aridity index) values calculated in each year (Figs. 24).
No signicant relationship has been observed among these
parameters and dry yield being the production level mainly
inuenced by crop age. The productive results observed in our
environment are similar to those recorded by Cosentino et al.
(2005) [14] in analogous climatic conditions (Bologna, North-
Italy; rainfall 837 mmyear
1
, dry yield 22 t ha
1
), while in
other experiments, carried out in Southern Italian regions
using the same cultivars, biomass yield ranged from 8 t ha
1
(Basilicata; South Italy, rain feed crops) [3] to 31 t ha
1
(Sicily;
South Italy, aid irrigation) [2].
Dry matter content of biomass was always higher in BA
than GR. From year 1 to year 11 it ranged from 24.3 to 53.1%
(mean value 42%) in BAand from29.8 to 71.2 (mean value 51%)
in GR (Fig. 5). Results showed signicant differences between
the cultivars excluding years 1 and 6, contrary to data reported
by Piscioneri et al. [3] who displayed no signicant differences
between the same cultivars analysed in this study. Further-
more BA and GR biomass dry matter content recorded in
0
5
10
15
20
25
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th
Year
D
r
y

y
i
e
l
d

(
t

h
a
-
1
)
GR BA
14.5
b
a
a
b
Fig. 1 Above-ground dry yield of cardoon cultivars
Gigante di Romagna (GR) and Bianco Avorio (BA) from the
crop establishment (1992) to the 11th year of growth in
comparison with the mean value. Vertical bars represent
the standard deviation of the mean. Mean values followed
by different letters are signicant different at P 0.05
according to LSD test.
2
5
3
4
6
8
7
9
10
11
0
5
10
15
20
25
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Rainfall (mm)
D
r
y

Y
i
e
l
d

(
t

h
a
-
1
)
Fig. 2 Dry yield (mean values between the two cultivars)
in relation to rainfall during the growing season for each
year of cardoon cultivation. Mean values followed by
different letters are signicant different at P 0.05
according to LSD test.
3
5
4
2
6
9
7
11
8
10
0
5
10
15
20
25
1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100
GDD (C)
D
r
y

Y
i
e
l
d

(
t

h
a
-
1
)
Fig. 3 Dry yield (mean values between the two cultivars
observed) in relation to GDD during the growing season for
each year of cardoon cultivation.
2
8
6
7
9
10
5
4
3
11
0
5
10
15
20
25
0.2 1.2 2.2 3.2 4.2 5.2
Aridity Index
D
r
y

Y
i
e
l
d

(
t

h
a
-
1
)
Fig. 4 Dry yield (mean values between the two cultivars)
in relation to aridity index during the growing season for
each year of cultivation.
b i oma s s a nd b i o e ne r g y 3 3 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 8 1 0 8 1 6 813
Central Italy is lower (45%) than that reported by other
authors [3] but it is likewise appropriate for thermochemical
conversion. The harvest time at the beginning of August when
plants are not completely dry, appeared necessary to prevent
risks of crop lodging due to the high wind rather common in
this litoranean part of Tuscany. In fact, at the end of seed
lling stage, cardoon plants were tall (about 2 m) with subtle
stems bearing heavy heads at the top and therefore prone to
lodging. Crop lodging causes a decrease of total biomass
making harvest operations difcult.
This long-term study has outlined that both cardoon
cultivars are characterised by lower dry biomass yield than
other perennial herbaceous species grown in the Mediter-
ranean area for energy uses [1417]. For instance in the
same environment, giant reed (Arundo donax L.) and Mis-
canthus crops (Miscanthus giganteus) showed an annual
dry biomass yield higher (44% and 25% respectively)
than cardoon [6,15,18]. However, cardoon crops, in addi-
tion to the benets offered by giant reed and Miscanthus
(e.g. limited water and nutritional requirements), it can be
propagated by seed determining a signicant reduction in
production costs (54% and 24% respect to giant reed and
Miscanthus) [18].
3.3. Chemical characteristics of biomass
As regards biomass chemical characteristics, ANOVA anal-
ysis outlined no signicant effect of the cultivar on biomass
composition. Furthermore biomass chemical characteristics
were similar between the two yielding phases considered
above, therefore data were bulked and reported in Tables 4
and 5. As general trend cardoon biomass was characterised
by heating value (15 MJ kg
1
) slightly higher than those
reported by other authors (around 14 MJ kg
1
) [1,4,6,20]. In
comparison with other perennial herbaceous species,
cultivated in the same environment, cardoon heating value
was lower than Miscanthus and giant reed (16.9 and
16.7 MJ kg
1
respectively) [21]. Chemical composition of
cardoon biomass conrmed data reported by Gonza lez et al.
(2004) [20]. The ultimate analysis reveals that cardoon
biomass is a fuel with lower C and H (Table 4) than that of
Miscanthus and giant reed [21] and this explains also its
lower heating value. The N, S and Cl contents are very
important for the use of biomass in combustion processes.
In fact, an optimal fuel should be characterised by low
content of these elements to produce low NO
x
and SO
x
emission and consequently to limit acid rain and ozone
layer destruction. However, cardoon biomass has an N
content above the actual bound value (1%). This value is
higher than Miscanthus and giant reed (0.1% and 0.8%
respectively) [21]. Besides, our biomass samples revealed Cl
content higher than data on cardoon biomass reported by
Gonza lez et al. (2004) [20]. This last negative feature could
depend on the action of wind rich in sea salts for the
vicinity of the experimental site to the sea. It is known that
high Cl content can produce chlorine dioxide in the
combustion, which attacks the metallic surfaces. For the
reason the use of fuel with high Cl content is advisable with
a good quality stainless steel of the boiler [20].
The proximate analysis showed that cardoon biomass
presents similar characteristics to the other herbaceous
energy crops [21] and conrmed data reported by Gonza lez
et al. [20]. Cardoon biomass reveals a volatile matter
content about 73% d.w. that can be considered a desirable
value for a good regulation of combustion or gasication
processes in large-scale plant [22]. However cardoon ash
content was higher than that found in other energy crops
(13.9% vs 35% giant reed and Miscanthus) [1923]. This
feature was also conrmed by other studies carried out in
other environment and with different management
systems [1,20]. The ash elements Al, Si, Ca, K, Mg, Na, P in
biomass are especially important for thermo chemical
conversion processes where the relative high contents of
alkali may lead to serious technical problem. It is generally
believed that alkali metals are the main cause of slagging
and fouling [8,20]. Cardoon ash composition showed Ca, Mg,
P and S contents similar to other perennial herbaceous
species. However cardoon biomass is characterised by
lower values in Si (SiO
2
14.5%) and K (K
2
O21.5%) than
giant reed and Miscanthus [21]. On the other hand, sodium
content was higher than perennial rhizomatous grasses
(Na
2
O 10% vs 1.5% of giant reed and Miscanthus). K and Ca
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th
Year
D
r
y

m
a
t
t
e
r

(
%
)
BA GR
a a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
b
b
b
b
b
b b
b
Fig. 5 Dry matter percentage of cardoon cultivars Gigante
di Romagna (GR) and Bianco Avorio (BA) from the crop
establishment (1992) to the 11th year of growth in
comparison with the mean value. Vertical bars represent
the standard deviation on the mean. Mean values followed
by different letters are signicant different at P 0.05
according to LSD test.
Table 4 Ultimate and proximate analysis: mean
values(standard dev.) of Bianco Avorio and Gigante di
Romagna cardoon cultivars averaged over 11 growing
seasons.
Ultimate analysis (% d.w.)
C H N S O
a
Cl
39(3.8) 6.6(0.5) 1.5(1.1) 0.2(0) 52.7(3.3) 18.7(3.1)
Proximate analysis (% d.w.)
Moisture Volatile
matter
Fixed
carbon
Ash
10(0.4) 73(5.6) 13.1(7.5) 13.1(2,2)
Caloric value MJ Kg
1
14.9(0.7)
a by difference.
b i o ma s s a nd b i oe ne r g y 3 3 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 8 1 0 8 1 6 814
are responsible for the low ash melting point of the biomass
and this can cause corrosion of the heating surface [20].
These data highlighted that future work is necessary in
order to improve cardoon ash characteristics in relation to
the crop management and to investigate the possibility of
blends with other biomass sources.
3.4. Energy balance
For what concerns the analysis of crop energy balance,
cardoon was characterised by a positive balance between
energy input and output (Tables 6 and 7). The energy input
was higher in 1st year (15.3 GJ ha
1
) than 10 years following
(11 GJ ha
1
). The highest energetic input was represented by
fertilisation, which involved each year 7.5 GJ ha
1
energy costs
(fertilisers plus their distribution), corresponding to 49 and
68% of total energy inputs in the establishing and in the
following years, respectively (Table 6). If we consider the
mature crop, the energy output considerably increased due to
a higher dry crop yield and to its high caloric value
(15 MJ kg
1
). Concurrently the energy input decreased because
the planting operation costs were not more included. These
facts led to an increment of the efciency of crop energy
production and net energy yield which showed the highest
values in the 4th year (30.6 and 324.8 GJ ha
1
as energy ef-
ciency and net energy yield respectively) (Table 7). One
advantage of a perennial energy crop, such as cardoon, is
linked to the possibility of distributing the crop establishment
costs over a longer period (a cycle length of 10 years was
considered here) thus decreasing their incidence in the 1st
year. Likewise, the lower yield in the establishment yield is
distributed over a longer period and its negative inuence on
energy efciency decreases. From year 1 to 11 the mean
energy output was 193.3 GJ ha
1
year
1
while the total energy
output was 2126.7 GJ ha
1
. The total net energy derivable from
cardoon crop along 11 years of cultivation was 2001.4 GJ ha
1
.
This value was lower than other energy crops suitable to be
grown in South European countries, such as giant reed (72%)
and Miscanthus (62%) [15,18]. It was contingent on lower
biomass yield and slightly lower biomass heating value.
However cardoon crop can be propagated by seeds while
giant reed and Miscanthus only by rhizomes or micro-
propagated plants with consequently lower establishment
energy costs. This aspect makes the planting operations easier
with advantages for cultivation carried out on marginal land
or/and in extensive cropping systems.
4. Conclusion
The present work has outlined that cardoon is particularly
suited for the cultivation environment of Central Italy for its
Table 5 Ash composition (% d.w.): mean values(standard dev.) of Bianco Avorio and Gigante di Romagna cardoon
cultivars averaged over 11 growing seasons.
SiO
2
Al
2
O
3
Fe
2
O
3
CaO MgO Na
2
O K
2
O P
2
O
5
SO
3
14.5(2.5) 2.9(0.4) 1.1(0.2) 17.7(1.7) 2.7(1.5) 10(4.2) 21.5(3.3) 6.3(0.9) 3(1.5)
Table 6 Energy input (MJ ha
L1
) for the production of
cardoon biomass considering crop with 20,000 plants per
hectare from the crop establishment (1992) to the 11th
year of growth.
1st Year MJ ha
1
Tillage (ploughing harrowing) 3102
Transplanting 419
Fertiliser distribution 491
N fertiliser
a
5990
P fertiliser
a
550
K fertiliser
a
560
Hoeing (1 time) 703
Harvest 3473
Total 15288
Cropping operation from 2nd year MJ ha
1
Fertiliser distribution 419
N fertiliser
a
5990
P fertiliser
a
550
K fertiliser
a
560
Harvest 3473
Total from 2nd year 10992
a The energy costs for fertiliser manufacturing were 59.9, 5.5, and
5.6 MJ kg
1
for N, P and K, respectively [13].
Table 7 Mean values of global energy balance for Bianco
Avorio and Gigante di Romagna from the crop
establishment (1992) to the 11th year of growth.
Cardoon Dry
Yield
(t ha
1
)
Energy
input
(GJ ha
1
)
Energy
output
(GJ ha
1
)
Energy
efciency
a
Net
energy
yield
b
(GJ ha
1
)
1st year 5.2 15.3 78.8 5.2 63.5
2nd year 18.0 11.0 274.6 25.0 263.6
3rd year 18.1 11.0 276.9 25.2 265.9
4th year 22.0 11.0 335.8 30.6 324.8
5th year 18.5 11.0 282.3 25.7 271.3
6th year 12.9 11.0 197.4 18.0 186.4
7th year 8.0 11.0 121.6 11.1 110.6
8th year 10.2 11.0 156.1 14.2 145.1
9th year 8.4 11.0 128.5 11.7 117.5
10th year 8.2 11.0 124.7 11.3 113.7
11th year 9.8 11.0 149.9 13.6 139.0
Total or
Mean
12.6 125.2 2126.7 17.4 182.0
a Calculated as outputinput.
b Calculated as output/input.
b i oma s s a nd b i o e ne r g y 3 3 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 8 1 0 8 1 6 815
adaptability to rain fed agricultural systems. The two cultivars
displayedasimilar productiontrendwithanincreasingyielding
phase (from years 1 to 5) followed by a decreasing phase (from
years 6 to 11). The average (years 111) biomass yield of the
cultivars, obtained with 860 mm annual rainfall, was 14 and
15 t ha
1
year
1
for BA and GR respectively similarly to those
reported by other authors in the Mediterranean area [16].
In this litoranean part of Tuscany, cardoon plants at the end
of seed lling stage, were tall with subtle stems bearing heavy
heads and therefore prone to lodging with negative conse-
quences on yield. Although the energy balance of cardoon crop
systemwas positive, this species showeda lower energy output
than other species suitable for energy production in South
European countries (e.g. giant reed and Miscanthus) due to its
lower dry yield, and biomass heating value. Concerning to the
quality of cardoon biomass, our data conrmed heating values
similar to those reported by other authors [1,4,6,20], but higher
ashcontent of its biomass. Further researchefforts are required
to improve biomass quality, investigating also the possibility of
blends with other biomass sources.
In conclusion the potential of cardoon as energy crop
under rain fed cropping systemis conrmed by this long-term
eld experiment, even if this species showed a lower yield and
inferior biomass quality than other perennial species. At the
same time the possibility to propagate the crop by seed
represents an important characteristic in order to reduce the
energy costs and to make the crop management easier.
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