Sidney Rigdon: A Quest for Religious Power

I. Introduction
Thesis: Sidney Rigdon’s quest for religious power and
belonging caused him to become a forgotten and
misunderstood religious influence.

II. Rigdon’s Early Life

a. Rigdon’s upbringing on his family farm gave him a longing
for learning.
b. Rigdon’s apprenticeship under Adamson Bentley allowed
him his first taste of religious power.
c. Rigdon’s credo is not yet clearly refined.

III. Alexander Campbell, Walter Scott, and the Disciples of Christ

a. Rigdon’s first interaction with Campbell gave him a sense
of belonging.
b. As Rigdon began to develop his own credo, he began to
exercise religious power, disagreeing with Campbell on
several issues.

IV. Conversion
a. A brief survey on the founding of Mormonism and
Joseph Smith.
b. Rigdon’s conversion was directly caused by the Book of
Mormon.
c. Rigdon’s renowned rhetoric gave him early power in the
LDS church.

V. Influence on Latter-Day Saints

a. Rigdon served as Smith’s spokesman.
b. As compiler of the Doctrine and Covenants, Rigdon
exercised vast power over the importance of doctrines.
c. Rigdon continued to gain and exercise religious power.

VI. Post-1844 Theology

a. After Smith’s assassination, Rigdon attempted to lead
Church, quickly being silenced by Brigham Young.
b. Rigdon founded his own church, the Church of Jesus Christ
of the Children of Zion, but this church quickly failed after
Rigdon’s death.

VII. Conclusion
 Sidney Rigdon: A Quest for Religious

Power

Introduction

The story of the origin of the Mormon Church is one that is

vaguely familiar to many Americans, yet may be riddled with myths,

inconsistencies, and misinformation. Joseph Smith, widely

acknowledged by American historians as one of the most influential

Americans in the 19th century, received revelations from God

commanding him to found Jesus’ true church on earth, one that was

lost during the early centuries of Christianity.1 Joseph Smith did not

found the most successful American religion solely by his own doing,

however. He could not have been successful without a powerful

supporting cast, one of whom was Sidney Rigdon.

Rigdon is man unfamiliar to many both outside and inside the

LDS Church (Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints). Beginning his

religious career with Alexander Campbell in the Restoration Movement,

Rigdon converted to Mormonism in its early stages, quickly became

Smith’s right-hand man, a trusted counselor, a proven preacher, and a

man rich with religious experience. Church historical records from

both the Campbellite movement, known today as the Disciples of

Christ, and the LDS church portray Rigdon negatively, necessitating

that one sift through the biases in order to determine the influence

Rigdon had upon these religions. His movement through several

religious traditions stemmed from a quest for religious power and

1 Smith is listed in the Britannica Guide to the 100 Most
Influential Americans. (Robinson Publishing, 2008.)
2
belonging. Although he began as a Baptist preacher, Rigdon found his

place in the Mormon Church, shaping doctrines and preaching the

Gospel of this new religion. He positioned himself to thrive in

leadership roles, aiming to be influential in religious traditions and well

regarded by all, both inside and outside those traditions. Using

rhetoric and charisma, he obtained unique power and privileges in the

LDS Church. Rigdon shaped and created LDS doctrine until Joseph

Smith’s untimely death in 1844, when he made a claim for the Church

presidency. Sidney Rigdon’s quest for religious power and belonging

caused him to become a forgotten and misunderstood religious

influence.

3
 Sidney Rigdon’s Early Life

Rigdon’s Upbringing on his Family Farm

Sidney Rigdon was born in 1793 near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,

to Baptist parents. Rigdon’s grandparents were Quakers and

suspected Tories during the American Revolution, causing his parents

to convert to the Baptist church, specifically a Calvinist church,

because of the church’s democratic and patriotic values.2 Rigdon grew

up on his father’s farm in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, yet rejected

the farming life. In fact, much strife existed between Rigdon and his

father, William, because of Rigdon’s desire to read and become

educated. He borrowed many books from neighbors, with specific

interests in history and the Bible.3 Reading by a small fire at night,

Rigdon educated himself; after reading the Bible and studying history,

he began to interpret “the history of the world since New Testament

times in terms of Biblical prophecy,” which would later prove beneficial

to Joseph Smith, who believed in modern day revelation and prophecy.4

William Rigdon died in 1810, when Rigdon was only 17, leaving Sidney

to care for the farm with his mother. They sold the farm 8 years later

and Rigdon decided to become a Baptist preacher.

2 Richard S. Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon: A Portrait of Religious

Excess (Salt Lake City: Signature Books, 1994), 6.
3
F. Mark McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness:
Sidney Rigdon, Religious Reformer, 1793-1876 (Lawrence, Kansas:
Coronade Press, 1972), 14.
4
Ibid., 14.
4
 Rigdon’s Apprenticeship under Adamson Bentley

Despite Rigdon’s upbringing in the Baptist church, he claimed

after his conversion to Mormonism that he had had no religious

experience there. Rigdon was officially baptized as a Baptist at the

age of 24, after fulfilling the rigorous Calvinistic requirements. A

Baptist conversion had to demonstrate:

an exercise of miraculous power on the part of God, which the

sinner could neither so control as to bring himself under its
influence, nor resist when he was subjected to it . . . . The
experience had to stand the scrutiny of a validation committee
and a subsequent confirming vote by the congregation…for full
membership in the society.5

The next year, in 1819, Rigdon received his ministerial license and

began his preaching career. A ministerial license differed from an

ordination. A licensed preacher acted much like an apprentice,

studying under an ordained minister, yet was unable to perform the

sacraments such as the Eucharist and baptism.6 Moving from

Pennsylvania to Ohio in the same year, Rigdon attained his ordination,

giving him the opportunity to become a pastor for his own

congregation. He worked under the authority of Adamson Bentley, a

founder of the Mahoning Baptist Association.7 It is interesting to notice

the timing of when events took place in Ohio, because it shows

Rigdon’s first experience with religious power. According to Rigdon

biographer Richard Van Wagoner, Rigdon moved to Western Reserve,

5 Ibid., 7.
6
Ibid., 10.
7
McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 18.
5
Ohio, in early 1819 and three months later married Phebe Brook, the

daughter of a Baptist preacher. Their wedding took place on June 12,

1820, leading one to believe that Rigdon arrived in late February or

early March. He lived with Bentley, a brother-in-law to Phebe, since his

move to Ohio and began his preaching career as a circuit rider. The

Mahoning Baptist Association was officially founded and recognized on

August 30, 1820, about 17 months after Rigdon’s arrival.8 In fact,

Rigdon was asked to write the “Corresponding Letter” along with

Bentley and Rigdon’s cousin, Baptist preacher Charles Rigdon; this

letter allowed the different congregations across the states to

communicate doctrine and church news.9 Because of Bentley’s

influence and inclusion of Rigdon, Rigdon recognized the power that

accompanies the founding of a denomination or religious association,

beginning his quest for religious power and belonging.

Rigdon’s Credo is Not Yet Clearly Defined

The dogma of the Mahoning Baptist Association allowed Rigdon

to begin to more clearly define his personal credo. Although he was

raised in the Baptist church, Rigdon only moderately accepted the

Baptist theology. Like many, he simply accepted what was preached

without actively questioning or shaping his personal theology. His son

later claimed that Rigdon knew the Bible as well as his spelling book,

and, as a child, was always engaged in studying rather than hobbies or

8
Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 18.
9
Ibid., 18.
6
leisure.10 His apprenticeship not only allowed him to define his beliefs,

but also allowed him to develop a system through which one may find

truth. He believed that one should constantly search for truth, not

blindly accepting any doctrine based solely on the preacher’s personal

doctrine or the church’s dogma. Searching the Scriptures and studying

the doctrines of other religions and denominations was important for

one’s personal edification.

Rigdon adopted his credo from several sources. The Mahoning

Baptists, whom he helped found, followed five essential principles:

“baptism by immersion, separation of church and state, conversion

experience, individual responsibility for sins, and congregational

church government.”11 Rigdon’s travels as a circuit rider also led him

to visit the Shakers, an early American religion founded by Mother Ann

Lee, who claimed herself to be the female incarnate of God.12 Rigdon’s

constant quest for truth would eventually cause divisive rifts between

him and his religious communities.

Alexander Campbell, Walter Scott, and the

Disciples of Christ

Rigdon’s First Interaction with Campbell

10 Rigdon, Sidney Rigdon and the Early History of the Mormon

Church.
11
McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 18-19.
These five principles resound clearly with the modern LDS church,
possibly easing Rigdon’s conversion to Mormonism doctrinally.
12
It is highly likely that he adopted some of their doctrines,
namely their emphasis in the gifts of the Spirit and modern day
revelations.
7
 Alexander Campbell, the founder of the Disciples of Christ, gave

Rigdon his second taste of religious belonging and power.13 In 1821

Rigdon and Bentley read a published debate by Campbell about infant

baptism, leading them to seek out Campbell in order to better

ascertain his theology and doctrines.14 Although the official LDS

historian in the early 20th century and Rigdon’s son ignore this chapter

of Rigdon’s life, his time with Campbell is worth investigating.

Campbell had a profound influence both on Rigdon and on the

American religious frontier in the 19th century.

Campbell met Rigdon and Bentley in July of 1821 while preaching

in southern Ohio and Kentucky.15 Speaking extensively about

everything from “Adam… to the final judgment,”16 Campbell attracted

the two with his clear doctrines and extensive knowledge of the Bible.

Campbell was equally impressed with Rigdon’s rhetoric and charisma,

urging him to accept Campbell’s former pastorship in Pittsburgh.

Campbell recognized that Rigdon’s charisma would benefit the

Pittsburgh church more than Rigdon’s personal credo. In Campbell’s

mind, a charismatic leader could better grow a congregation than a

sure theologian. John Wickliff Rigdon, Rigdon’s son, claimed that the

13 Campbell was also an influential voice inside the Restoration

movement, a movement aimed at restoring the modern church to the
original first or second century style and dogma, ridding the modern
church of creeds and doctrines created through councils in the later
centuries.

14 This famed 1820 debate, commonly known as the Campbell-

Walker debate, thrust Campbell onto religious scene as a prominent
religious voice and theologian.

15 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 23.

16
Ibid.
8
journey to Pittsburgh was part of Rigdon’s wedding tour, taking place

roughly 18 months after his wedding.17 However, the evidence implies

that Rigdon accepted Campbell’s suggestion of pastoring his own

congregation, taking him back to Pittsburgh, the place of Rigdon’s

Baptist roots and where he first obtained his great preaching

reputation.

All accounts of Rigdon proclaim his charismatic and intoxicating

preaching style, a style that put him in high demand among both the

religious and non-religious alike. This possibly led to John Wickliff’s

claim that it was solely Rigdon’s charismatic preaching during a guest

visit to the Pittsburgh church that led to his pastoral position.18

However, most sources credit Campbell’s influence on Rigdon. Even

Robert Richardson, a biographer of Campbell and blatantly anti-Rigdon,

claimed that Rigdon “was induced [by Campbell] to accept a call from

this church to become its pastor.”19 This began Rigdon’s brief, yet

vital, association with the Disciples of Christ.

Rigdon Develops His Credo and Begins to Exercise Religious

Authority

Rigdon began his pastorship in Pittsburgh in early 1822 at the

urging of Campbell. Campbell believed that Rigdon could not only

grow the church and preach the Gospel, but could also advance
17 Rigdon, Sidney Rigdon and the History of Early Mormonism.
18
Ibid.
19
Robert Richardson, Memoirs of Alexander Campbell (Cincinnati:
Standard Publishing), 2:47.
9
personally, refining his orator skills and developing his credo.20 His

church quickly became one of the most respectable churches in the

city, gaining new members quickly and propelling Rigdon into fame.21

Rigdon’s son claimed that he became the most eloquent preacher in

the city, with fame and fortune within grasp.22

During a rising reputation, Rigdon began to test his religious

power and influence, causing rifts and factions inside his congregation

and the Baptist church. Several sources simply claim that Rigdon

began to disagree with the doctrines that the Baptist church held and,

after prayer and searching the Scriptures, began to teach his own

theology. The 20th century Mormon historian John Jaques claimed in his

own words that “after awhile he [Rigdon] was greatly perplexed with

the idea that the doctrines taught by the church he was connected

with were not altogether in accordance with Scripture.”23 Rigdon

biographer Mark McKiernan maintains that Rigdon was simply acting as

a spokesman for Campbell’s theology, and the Baptist church, out of

contempt for Campbell, began to create factions in Rigdon’s church in

order to discredit both Campbell and Rigdon. He cites explicitly

20 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 22.

Rigdon has much to owe Campbell for the development of his
theology, but the study of Alexander Campbell’s theology and doctrine
does not find a place inside this study. Campbell and Walter Scott,
another influential voice inside the Restoration movement,
undoubtedly influenced Rigdon’s credo and religious beliefs. See Royal
Humbert, A Compend of Alexander Campbell’s Theology or Hiram Van
Kirk, A History of the Theology of the Disciples of Christ for an analysis
of Campbell’s and Scott’s theology.
21
Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.
22
Rigdon, Sidney Rigdon and the History of Early Mormonism.
23 Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.
10
Campbell’s and Rigdon’s rejection of the Old Testament in favor of a

more literal interpretation of the New Testament.24

Another purported cause, advocated by Richard Van Wagoner,

deserves a closer look. Van Wagoner quotes the Pittsburgh church’s

official writings, claiming that Rigdon’s doctrine of “baptismal

regeneration” led to his excommunication.25 He claims that John

Winter, a member of Rigdon’s congregation, organized a small

opposition group to challenge Rigdon. The following are the teachings

in which Winter claimed Rigdon erred in teaching: 1) Christians are no

longer under obligation to a moral law; 2) the Jewish dispensation

made the Jews children of hell; 3) a change of heart merely consists of

a change of views and baptism; 4) there is no such thing as religious

experience; 5) faith is simply crediting the testimony of evangelists;

and 6) it is wrong to pray the Lord’s prayer.26 Some of these

accusations were probably created by a disillusioned and bitter Winter,

angry that members of the congregation chose to follow Rigdon

instead of remaining in the Baptist church.

The first teaching, of which Winter was critical, was a doctrine

that Campbell was accused of teaching, and because of Rigdon’s

closeness with Campbell, it is a logical conclusion that Rigdon would

have been accused of the same.27 The third and fourth teachings are

extremely similar, coming from the paradigm of a strict Baptist church.

24
McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 22.
25
Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 29.
26
Ibid., 31.
27 Campbell was accused of being an Antinomianist, someone
who believes that members of a certain religion are not under any
legal or moral obligation.
11
Their position held that a change of heart, coming in the form of

conversion, should affect the entire person, including a change in

lifestyle along with a change in paradigm. The fourth teaching came

directly from Rigdon’s own personal experience, as Rigdon claimed

that he fabricated his religious experience in the Baptist church in

order to be baptized. Granted, he wrote that while he was in the

Mormon Church and had already been disowned and discredited by the

Baptist church. Still, if Winter’s claims can be trusted, it shows that

Rigdon truly did make up that experience, choosing to join with the

Baptists mainly for religious power and belonging. Nothing could be

found by this author about the second or sixth claims by Winter in

regard to Rigdon’s or Campbell’s theology.

No matter the cause, Rigdon resigned from the Baptist church in

1824, choosing to remain aligned with Alexander Campbell. The

Baptists declared that he was excommunicated. However, Rigdon did

not return to preaching for Campbell’s new religious movement, known

then as the Campbellites and now as the Disciples of Christ,

immediately after Pittsburgh. Struggling to support his wife and three

children, Rigdon began work as a tanner in Pittsburgh. Very little is

known about Rigdon during this time. I presume that he continued to

follow and communicate with Campbell. In 1825 Campbell published a

series of lectures titled “A Restoration of the Ancient Order of Things,”

toward which Rigdon immediately gravitated, believing in the ancient

creeds and orders, under which the first and second century church

operated. 28 Owing to the fact that Rigdon still had followers from his

Baptist congregation, he probably continued to operate as a circuit

28 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 40.

12
rider, traveling to various members’ houses and exercising his

renowned rhetorical skills.

In 1826, Rigdon gave a funeral eulogy in Mentor, Ohio, for a

respected Baptist preacher. He so impressed the congregation that

they offered him the pastorship, allowing him to preach Campbell’s

and his doctrines.29 If Rigdon was renowned before, he became even

more so while in Mentor. Preaching baptism for the remission of sins,

gifts of the Holy Spirit, and a restoration of the Ancient Order, he

thrived, becoming famous and desired in churches. Rejecting creeds

and rituals, Rigdon used the Bible alone for doctrines. His success

caused some citizens to produce slanderous reports about him, yet

Rigdon continued to preach, emphasizing the literal fulfillment of

prophecy, the gathering of Israel in the last days, the second coming of

Jesus, and the forthcoming millennial reign of Jesus on earth.30 He

strengthened his association with Campbell and Walter Scott, starting

revivals across the Western Reserve, a territory in northeastern Ohio.

A Campbellite historian said that Rigdon’s preaching was “the great

religious awakening in Mentor.”31

During his years in Mentor, Rigdon was bold enough to abandon

some of the Baptist’s and Campbell’s teachings and actively pursue his

own. Becoming confident in his theology and fame across Ohio, he

first became irritated that he received little credit for the origin of the

Campbellite movement. Although recognized as an important

29
McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 25.
30
Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.
31
McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wildernessn, 26.
Emphasis added.
13
spokesman and preacher, Rigdon wrote in 1843 that he was as much

the originator as Campbell.32 Despite the fact Rigdon wrote that

challenging statement 13 years after leaving the Campbellites, it

accurately demonstrates his mindset. He wanted recognition not

merely as an influential preacher, but also as an originator and

founder. The deciding factor took place in late 1827 or early 1828,

when Campbell chose Walter Scott over Rigdon as traveling evangelist

for the movement.33 Forcing Rigdon to remain in his Mentor

congregation instead of traveling across Ohio, Campbell made a crucial

mistake. As a result, Rigdon decided to exercise his own religious

power.

He began to develop his own theology, distinct from Campbell’s.

He challenged some of Campbell’s reasonings and apologies before

developing doctrines contradictory to the Campbellites’. One of the

major differences manifested itself after an 1829 debate between

Campbell and Robert Owen, a proponent of a commune style

community for believers. Owen was a Scottish reformer who sought to

end poverty through “family commonwealths.”34 Campbell opposed

this belief, challenging Owen to an eight day, sixteen-session debate.

Campbell was so persuasive in his debate that Owen surrendered the

last three days of the debate, leaving Campbell to preach in his

stead.35 Rigdon, however, supported the idea of a commune society,

drawing from Acts 2:44-45, from which Rigdon inferred a commune

within the early church. In February of 1830, he convinced two

32 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 43.
33
Ibid.
34
Ibid., 50.
35 Ibid.
14
farmers to implement a common-stock community, gaining more than

100 families by October.36 Becoming bold due to the acceptance of

this doctrine, Rigdon openly challenged Campbell from the pulpit,

outlining differences in eschatology, church creeds, and gifts of the

Spirit, including prophecy and speaking in tongues.37 This angered

Campbell, openly challenging him, in turn, at meetings and becoming

an “aggressive persecutor” of Rigdon’s beliefs.38 Therefore, in the fall

of 1830, Rigdon decided to disassociate his congregation from

Campbell. As a culmination of frustration from a lack of recognition,

respect, and power, Rigdon began to search for his next religious

move, a move that would further his quest for religious power.

36
Ibid.
37
McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 27.
38
Ibid., 28.
15
 Conversion

A Brief Survey of on the Founding of Mormonism and Joseph

Smith

Joseph Smith was born on December 23, 1805, in Vermont, but

his family soon moved to New Hampshire. In 1816, the Smith family

moved to Palmyra, New York, where the Mormon faith began. Smith’s

first vision occurred at the young age of fourteen, when he prayed

aloud for the first time and received a vision of God and Jesus

appearing to him.39 “In the minds of Mormons today, the events of

that morning marked the beginning of the restoration of the Gospel

and the commencement of a new dispensation. The vision is called the

First Vision because it began a series of revelations.”40 Smith was

praying to God concerning the truth of the various Christian

denominations. Not knowing which was true, he took the advice found

in James 1:5, instructing the believer to ask God for wisdom when

lacking it. Three years later, in 1823, the angel Moroni visited him,

giving him the location of gold plates, on which the Book of Mormon

was written. On the night of September 21, Moroni visited three times,

telling Smith about “gold plates, giving an account of the former

inhabitants of this continent and the source from whence they

sprang…. There were [also] two stones in silver bows… called the Urim

and Thummim… and the possession and use of these stones was what
39 Fawn Brodie, No Man Knows my History, 2nd ed. (New York:
Vintage Books, 1971), 22.
40
Richard Lyman Bushman, Joseph Smith: Rough Stone Rolling
(New York: Vintage Books, 2005), 39.
16
constituted seers in ancient or former times and that God had

prepared them for the purpose of translating that book.”41 These

former inhabitants were a “lost” tribe of Israel, led to America

immediately before the Babylonian exile. Jesus visited this Jewish tribe

after His resurrection and subsequent 40 days on earth; Jesus

preached the Gospel to them and baptized them. After being revealed

the location of these tablets, Smith went to obtain them, yet was

turned away because of greed.42 He returned annually for four years,

finally obtaining the plates on September 21, 1827.43

He tried to keep the existence of these plates a secret,

presumably because of the expected negative reactions from

neighbors and the intrinsic monetary value.44 However, Smith needed

help with the translation. These gold plates were written in an ancient

Egyptian language, only able to be translated with the seer stones.

Martin Harris, a respected farmer in Palmyra, assisted Smith with the

translations. With a curtain dividing Smith and Harris, Smith dictated

41 Ibid., 44.
42
It is widely speculated among many Mormon scholars that Smith
engaged in treasure hunts with his father, searching for hidden gold
and treasure around the region. When Smith first saw the plates, it is
presumed that he thought solely about the monetary value or worth of
the plates. God recognized this greed and, wanting Smith to have a
pure heart, denied him access to the plates until a time when he was
pure in heart. Both the secular Fawn Brodie and the LDS Richard
Bushman write about Smith’s treasure hunting past.
43
Brodie, No Man Knows My History, 40. For a more detailed
account of the time between the revelation and the obtaining of the
plates, see Bushman, Joseph Smith: A Rough Stone Rolling, 41-52.
44
The fear was perhaps fueled by negative perceptions by Smith’s
neighbors concerning their treasure hunting. Revelations and
communication with the Divine were common during this time, with
many people, both clergy and lay, claiming these communications. For
the most extensive research, see D. Michael Quinn, Early Mormonism
and the Magic World View.
17
the translated plates to Harris, who acted as scribe. Harris never saw

the gold plates for himself. The translation began in April 1828, and by

mid June, 116 pages had been transcribed.45 These pages were lost or

stolen, however, when Harris brought them home for his wife to

examine. Fawn Brodie contends that Harris’ wife stole them, in order

to test the authenticity Smith’s translations. “If this be a divine

communication, the same being who revealed it to you can easily

replace it.”46 Smith was instructed by God not to retranslate the 116

pages, but instead to continue on with the rest of the plates. Oliver

Cowdery, a friend of the Smith family, replaced Harris as translator.

The translation process with Cowdery never mentioned a dividing

curtain. Rather, Smith:

would put the seer stone into a hat, and put his face in the hat,
drawing it closely around his face to exclude the light; and in the
darkness the spiritual light would shine. A piece of something
resembling parchment would appear, and on that appeared the
writing. One character at a time would appear, and under it was
the interpretation in English. Brother Joseph would read off the
English to Oliver Cowdery who was his principle scribe, and when
it was written down and repeated to Brother Joseph to see if it
was correct, then it would disappear, and another character with
the interpretation would appear. Thus the Book of Mormon was
translated by the gift and power of God, and not by any power of
man.47

Richard Bushman, a former BYU professor and practicing Mormon,

maintains that the plates were covered next to Smith during the

process.48 Although none of the scribes was ever shown the plates

during the translation process, eleven witness later claimed to view the

45 Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 66.

46
Brodie, No Man Knows My History, 54.
47
Ibid., 61.
48
Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 71-72.
18
plates.49 Their testimonies are published at the beginning of the Book

of Mormon. Oliver Cowdery and Marin Harris were two of the first

three to view the plates, as a reward for their obedience in the

translation. The translation was finished by June 11, 1829, when Smith

received a copyright for the Book of Mormon.50 The entire Book of

Mormon was published on March 26, 1830, and the Church of Christ, as

it was formerly known, was officially organized on April 6, 1830.51

Rigdon’s Conversion

While Rigdon was contemplating his next move after his decision

to formerly split from Campbell, he was visited in the fall of 1830 by

Parley Pratt, a former Campbellite and recent Mormon convert. Pratt,

on a mission to the Indians in Missouri, brought the Book of Mormon for

Rigdon to read, urging him to read it and pray if it were a revelation

from God.52 Rigdon had most likely already heard of Smith and the

Book of Mormon through local newspapers.53 However, Rigdon was not

familiar with the circumstances surrounding its revelation to Smith.

His first reaction was skepticism. He ordered Pratt and his companions

not to argue or debate with him concerning the book, instead agreeing

to read it on his own, insisting he would come to his own conclusion.

49 Three of the witnesses were family members: Joseph Smith

Sr. and brothers Hyrum and Samuel.
50
Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 80.
51
Brodie, No Man Knows My History, 82, 87.
52
Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.
53
Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 55.
19
 Rigdon read and studied the Book of Mormon for several days,

intent on determining its accuracy and truth. He openly told Pratt, “I

have one Bible which I claim to have some knowledge [of] and which I

believe to be a revelation of God. As to this book I have some doubts

but you can leave it with me when you go away and I will read it.”54

This doubt about a new revelation most likely originated from

Alexander Campbell, who believed that revelations ended with the

apostolic age of the first apostles. He argued, “… no new revelation,

not a single idea has, in answer to prayer, been communicated to any

man since the apostolic age has passed away. The testimony is

complete.”55 Rigdon also inquired intently about Joseph Smith as a

prophet of God. Doubt most likely took place in his mind after hearing

that Smith was hardly educated and very young. The answers must

have been satisfying, for Rigdon later said about his own conversion to

the Church,

I saw the different orders of professing Christians passing before

my eyes, with their hearts, exposed to view, and they were as
corrupt as corruption itself. That society to which I belonged [the
Reformed Baptists] also passed before my eyes, and to my
astonishment it was as corrupt as the others. Last of all…the
Book of Mormon passed before my eyes… and it was as pure as
an angel; and this was a testimony of God; that the Book of
Mormon, was a Divine Revelation.56

This vision convinced Rigdon and he was baptized shortly thereafter.

In fact, Rigdon immediately became an LDS preacher, leading his

54 Rigdon, Sidney Rigdon and the Early History of the Early

Mormon Church.
55
Humbert, Alexander Campbell’s Theology, 90. This passage was
written in 1833, three years after Rigdon left. Campbell most likely
wrote it to combat the Mormon faith, yet believed it before Rigdon’s
conversion.
56
Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 61.
20
current congregation in Mentor into the Mormon faith. This naturally

caused more division between Rigdon and the local Protestant

denominations and churches, leading to rumors in 1834 about the

plagarization of a manuscript by Solomon Spaulding.57 Rigdon

persevered, however, preaching the new Gospel of Mormonism in Ohio.

Rigdon’s Early Power in the LDS Church

Sidney Rigdon traveled to Palmyra, New York, in December 1830

to visit Joseph Smith, beginning Rigdon’s career as Smith’s spokesman.

While there, Smith had a revelation concerning Rigdon: “I say unto my

servant Sidney, I have looked upon thee and thy works… and prepared

thee for a greater work. Thou art blessed, for thou shalt do great

things… thou shalt write for him [Joseph Smith]… and thou shalt

preach my Gospel.”58 Rigdon must have been rejuvenated and

motivated through these words, believing that he had finally found his

religious belonging. God called him to preach this new Gospel, working

directly with the Prophet. At this time, Smith was working on a new

translation of the Bible, with Oliver Cowdery again assisting as scribe.

Yet this new revelation passed that responsibility on to Rigdon; a few

days after meeting the Prophet, Rigdon was deemed worthy enough to
57 Solomon Spaulding was a Presbyterian minister who
purportedly wrote a manuscript concerning aboriginal America and the
origins of the Native Americans. The Spaulding Theory states that
Rigdon copied a manuscript from Spaulding concerning the Jewish
origins of American Indians. The theory claims that Rigdon then gave
the manuscript and story to Joseph Smith, who published it under his
own name; thus the Book of Mormon and the LDS church were
fraudulent. This theory has since been overwhelmingly debunked,
used only by extreme anti-Mormons or Christian apologists ignorant of
historical fact.
58
Doctrine and Covenants 35:3-6, 17-23.
21
act as scribe in the eyes of both God and Prophet Smith. The very next

month, January 1831, Rigdon began traveling with Smith, acting as

preacher, spokesman, and counselor. It was around this time that

Rigdon, according to LDS scholar Richard Bushman, “worked himself

deep into Brother Joseph’s affections, and had more influence over him

than any other man living.”59 Smith enjoyed having Rigdon as a

powerful advisor. Rigdon was 12 years Smith’s senior and Smith

gleaned from Rigdon’s wisdom and various religious experiences.

At the urging of Rigdon, followed by a revelation from God, Smith

decided to move from Palmyra to Western Reserve, Ohio, where the

converts in Kirtland and Mentor could benefit from his presence. 60

This move greatly benefited Rigdon, as well. By moving the Church to

Ohio, Rigdon was able to operate and preach in his homeland, the

place in which he felt most comfortable. His congregation still followed

and revered him, giving Rigdon confidence to display his rhetorical

abilities. Smith had been lacking the crucial element of an influential

preacher. However, Smith believed in Rigdon, realizing that he had

finally found the preacher he had desperately needed. Rigdon, in

return, found a new faith grateful for his rhetoric and skill. Smith relied

on Rigdon, giving Rigdon the sense of belonging and power he felt he

deserved. Rigdon gladly accepted the role of Smith’s counselor, a

recognition that Campbell had withheld from him. He quickly became

as synonymous with Mormonism as Smith.

59 Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 124.

60
McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness:, 45;
Doctrine and Covenants 37.
22
 Drawing on his previous missions with Campbell, Smith sent

Rigdon in March of 1831, along with two others, to the Shakers. 61

Smith received a revelation instructing Rigdon to consecrate and

dedicate land for the new Zion, where the literal gathering of Israel

would take place. Incorporated with this was the writing of an “epistle”

describing Zion, which would go out to all the congregations of the

Church.62 This served as the second time Rigdon helped draft a broad-

reaching religious letter, preceded by the letter he wrote with

Adamson Bentley to all the churches associated with the Mahoning

Baptist Association.

Due to Rigdon’s and Smith’s other activities, the translation of

the New Testament was put on hold. There were missions to other

states, a quest to find Zion, and the move to Ohio. It was also during

this time that Joseph Smith had numerous revelations. In 1831, he

received three times as many revelations as the previous ten years.63

Perhaps God was affirming to Smith that it was the time to advance

the church. Most were orders to the missionaries, with whom Rigdon

worked. In January 1832, Smith received another revelation

commanding them to continue the translation until it was finished.64

They finished on February 2, 1833, after preaching trips and mob

attacks. In fact, both Rigdon and Smith were attacked by a mob on

March 25, 1832; they were dragged out of their houses, tarred, and

feathered. Mormon sources, including Jaques, the official LDS historian

61 Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.

62
Ibid.
63
Brodie, No Man Knows My History, 117.
64
Doctrine and Covenants 73.
23
in the early 20th century, and Richard Bushman, blame Campbellite

preacher Symonds Ryder (or Simonds Rider) for the mob and attack.65

Fawn Brodie ignores the identity of the attacker in her biography of

Joseph Smith. It is wholly likely that the Campbellites would have

attacked Smith and Rigdon. Rigdon had drawn a congregation away

from Alexander Campbell and had a growing reputation in the Western

Reserve. Bushman also claims that Ryder was a former Mormon who

became disillusioned with Smith and the Church.66 The attack never

stopped, or even slowed, the work of Smith and Rigdon. Smith was in

church the next day, preaching and baptizing.67 Soon after, Smith and

Rigdon moved to Independence, Missouri.68

Rigdon tried to test his power inside the LDS Church too early,

earning him a strong rebuttal from Smith. While Rigdon and Smith

were in Independence, identified by this time as the location of Zion

and the place where Jesus would return, Rigdon’s family was homeless,

moving from house to house to stay with friends. Part of Rigdon’s

theology was the firm belief that ministers and preachers ought not be

paid for their services, relying instead on God and the generosity of the

congregations. When Rigdon had preached in Mentor, Ohio, he was

asked how much he would charge the congregation for his preaching

services. He had replied, “Nothing, the Apostles asked nothing for

65 Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I; Bushman,

Rough Stone Rolling, 178. There is some speculation that Rigdon
suffered serious mental trauma during this attack, causing severe
depression and bipolarity.
66
Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 178.
67
Ibid., 179.
68
Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.
24
their preaching and I am not agoing [sic] to charge anything.”69 As a

result, the congregation had decided to buy Rigdon’s family a farm and

build a house on the land.70 However, before the house could be

finished, Rigdon had converted to Mormonism and the house was

never finished. Rigdon and his family operated several years without a

home, living with friends and neighbors. When his daughter fell ill in

May of 1832, Rigdon became furious that his family did not have a

home where they could care for her. After several months of

uncertainty, Rigdon came into a prayer meeting agitated, stating that

“The keys of the kingdom are rent from the Church, and there shall not

be a prayer put up in this house this day.”71 He threatened that these

keys would not be returned to the Church until they built his family a

house.72 Smith responded by denouncing Rigdon, accusing him of

having “lied in the Lord,” assembling a council to try him.73 The

dissatisfaction with Rigdon must not have lasted long, because the

Church not only built him a house, but also ordained Rigdon as Smith’s

most trusted counselor.

Rigdon’s Influence on the Latter-Day Saints

69 Rigdon, Sidney Rigdon and the Early History of the Mormon
Church.
70
Ibid.
71
Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 126.
72
The “keys of the kingdom” are, according to former LDS Apostle
Bruce McConkie, “the right of presidency, directing, controlling, [and]
governing power. The keys of the kingdom are the power, right, and
authority to preside over the kingdom of God on earth…and to direct
all its affairs.” See his book, Mormon Doctrine.
73
Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 126.
25
 Rigdon Served as Joseph Smith’s Spokesman

On March 8, 1833, Sidney Rigdon was ordained as First

Counselor to Joseph Smith. In the LDS hierarchy, the president of the

church, the modern-day Prophet, is aided by two counselors,

constituting the First Presidency. This officially began Rigdon’s time as

Smith’s “right-hand man,” serving as First Counselor until Smith’s

assassination in 1844. This position gave Rigdon enormous power and

authority. Letters written to the Church’s leadership were addressed

to Smith and Rigdon together, often not even mentioning the Second

Counselor. The First Presidency holds “the keys of the kingdom” and

makes the final decision on all spiritual matters concerning the

Church.74 Although Rigdon had possibly held a similar position with

Alexander Campbell and Walter Scott (most likely serving as a second

counselor), his power was now official and recognized. He could finally

officially exercise religious power.

Along with Rigdon’s ordination as Smith’s First Counselor, a

revelation on October 12, 1833, confirmed that Rigdon was Smith’s

official spokesman. “And it is expedient in me that you, my servant

Sidney, should be a spokesman unto this people; yea, verily, I will

ordain you unto this calling, even to be a spokesman unto my servant

Joseph… and I will give unto thee power to be mighty in expounding all

scriptures, that thou mayest be a spokesman unto him.”75 Rigdon could

now claim explicit authority for speaking on behalf of Smith, a claim

74 Doctrine and Covenants 107.

75 Doctrine and Covenants 100:9-11.
26
that he would try to utilize after Smith’s death. Smith decided to

deploy Rigdon’s rhetoric on a mission to Canada, a journey Smith took

as well, spending the month of October preaching. 76

This was the first

time the LDS Church had proselytized outside America. Something

happened during this time that caused Smith to question Rigdon’s

character, although it is not clear what. He wrote that Rigdon “is not

capable of that pure and steadfast love… as should possess the breast

of a president of the Church of Christ.”77 Perhaps Smith was beginning

to fully realize Rigdon’s quest for power. If this were the case,

however, Smith still embraced it, continuing to give Rigdon more

power.

Rigdon Helped Compile the Doctrine and Covenants

On September 24, 1834, Rigdon was chosen to arrange the

doctrines of the Church, which ultimately resulted in the Doctrine and

Covenants of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints.

Appointed along with Joseph Smith, Oliver Cowdery, and F.G. Williams,

who served as the Second Counselor, he was charged with arranging

Smith’s revelations in a comprehensive form, which would govern the

Church. The idea began in 1833 with The Book of Commandments for

the Government of the Church of Christ, but the proofs were lost after

the destruction of the printing press.78 Rigdon was named press

manager in April 1834, overseeing the arrangement of the covenants

76
Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.
77
Ibid.
78 Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 282.
27
and revelations into the new Doctrine and Covenants. The idea behind

the Book of Commandments was the desire to publish a compilation of

Smith’s revelations. Yet the Doctrine and Covenants became a

“systematic presentation of Church doctrine.”79 The First Presidency

and Cowdery were tasked with “correcting the revelations,” leading to

controversies about the contents.80 The editing was not readily

apparent to Church members, yet the First Presidency, charged by God

to determine all theological matters for the Church, approved of these

changes.

Some of the changes were due to scribal and printing errors, but

some of the changes angered the Apostles, members of the Quorum of

the Twelve responsible only to the First Presidency. One of the

witnesses to the Book of Mormon, David Whitmer, claimed that “Some

of the revelations in the Book of Commandments had to be changed

because the heads of the church had gone too far, and had done

things in which they had already gone ahead of some of the former

revelations.”81 Another apostle described the Doctrine and Covenants

as telestial compared to the celestial Book of Commandments.82

Whitmer credits, or blames in his mind, Rigdon for most of the

changes:

Some of the revelations as they are now in the Book of Doctrine

and Covenants have been changed and added to. Some of the
changes being of the greatest importance as the meaning is
entirely changed on some very important matters; as if the Lord
had changed his mind a few years after he gave the
79
Ibid.
80
Ibid.
81
Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 162. Emphasis is original.
82 Ibid. “Telestial” was coined by Joseph Smith to describe
carnality and worldliness. See McConkie, Mormon Doctrine.
28
 revelations…through the influence of Sidney Rigdon, Brother
Joseph was led on and on into receiving revelations every year,
to establish offices and doctrines which are not even mentioned
in the teachings of Christ in the written word. In a few years they
had gone away ahead of the written word, so that they had to
change these revelations.83

Nevertheless, the new Doctrine and Covenants was unanimously

approved by the Church membership on August 17, 1835. Smith was

absent from this meeting, leaving Rigdon and Cowdery to act in his

place. It is interesting to note that during the compilation process,

Alexander Campbell also published The Christian System, a summary

of the Disciples of Christ theology and beliefs, publishing it seven

months before the approval of the Doctrine and Covenants.84 It is

likely that Rigdon and Smith were aware of Campbell’s publication,

leading them to quickly compile and print their own doctrines.

The Doctrine and Covenants, when published in 1835, appeared

and was organized differently from the present edition. The first seven

revelations were organized by importance and prevalence, rather than

chronologically, which roughly organizes them today. After a “Lord’s

Preface,” church governance was placed as the second section, a

revelation given in April 1830.85 The third and fourth sections dealt

with the priesthood, with the third section revealed only months before

publication.86 The fifth section contained the minutes of the first high
83
Ibid., 162-163. Van Wagoner cites Whitmer’s speech in 1887 for
this quote; the speech was given almost 50 years after Whitmer was
excommunicated from the Church.
84
Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 283.
85 Doctrine and Covenants 20. This revelation moves through
doctrines of creation, fall, atonement, baptism, repentance,
justification, and sanctification. It then begins to describe church
structure, including the duties of elders, priests, teachers, deacons,
and members.
86
29
council of the Church, taking place in Kirtland, Ohio, on February 17,

1834.87 Section six was a revelation giving Smith the meaning of the

parable of the weeds, found in Matthew 13. The final section pulled

out of chronological order is currently Section 88, known as the “Olive

Leaf” revelation.88

Along with the creation of the School of Prophets, commanded in

the “Olive Leaf” revelation, came seven theological lectures “on the

doctrine of the Church of the Latter Day Saints.” They are now simply

known as the Lectures on Faith and are not included in the current

Doctrine and Covenants, removed in 1921 because they were not

direct revelations to Smith. Rigdon gave these lectures most likely

around May of 1834, when Rigdon served as a trustee and conductor

of the School of Prophets, in order to explain, develop, and defend LDS

doctrine.89
Doctrine and Covenants 107. It describes the Melchizedek and
Aaronic priesthoods; all male members of the Church are ordained into
the Aaronic priesthood, whereas the Melchizedek priesthood is
reserved for the First Presidency, the Quorum of the Twelve, and the
Seventy, holding the keys to the Church and able to receive
revelations and mysteries from heaven.
Doctrine and Covenants 84. This claims that the New Jerusalem
will be built in Missouri, that men can gain eternal life through the
priesthood, and that elders ought not be paid for their services.
87
Doctrine and Covenants 102. Three of the verses were added to
this section when it was being readied for publishing, dealing with the
role and powers of the high council.
88
It deals with many issues, including resurrection through
redemption, obedience to God’s law, sanctification, signs of the end
times, and the charge to create of a School of Prophets.

89 Lecture First dealt with the importance of faith. Lecture

Second explained the existence of God, tracing the chronology of the
world from Adam to Abraham using Genesis and revealed LDS sacred
texts. This lecture even states the years in which the patriarchs from
Adam to Abraham died. Lecture Third states that in order for a rational
person to exercise faith in God, they must believe He exists, must have
a correct idea of his character and attributes, and a knowledge that the
believer is operating within God’s will. Lecture Fourth expounds on the
30
 Due to the importance of Lecture Fifth, it will be explained in

greater detail. This lecture speaks about the Godhead and the

relationship between God the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit.

This lecture states that both the Father and the Son created and have

supreme power over all things. The Son has a body like man, was

begotten of God, and was ordained as Savior before the creation of the

world. When He came to earth, he maintained a sinless life, following

perfectly God’s law and commands. The Holy Spirit constitutes the

mind of God, an entity that bears record of the Father and the Son. In

that sense, they are three-in-one, exhibiting together “great and

matchless” power over all things.90 The Father and Son share the

same mind, wisdom, glory, power, and fullness. The Holy Spirit is

endowed on all believers, in order that the faithful may become joint

heirs with Jesus. This would include them becoming deified,

possessing the same mind as Jesus and becoming one with Him, as He

is one with the Father and Spirit. Missing from this lecture is the belief

that God the Father has a body of flesh and bone like Jesus, as stated

in Doctrine and Covenants 130. Verse 22 states, “The Father has a

body of flesh and bones as tangible as man’s; the Son also.” There are

three possibilities for this absence. Since this section was revealed in

1843, it is likely that Smith simply had yet to clearly define the

Church’s doctrine on the Father’s physical attributes when the lecture

was presented. If he had already explained this belief, Rigdon possibly

chose to ignore it while delivering these lectures, in order for the

previous lecture. Lecture Sixth explains which knowledge people must
possess in order to obtain salvation. Lecture Seventh explains the
effects of faith. These lectures are found in every Doctrines and
Covenants published before 1921.
90
Found in every Doctrine and Covenants until 1921.
31
Godhead to sound more orthodox. It is also likely, however, that

Rigdon did not believe in this doctrine and, therefore, did not include it

in the lectures. Nothing that Rigdon preached while with the

Campbellites hinted at a belief that God the Father has a physical

body. Smith gave Rigdon tremendous authority to explain and define

Church doctrine without much oversight. Regardless of the fact that

Smith may have expounded on this doctrine several years later,

Rigdon was placed in a unique and powerful position.

Rigdon Continued to Gain and Exercise Religious Power

After exercising enormous power with the compilation and

printing of the Doctrine and Covenants, Rigdon continued his duties as

First Counselor to Joseph Smith. In 1836 he dedicated the first temple,

located in Kirtland, Ohio. He began taking Hebrew lessons with Smith

and in March was elected as chairman pro tem of the conference to

sign licenses, acting as chairman whenever Smith was absent.91 The

term “license” is not used in the Church today, but LDS scholar D.

Michael Quinn claims that these were apostolic licenses, “signifying

and proveing [sic] that he [the male recipient] is an Apostle of Jesus

Christ an Elder of this Church.”92 He preached at the funeral service of

Smith’s grandmother and gave a lecture about Christianity in Salem,

Massachusetts. In early January 1837, Rigdon was the chairman at the

Kirtland Safety Society, which dealt with establishing the Kirtland Bank

in order to help the Church rid herself of debt.93 The bank failed
91 Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon II.
92 D. Michael Quinn, The Mormon Hierarchy: Origins of Power
(Salt Lake City: Signature Books, 1994), 12.
93
32
miserably, with Smith disowning it in August of the same year. John

Rigdon claimed that his father was opposed to the bank the whole

time, but that Smith convinced him to sign the bills as president of the

bank.94 As a result, several prominent members of the Church

apostatized, including Parley Pratt, who converted Rigdon, and F.G.

William, Smith’s Second Counselor.95

On September 3, 1837, Rigdon was reconfirmed as First

Counselor to Smith, ensuring that he would continue to work closely

with Smith.96 He preached extensively throughout the year,

accompanying Smith to Indiana, Missouri, Illinois, and Ohio. Smith and

Rigdon began to write a Church history to combat what they believed

to be misperceptions and lies that were circulating in the Midwest.

Part of this was an attempt to maintain their power from disgruntled

members inside the Church. Owing to distrust by some of the leaders

in the Missouri branch of the Church, Smith was forced to

excommunicate Oliver Cowdery, David Whitmer, and half of the

Quorum of the Twelve.97 They were charged with “accusing the

Prophet of dishonesty and immorality; not attending Church meetings;

using tea, coffee, and tobacco; failing to account for $2,000 in Church

funds; and selling their personal property in Jackson [County, Missouri]

against Smith’s orders.”98 By 1838, “Of the eleven witnesses to the

Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 329-330.
94
Rigdon, Sidney Rigdon and the Early History of the Mormon
Church.
95
Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 332. Pratt quickly returned to
the Church, however, and died in full membership.
96
Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon II.
97 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 84.
98
Ibid.
33
Book of Mormon only Joseph’s father and brothers were left in the

church.”99 This was the only serious schism against Smith’s power and

Rigdon stood by Smith’s side, vigorously defending him against all

accusations through speeches and sermons.

Rigdon remained in good grace with Smith, being appointed as

delegate to Washington D.C. in order to present crimes and

constitutional violations that occurred against the Mormons while in

Missouri.100 Rigdon, Smith, and two others traveled to Washington

D.C., but Rigdon was not able to accompany them into a meeting with

President Martin Van Buren because of health reasons.101 In 1841, the

Church began to develop and inhabit Nauvoo, Illinois. Rigdon was

elected to the city council and named trustee of the University of the

City of Nauvoo.102

On January 19, 1841, Rigdon was confirmed as First Counselor

for the third time, reaffirming Smith’s confidence in Rigdon. More

notably, however, was the title given to Rigdon on June 1 by Smith. He

ordained Rigdon “prophet, seer, and revelator”, a title very similar to

Smith’s. This monumental title was overshadowed by a conflict

between Smith and Rigdon one year later. In 1842, Rigdon accused

Smith of seducing his daughter, with the goal of making her one of his

plural wives. During a period of two and a half years, starting in April

of 1841, Smith had married thirty women, ten of whom were already

99
Brodie, No Man Knows My History, 217.
100
Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon III.
101
Ibid.
102
Ibid.
34
married.103 Smith desired to make Nancy Rigdon one of his several

wives. He dictated a letter to her, which later came into Rigdon’s

possession. Rigdon, understandably furious with Smith, immediately

confronted Smith. Rigdon was uninformed about the doctrine of plural

marriage and once informed was immediately appalled by it. His

brother-in-law reported that “Smith attempted to deny it at first, and

face her [Nancy] down with the lie; but she told the facts with so much

earnestness, and the fact of a letter being present… on the same

subject, the day after the attempt made on her virtue… he then and

there acknowledged that every word of Miss Rigdon’s testimony was

true.”104 Smith attempted to explain it away, claiming that he had

simply been testing her virtue. This began a split between Rigdon and

Smith. A newspaper article came out defending the moral character of

Smith, signed by every leader of the Mormon Church besides Rigdon,

George Robinson, who was Rigdon’s brother-in-law, and Orson Pratt,

brother of the formerly excommunicated Parley Pratt.105

Rigdon and Smith acted distant from each other and hardly

trusted one other after this confrontation. Rigdon no longer believed

that “all the words of Joseph Smith were the exact duplicates of the

Almighty” but he kept his faith in the Church.106 Smith became

paranoid about a kidnapping attempt and accused Rigdon of

supporting John C. Bennett, an apostate and anti-Mormon activist.107

103 Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 437.

104
McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 118-119.
105 Ibid., 119. Orson Pratt’s wife was also propositioned by
Smith to become a plural wife.
106
Ibid., 121.
107
Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 510.
35
Bennett had sent a letter addressed to Rigdon and Orson Pratt,

explaining that he wanted to have Smith arrested for alleged crimes

committed in Missouri. Pratt, but not Rigdon, immediately gave the

letter to Smith; consequently, Smith accused Rigdon of trying to hide

the letter from him.108 On March 27, 1843, Smith sent a scathing letter

to Rigdon:

It is with sensations of deep regret and poignant grief that I

dictate a few lines to you this morning…I have tried to smother
my feelings and not let you know that I thought you were
secretly and underhandedly doing all you could to take
advantage of and injure me…I am, sir, honest, when I say that I
believe and am laboring under the fullest convictions that you
are actually practicing deception and wickedness against me and
the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints…seeking to
destroy me and this people…I do not write this with the intention
of insulting you, or of bearing down upon you or with a desire to
take advantage of you, or with the intention of laying one straw
in your way detrimental to your character or influence…I now
notify you that unless something should take place to restore my
mind to its former confidence in you…I must, as a conscientious
man, publish my withdrawal of my fellowship from you to the
Church…”109

Rigdon immediately responded with a letter expressing shock at the

accusations placed against him. Smith did not believe his denials,

however, and aimed to have him excommunicated from the Church.

On April 6, Rigdon was nevertheless confirmed for the fourth time as

First Counselor to Smith by unanimous vote,110 but Smith was never

happy with this outcome. He promised peace within the First

Presidency, but peace did not last long. On August 13, Smith publicly

accused Rigdon of attempting to “betray and give [him] up to the

108
Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon IV.
109
Dean C. Jessee, ed., The Personal Writings of Joseph Smith (Salt
Lake City: Deseret Books, 1984), 555-556.
110
Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon IV.
36
Missourians.”111 Smith attempted to remove Rigdon as First Counselor

and brought the case before the Church membership during the

October conference. Rigdon defended himself, using his powerful

rhetoric and a letter from the Governor of Illinois claiming that Rigdon

was innocent from all conspiracy charges.112 Several members also

spoke on behalf of Rigdon, who was acquitted of all charges and

reinstated as First Counselor.113 Hyrum Smith, Joseph’s brother,

preached for mercy on Rigdon’s behalf, as well. Joseph Smith rose,

however, and said, “I have thrown him off my shoulders, and you have

again put him on me; you may carry him, but I will not.”114

After Rigdon had accused Smith of seducing his daughter, Smith

never trusted Rigdon again with religious matters. Rigdon was not

going to let his quest for power overtake the protection of his family.

Rigdon had already garnered enough approval and satisfaction among

the leadership, however, that his reputation and religious power were

protected. Rigdon was still sustained as First Counselor against

Smith’s wishes. Despite the distrust, Smith chose Rigdon as his Vice-

President when Smith ran for President of the United States in 1844,

perhaps in an attempt to appease Rigdon. Rigdon had been elected

city attorney of Nauvoo the year before, served on Nauvoo city council,

and was well respected among non-Mormons. Establishing the

Mormon Reform Party, the leadership of the Church embarked on the

campaign trail and Rigdon traveled to Pittsburgh to establish

111
Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 320.
112
Ibid., 321.
113
McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying In the Wilderness, 124.
114
Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon IV.
37
residency, in order to be eligible as vice-president.115 Despite being a

candidate for President, Smith was arrested on June 25 on a treason

charge against the state of Illinois. There also were indictments out for

his arrest on the charges of false swearing and polygamy.116 Van

Wagoner claims that Smith was arrested for destroying a printing press

that printed inflammatory material against him regarding plural

marriage.117 Another source says Smith gave himself up voluntarily on

June 24 and Rigdon fled for his life to Pittsburgh.118 Yet another states

that Smith was arrested on a riot charge.119 A final source combines

two of the stories, stating that Smith was arrested on a riot charge, but

once he made bail, was arrested on a treason charge.120 All the

accounts agree that Smith’s brother Hyrum was incarcerated with him

in Carthage, Illinois. At dusk on June 27, 1844, a mob rushed the jail

and assassinated Joseph and Hyrum Smith.

115 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 336. A misconception was

present during this time that the President and Vice-President could
not hail from the same state, but the Constitution never mentions this.
116
Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon V.
117
Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 335.
118
McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 125.
119
Brodie, No Man Knows My History, 388.
120
Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 547.
38
 Post-1844 Theology

Rigdon Attempted to Lead the Church

Rigdon was in Pittsburgh for the presidential campaign when

Joseph Smith was murdered, arriving the same day as Smith’s death.

The Quorum of the Twelve was spread across Boston, Philadelphia,

New York, Michigan, and Cincinnati, campaigning for Smith and Rigdon

and preaching the Gospel.121 Rigdon arrived back in Nauvoo on August

3, more than a month after Smith died.122 He tried to call together a

meeting to determine the guardian of the church on August 8, before

all the members of the Quorum could be present. The Quorum had a

majority, however, with nine of the twelve members were present in

Nauvoo by evening of the August 5.123

The battle for succession was between four people: William

Marks, the Nauvoo stake president, Sidney Rigdon, Brigham Young, the

president of the Quorum of the Twelve, and Joseph Smith III, eleven

years old and Smith’s eldest son. Marks was opposed to the doctrine

of plural marriage, claiming that Smith told him just weeks before his

death that unless plural marriage was abandoned, it would “prove our

destruction and overthrow.”124 Smith’s wife, Emma, also believed that

Smith was beginning to abandon his doctrine on plural marriage,

stating that Smith commanded her to destroy the revelation in 1843, a

121 Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon V.

122
Ibid.
123
Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 338.
124 Quinn, The Mormon Hierarchy, 148.
39
year before Smith died.125 Even Birgham Young in 1866 declared that

Smith was “worn out” with the doctrine.126 Marks was also supported

by Smith’s wife, who was also vehemently opposed to plural

marriage.127 Marks, however, decided to throw his support behind

Rigdon, someone who was also opposed to plural marriage.

On August 7, Young and Rigdon presented their cases in front of

a general council, consisting of all the present church leadership.

Rigdon claimed that while in Pittsburgh he had received a vision. This

vision, taking place the day Smith died, instructed Rigdon to return to

Nauvoo to ensure the Church was properly run.128 Smith had already

endowed Rigdon with the title “prophet, seer and revelator.” Rigdon

declared, “I have been consecrated a spokesman to Joseph, and I was

commanded to speak for him… I propose to be a guardian to the

people; in this I have discharged my duty and done what God has

commanded me, and the people can please themselves whether they

accept me or not.”129 Rigdon realized that Smith was dead, but wanted

to continue to speak on Smith’s behalf from the grave. He believed

that, despite the recent controversies and disagreements between him

and the Prophet, he was in line for the Presidency of the Church,

having served as Smith’s First Counselor for the vast majority of the

Church’s existence.

125
Ibid., 147
126
Ibid.
127
Ibid., 233.
128
Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon VI.
129
Ibid.
40
 Brigham Young then stood up and argued on behalf of leadership

by the Quorum of the Twelve. He directly attacked Rigdon, stating,

“Here is President Rigdon, who was counselor to Joseph. I ask, where

are Joseph and Hyrum? They are gone behind the vail [sic]; and if

Elder Rigdon wants to act as his counselor; he must go beyond the vail

[sic] where he is… if the people want President Rigdon to lead them

they may have him; but I say unto you that the Quorum of the Twelve

have the keys of the kingdom of God in all the world.”130 Rigdon relied

on rhetoric and Young used politics to further his cause. According to

Rigdon biographer F. Mark McKiernan:

Young made every effort to remind the Saints that Smith had
rejected Rigdon in 1843 and had no intention that Rigdon should
succeed him as leader of the Church. Young also took great
pains to create the image among the masses of the Church that
he was the Prophet’s chosen successor. He borrowed Smith’s
favorite hours Joe Duncan and rose through the streets of
Nauvoo on the Prophet’s well known mount to show the entire
population that he had replaced the martyr.131

Young’s political ploys worked, winning over the general assembly and

making the Quorum of the Twelve the governing body of the Church.

Young also alienated Emma Smith, Joseph’s wife, and five children,

fearful that Joseph III would take over the church. Despite the fact

Joseph III was only eleven at the time, several members of the Church

believed that he was chosen for succession. Emma was alienated from

the Church almost immediately after Smith’s death.132 Joseph III

eventually founded the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter

Day Saints, mostly consisting of members who did not immigrate to

130 Ibid.
131
McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 128.
132 Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 554.
41
Utah with Young in 1846-47. The RLDS Church was officially organized

in 1860.

Young, in a genius political move, announced to the assembly,

after defeating Rigdon’s quest for leadership, “Rigdon is…one with us –

we want such men as Brother Rigdon. He has been sent away to build

a Kingdom; let him keep the instruction and calling, let him raise up a

kingdom in Pittsburgh and we will lift up his hand.”133 This was

patronizing to Rigdon, demoting him to a preacher in Pittsburgh and

stripping him of his leadership position, almost giving Young complete

victory in the quest to succeed Joseph Smith. The Quorum of the

Twelve assumed leadership, with Young as the President of the

Quorum. Rigdon could not accept his demoted role or the abomination

of plural marriage.134 He had been the First Counselor to the Prophet, a

seer and revelator, preacher, missionary, presided over meetings and

councils in Smith’s absence, Vice-Presidential candidate, and a key

architect in the quest to build Zion and the New Jerusalem in America.

Rigdon felt like Smith had finally recognized his religious power, his

role as both originator and preacher. Yet Young forced Rigdon out of

the Church because of their disagreements over plural marriage. On

September 8, 1844, Rigdon was officially excommunicated from the

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. In Young’s final move to

solidify victory, the High Council, immediately after Rigdon’s

excommunicaiton, voted to excommunicate all of his followers inside

the Church.135

133
Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 341.
134
Ibid., 352.
135 Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon VII.
42
 If Smith was contemplating the revocation of plural marriage, it

is plausible that he would have supported William Marks or Rigdon as

his replacement, two trusted members who were opposed to the

doctrine. Rigdon would have been the logical choice, serving beside

Smith for fourteen years and often standing in his stead during his

absences. This, however, would have most likely been as a

placeholder for Joseph Smith III, as Smith spoke often about patriarchal

blessings and ordinations. Smith gave his son a secret blessing,

endowed on January 17, 1844. He blessed Smith III, declaring, “he

shall be my successor to the Presidency of the High Priesthood: a Seer,

and a Revelator, and a Prophet, unto the Church; which appointment

belongeth to him by blessing, and also by right.”136 Nevertheless,

Smith never publically named a clear successor. D. Michael Quinn, an

LDS scholar and BYU professor before his 1993 excommunication,

claims that Smith blessed, ordained, or designated six individuals as

successors and “laid a foundation for the succession claims” of seven

others, including the entire Quorum of Twelve Apostles.137 Of all these

possible successors, only Brigham Young succeeded in his succession

claim, retaining all but four members of the entire Mormon hierarchy at

Smith’s death.138

136
Jessee, The Personal Writings of Joseph Smith, 566.
137
Quinn, The Mormon Hierarchy, 241.
138
Ibid., 243. The hierarchy numbered a little less than 100,
including the Twelve Apostles, the First Council of the Seventy, the
First Presidency (consisting of two counselors alongside the President
and Prophet of the Church), the Presiding Patriarch (Smith’s brother,
Hyrum, at the time their death), and the Presiding Bishopric. Doctrine
and Covenants 124:123-143 lists several members, many of whom
possibly served in a hierarchical capacity. See also Quinn, 40-77.
43
 Rigdon Founded the Church of Jesus Christ of the Children

of Zion

Rigdon was effectively silenced from the LDS Church through the

political maneuverings of Brigham Young. He left Nauvoo for

Pittsburgh, the origins of his religious power. Rigdon’s son stated, “…

the Quorum of the 12 placed the leadership of the church on Brigham

Young. This hurt Father’s feelings. He claimed he was the man for the

leadership. He said he had done more to establish the church than any

man in it, outside the prophet.”139 Interestingly, he added that the

Church did not make a mistake by giving the leadership to Young

because “Rigdon had no executive experience, was broken down with

sickness and could not have taken charge of the church at that

time.”140 Rigdon’s own son, baptized into the Church in 1898, did not

believe that Rigdon should have led the Church.

Rigdon began his own new church, assembling his own Quorum

of the Twelve and establishing a Pittsburgh newspaper entitled The

Latter Day Saints’ Messenger and Advocate, aiming to attack the LDS

leadership and expose the doctrine of plural marriage.141 He would

reestablish the pure Mormon Church, with an emphasis in revelation

and the Ancient Order and with a firm rejection of plural marriage. He

even went as far as calling Joseph Smith a fallen prophet during

Smith’s later years. This allowed Rigdon to reject some of Smith’s

139
Rigdon, Sidney Rigdon and the Early History of the Mormon
Church.
140
Ibid.
141
Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 367, 369.
44
doctrines but maintain the validity and sacrality of The Book of

Mormon and the Doctrine and Covenants.142 On the fifteenth

anniversary of the Mormon Church, Rigdon re-established the Church

of Christ, the original name of the LDS Church, being ordained as “first

president of this kingdom and church, and… as prophet, seer, revelator

and translator, to this church and kingdom of Christ of the last days.”143

This allowed Rigdon to further his claim that God called him to lead the

Church on earth. Rigdon only had about 150 followers, however, and

his sect never grew.144

Not much has been written about Rigdon after 1846. His church

never expanded, leaving Rigdon ultimately without power and

belonging. He moved to Friendship, New York, where he spent the

remainder of his days. In 1863, Brigham Young asked Rigdon to come

to Utah in order for Young to take care of him, but Rigdon refused.145

Throughout his days Rigdon maintained that the Book of Mormon was

true, that the end of time was near, and that Joseph Smith was truly a

prophet of God. Sidney Rigdon died on July 14, 1876, a man without

religious power, belonging, or respect. Without his leadership, the

Church of Christ completely disbanded by 1884.

142 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 135.

143
Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 377.
144
McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 142.
145
Ibid., 143.
45
 Conclusion

Rigdon’s quest for religious power took him from the Mahoning

Baptist Association, under the tutelage of Adamson Bentley, to the

Campbellite movement, becoming an unrecognized founder under

Alexander Campbell and Walter Scott, and finally to the Church of

Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, where he served for almost fourteen

years as Joseph Smith’s First Counselor and trusted confidant. He was

excommunicated from the Baptist association for preaching liberal, i.e.

non-official, doctrines not befitting the Baptist creeds. He officially

joined Alexander Campbell and Walter Scott, but left because of the

lack of recognition and power they gave him. He felt particularly

scorned when Scott was chosen as the official traveling preacher

instead of himself. When one of his former disciples and recent

Mormon convert came to visit, Rigdon recognized another opportunity

for belonging and power. The LDS doctrines found in the Book of

Mormon were similar enough to what he was preaching and Joseph

Smith needed a powerful and influential preacher. He immediately

found belonging and power with Smith, prophet, seer, and revelator of

God.

Rigdon was able to quickly exercise the religious power he so

desperately craved, immediately being sent as a missionary and

officially named in a revelation from God as spokesman for Joseph

Smith. Smith trusted Rigdon, listening to his council and advice.

Rigdon stood by Smith’s side as he rid the Church of dissenters and

apostates. Non-Mormons recognized him as almost equal to Smith and

46
the LDS leadership expressed trust in him. Rigdon was content with

being Smith’s right-hand man, speaking for the Prophet and standing

in his place during any absence. However, Smith quickly distrusted

him when he expressed disbelief and shock over the doctrine of plural

marriage and after the failed attempt of Smith to receive Rigdon’s

daughter as a plural wife. He still firmly believed in Mormon doctrine

and the divine origins of the Book of Mormon but, attempting to

protect his daughter, began losing his leadership. When Joseph Smith

was assassinated, Rigdon viewed it as an opportunity to assume

leadership and return the Church to its original roots, ridding the

Church of plural marriage and retaining the Ancient Order. He made

an impassioned speech claiming leadership for the Church, but

Brigham Young discredited him, using his controversies and disputes

with Smith against him. This led to Rigdon being excommunicated yet

again from religious community.

The excommunication from the Mormon Church devastated

Rigdon and he was never able to fully recuperate. He spent the next

couple years attacking the LDS Church, trying futilely to reestablish

himself inside the Church. He lost his fame, reputation, and success.

He diminished into obscurity, refusing to speak about Mormonism or

Joseph Smith. Rigdon’s obituary in the Friendship Register read:

Since his excision from the ruling body of the church, at Nauvoo,
he has been living in our village, in the main very quiet, repelling
rather than courting the curiosity which his prominence in one of
the most extraordinary social phenomena of times, drew upon
him. He has often been interviewed by those intent upon
clearing up some of the mysteries and delusions that attended
the origin of Mormonism, but invariably without success. On
these occasions he would defend the Mormon account of the
origin [of] the Book of Mormon, and also the chief doctrines of
the early Mormon church…in his prime he took an active part in
47
 the theological controversies that raged so fiercely in this and
western states and was then and always familiar with the Bible…
and his whole conduct held naturally to the inference that his
religious ambitions were buried at the time he was superseded
by Young, or perhaps at the time when the polygamous doctrines
of Joseph Smith were promulgated.146

His last vain attempt to establish religious power failed miserably,

never garnering more than a decent size congregation.

Despite the many contributions to both the Disciples of Christ

and the Latter Day Saints, Rigdon has been condemned by both faiths,

painting him as a religious apostate and fanatic. Their histories are

riddled with negative biases, diminishing his accomplishments or

crediting them to others. In his quest for religious power, Sidney

Rigdon became a misunderstood and forgotten man.

146 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 449-450.

48
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