Boo Succinctly Revealed (second edition)

By Rolly Noel, Copyright 2013

[THIS !C"#$NT !$SN%T C!&$R 'N(THIN) TH'T N$$S 'N I#*!RT (e+cept ,or Syste-).
[/IRST $/INITI!N !/ B!! 0'N)"')$ IT$#S IS IN B!0.
[IN THIS !C"#$NT, 0IN$S !/ $SCRI*TI!N (N!T C!$) ST'RT 1ITH 232, 'N 'R$ C!NTIN"$ 1ITH 2 2
print %' Co-plete Boo progr4-% 3!5*s (o6tp6ts) %' Co-plete Boo progr4-%
3!rder o, p4rts (4ll p4rts option4l)7 222-od6le docstring222, n4-esp4ce, i-ports, en6-s5str6ct6res5cl4sses5,6nctions, -4in code,
4sse-8ly 4ttri86tes
3I, yo6 h49e 4 2de, #4in (4rg9 4s (string))72, e+ec6tion 8egins therein, else it st4rts 4t 6nenclosed lines o, code (not in 4 cl4ss,
,6nction, str6ct6re, :::)
Definitions
3Comments to end o, line (4lso //)
/* Co--ents (5; c4n 8e nested ;5) (c4n 8e -6lti<line) */
""" docstring co--ents, on the line 8elo= =h4t%s 8eing doc6-ented, si-il4rly indented 222
3#6ltiple Boo st4te-ents on the s4-e line 4re sep4r4ted 8y 2>2 (c4n%t do =ithin 4 co--ent)
3To contin6e 4 Boo st4te-ent 4ny=here on the ne+t line, end the contin6ed line =ith 4 ?
namespace *ro@ectN4-e 3Set o, o8@ects cont4ined herein =ill 8e 6niA6ely pre,i+ed =ith *ro@ectN4-e (-6st 8e 4t top o, ,ile)
import Syste-:Console 3#4Bes 4ll -e-8ers o, the n4-esp4ce 494il48le: C4n s4y Re4d0ine() inste4d o,
Syste-:Console:Re4d0ine()
i-port Syste- 4s S 3c4n s4y S:Console:Re4d0ine()
i-port )tB from 2gtB<sh4rp2 3"sed =hen 4sse-8ly n4-e di,,ers ,ro- n4-esp4ce n4-e
3In the Sh4rpe9elop I$ (#D (494il48le ,or 1indo=s ,ro- http755===:icsh4rpcode:net5!penSo6rce5S5o=nlo4d5 )),
typing i-port then 4 sp4ce, lists 4ll the n4-esp4ces yo6 c4n i-port (=ith s6pple-ent4ry in,o, i, 494il48le,
,or the highlighted entry)
3 3 4lso does this ,or Boo Bey=ords: It =ill 4nticip4te yo6 =hen yo6 st4rt typing so-ething it recogniCes
3 3 4lso lists yo6r options (4long =ith their prototypes D 6s4ge in,o) =hen yo6 type 4 2:2 or 2(2 i--edi4tely ,ollo=ing the
n4-e o, 86ilt<in or 6ser de,ined types < t48 to enter the highlighted ite-
3Variable n4-es 8egin =ith 4n 4lph4 ch4r4cter or 4n E, cont4in 4lph4n6-erics D E, 4re c4se sensiti9e, D c4n%t 8e reser9ed =ords
3&alue type 94ri48les cont4in the 94l6e itsel,
3Reference type 94ri48les (they de,46lt to null) point to 4n o8@ect (4 string, or :::)
+ as duck 3Co-piler =ill not do type checBing ,or 6ses o, this 94ri48le: Slo=s do=n code e+ec6tion 86t 6se,6l =ith e+tern4l
co-ponents s6ch 4s C!# o8@ects, or ,or prototyping
4in F 1 3Boo does type inference to deter-ine th4t 4in is 4 94l6e type int (integer)
4in F int:#4+&4l6e 3is int ( FF 2,1GH,GI3,JGH)
4lo F 1E000E000L 3is 4 94l6e type lon>
4lo F 1eK20 3is long (FF 100)
4in2 as int 3 (32 8its) or sbyte (I 8its), or s!ort (1J 8its), or lon (JG 8its) integers: 24s2 decl4res 4 94ri48le%s type, de,46lts to 0
in6n 4s uint 3 or byte, us!ort, or ulon 6nsigned integers
4in3 4s int" 3de,46lts to 4nd c4n 8e 4ssigned n6ll
print(4in F int:*4rse(222)) 3!5*s 2
4in F int:*4rse(2-o6se2) 3c46ses 4 Syste-:/or-4t$+ception
9l F 3f 3Boo in,ers the type is 4 sinle floatin point 94l6e type
92 F <0#JL 3is single
93F3:L 3Boo in,ers the type is double floatin$point
,lo as sinle 3,lo4ting point n6-8ers (G 8ytes, 84se 2, 4nd H signi,ic4nt ,ig6res), or double (I 8ytes, 84se 2 4nd 1L signi,ic4nt
,ig6res), or decimal (12 8ytes, 84se 10 4nd penny 4cc6r4te to 2I or 2M signi,ic4nt ,ig6res )
chr F c!ar%&n&' 3the 94l6e type representing 4 single ch4r4cter, 4 System(C!ar (not 4 single ch4r4cter string)
str F "abc" 3 or &def& 3strins 4re i--6t48le re,erence types
print str(Lent! #or len(str) ret6rn the length: !5*s 3
3)scapes in 4 string7 ** 84cBsl4sh, *n ne=line, *r c4rri4ge ret6rn, *t t48, *u%00L0% (G he+ digits speci,ying 4 "nicode ch4r4cter)
3Single A6ote esc4pe in single A6ote strings is *&( o68le A6ote esc4pe in do68le A6ote strings is *"
3String co-p4risons 4re c4se sensiti9e: See the :N$T re,erence on B4sic String !per4tions ,or -ore in,or-4tion
-lstr F 222multi$line strin222 3preser9es sp4cing 4nd line 8re4Bs
8ol F true 3 or false 8oole4n 94l6e types
8ol2 4s bool 3e,46lts to /4lse
ie 4s type* 3indic4tes the 94ri48le (or 4 ,6nction%s ret6rn 94l6e) is 4n I$n6-er48le o, the type speci,ied (eg int*)
,6nctnisp4tch 4s callable 36sed to store n4-e o, 4 ,6nction, -ethod or cl4ss i-ple-enting IC4ll48le to c4ll(see clos6re 8elo=)
c4ll48le h4ndler(4 4s int) 4s int 3'lso c4n de,ine 4 ,6nction%s prototype
c8 4s h4ndler F do(option4l'rg)7 print option4l'rg 3 so 4 clos6re c4n 8e 4ssigned to 4 94ri48le o, th4t type
c8(10) 3!5*s 10
3' list is 4 re,erence type, -6t48le, 94ri48le siCed, o, 4 type deter-ined 8y the lo=est co--on type o, its ele-ents
li F [G, %horse%, L:J,. 3' list o, type o8@ect
li[0. FF G> li[len(li) < 1. FF L:J> li[<1. FF L:J> li[<2. FF %horse%
li2F[. 5; is the e-pty list ;5> li3 F 1, 2, 3 3is 4lso 4 list
do68les F [i;2 ,or i in r4nge(L). 3to ,ill 4 list (see %,or% 4nd %r4nge% de,ined 6nder )ener4tors 4nd 0oops)
li:'dd(%ne= end%)> li:*6sh(%does s4-e 4s 'dd%)> li:'dd(%4%):'dd(%8%)
li:Insert(2,%4,ter horse%)> li:Re-o9e(%horse%)> li:Re-o9e't(1)
li:Sort() 3=o6ld =orB i, 4ll the list ele-ents =ere o, the s4-e type
old04st F li:*op() 3re-o9es D ret6rns l4st ite-
li KF %4 ne= ending% 3(see KF 6nder !per4tions)> li:Inde+!,(%4%)> i, li:Cont4ins(%,oo%)7 print %,ooey%
i, %,oo% in li7 print %,ooey%>
i, %,oo% not in li7 print %no ,ooey%
liG F [[1, 2.;2, [L, J. K [H, I.. 3' list c4n 8e nested =ithin 4nother list
#+rray is 4 re,erence type, -6t48le, o, ,i+ed length, gener4lly =ith the s4-e ele-ent types (4nd gener4lly ,4ster to -4nip6l4te)
4r F (L, 1, 2) 3 or (L, 1, 2,) de,ines 4n 4rr4y o, length 3, initi4liCed 4s indic4ted> 4r[0. FF L> 4r[<1. FF 2
4r2 F 4rr4y%int, 10) 3integer 4rr4y o, ten 0s, or 4rr4y(8yte, (1,2)), or 4rr4y(8yte, (0+//,0+3/)), or 4rr4y(r4nge(3))
4r28 F 4rr4y(i;2 ,or i in r4nge(3)) 3 , or 4rr4y(long, r4nge(3)) or 4rr4y(short, [i ;; 2 ,or i in r4nge(10).), or 4s (o8@ect)
4r3 F 'rr4y:Cre4teInst4nce(int, 2, 2) 3to cre4te 4 2 + 2 integer 4rr4y (c4n cre4te 94rio6s -6ltidi-ension4l 4rr4ys)
4r3:Set&4l6e(MM, 0, 0)> print 4r3:)et&4l6e(0,0) 3!5*s MM
4rG F (of 8yte7 0, 2LL) 3, or (o, short7 <100, 3L, 32HJH), or (o, 'nyType!,!8@ect7 o1, o2)
4rL F 4rr4y(8yte, (0+//, 0+BB, 0+3/))
4rL8F 4rr4y[o, int.(3) 3,or 4n 4rr4y o, 3 ints
4rJ F (,) 3cre4tes 4n e-pty 4rr4y o, type o8@ect < o, little 6se 4s c4n%t store 4nything in it D c4n%t gro= itN
4rH F (2lonely2,) 3cre4tes 4 string 4rr4y =ith 4 single ele-ent
4rI F (1, 2) K (3, G) 34ppends t=o 4rr4ys
#-atri# is 4 re,erence type, -6t48le, o, ,i+ed length, gener4lly =ith the s4-e ele-ent types (4nd gener4lly ,4ster to -4nip6l4te)
-4t F -4tri+(int, 2, 3, G) 3cre4tes 4 2 + 3 + G integer -4tri+ initi4liCed to 0s (4lso o, string, or so-e o8@ect)
-4t2 F -4tri+ o, int(2, 2) 3cre4tes 4 2 + 2 integer -4tri+ initi4liCed to 0s
-4t2[0,0. 3to re,erence
-4t2[071, 071. 3re,erences 4ll o, the ele-ents =ithin the r4nges indic4ted
-4t3 F -4tri+[o, int.(3,3) 3cre4tes 4 3+3 integer -4tri+
len(-4t3, 0) 3ret6rns the length o, the ,irst di-ension
-4t3:R4nB 3ret6rns the n6-8er o, di-ensions
3.as!tables 4re d4t4 str6ct6res th4t 4llo= the stor4ge o, n4-ed ite-s
h4 F O%dog%7%/ido%, %c4t%7%/l6,,y%,P 3cre4tes 4 h4sh t48le
h4[%dog%.F%Spot% 3to ch4nge 4 94l6e
h42 F OP 3cre4tes 4n e-pty h4sh
h4[%8ird%. F %Chirpy% 3to 4dd 4 ne= ite-
h4:+dd(%-o6se%, %SA6eeBy%) 3to 4dd 4 ne= ite-
h4[%c4t%. FF %/l6,,y% 3ret6rns Tr6e
h4:Contains/ey(%-o6se%)> h4:ContainsValue(%/l6,,y%) 38oth ret6rn Tr6e
h4:Remove(%dog%)
h4[284dBey2. 3ret6rns n6ll
h43 F H4sh((i, i;2) ,or i in r4nge(L)) 3See :N$T%s 2H4sht48le Cl4ss2 ,or 4ddition4l -ethods D properties Boo%s h4sht48le inherits
,or ite- in h437 print ite-:Qey, 272, ite-:&4l6e 3to print e9erything in 4 h4sh t48le
3)numer4tions cre4te 4 type =ith 4 set o, i--6t48le 2n4-e to 32 8it integer 94l6e 4ssoci4tions2, st4rting, 8y de,46lt, 4t 0
en6- Tho6ghts7
Boring> 1ise> H46ghty 3 c4n 8e spre4d 4cross sep4r4te lines, or sep4r4te loc4tions or ,iles (6se the partial -odi,ier in 8oth
3 pl4ces): BoringFM or H46ghtyF<3 o9erride de,46lt 94l6es
,or 94l6e in Syste-:$n6-:)et&4l6es(Tho6ghts)7 print 94l6e, 2F2, 94l6e c4st int
ti F L0s 3cre4tes 4 timespan 94ri48le =ith 94l6e 007007L0 other ,or-s7 2-, :Mh, 3d, or G2-s
t2 F 10:0e<Gh 33:J seconds
t F int 3or string, or :::, 4ssigns 4 type to 4 94ri48le to cre4te 4 R6nti-eType
void 3the de,46lt 94l6e o, 4n 6n4ssigned re,erence type> not 94lid ,or 4 94l6e type (e+cept 94l6e types ending =ith N (eg intN))
unsafe ptr 4s long F 4str6ct7 ;ptr F 0> KKptr 34llo=s pointer -4nip6l4tion ,or richer interoper48ility =ith n4ti9e code
0perations
4 1 8 3I, 4 4nd 8 4re 94l6e types (incl6ding str6cts), 8%s 94l6e(s) 4re copied into 4
3 I, 4 4nd 8 4re re,erence types, 4 is -4de to re,erence the s4-e o8@ect 4s 8
#Careful not to use 1 to compare types %use 11 instead'
3#4ny o, the ,ollo=ing c4n 8e o9erlo4ded to ch4nge the de,46lt 8eh49io6r =hen de,ining types
3#at! operators (,ro- highest to lo=est precedence)7 4 ; 8, 4 / 8, 4 ;; 8 (e+ponent), 4 2 8 (re-4inder), 4 3 8, 4 < 8
3)ro6ping in p4rentheses incre4ses the priority o, the oper4tions cont4ined
3 Boo =ill do type coercion (eg i, 4ny oper4nd is 4 do68le, the others 4re con9erted to 4 do68le)
3Loical operators7 4 RR L (8it shi,t right), 4 SS J (8it shi,t le,t, T4 (ones co-ple-ent), 4 4 8 (8it=ise 4nd), 4 5 8 (8it=ise or),
4 6 8 (8it=ise e+cl6si9e or), 4 7 8 (less th4n), 4 8 8 (gre4ter th4n), 4 71 8 (less th4n or eA64l to), 4 81 8 (gre4ter th4n or eA64l to),
4 11 8 (eA64lity < tests ,or eA64l 94l6e ,or 94l6e types (incl6ding str6cts), or pointing to the s4-e o8@ect ,or re,erence types),
4 91 8 (ineA64lity (o, 6neA64l 94l6e ,or 94l6e types, not pointing to the s4-e type ,or re,erence types)),
4 and 8, 4 or 8, not 4 34 4nd 8 sho6ld 8e 8oole4ns ,or these
isa #Ret6rns TR"$ i, re,erenced 94ri48le is o, cl4ss or 84se cl4ss, or i-ple-ents, the inter,4ce speci,ied (6se,6l prior to c4sting)
print %str% isa string 3!5*s Tr6e
4ssert 4r2 is4 (int) 3)ener4tes 4n e+ception i, 4r2 is not 4n integer 4rr4y
is #Ret6rns TR"$ i, t=o re,erence types point to the s4-e o8@ect, or to test ,or n6ll
(11 4lso does this, pl6s =orBs ,or 94l6e types 4s =ell)
is not #Ret6rns TR"$ i, t=o re,erence types don%t point to the s4-e o8@ect
print(o1 is o2) 3!5*s /4lse (o1 4nd o2 4re di,,erent e+4-ples o, the s4-e type)
print (o2 is null) 3!5*s /4lse
h, i, @ F 1, 2, 3 3multiple assinment (h FF 1, i FF 2, @ FF 3)
B F 2sp4-2, G2, o8@ect() 3B 8eco-es 4 list o, o8@ects (the lo=est co--on deno-in4tor)
4, 8, c F O i ;F 2> ret6rn i P() ,or i in r4nge(1, 10) 34 FF 2, 8 FF G, c FF J>
h, i F i, h 3to s:ap 94l6es
d 4s int F 3, 2, 1 3d FF 3, rest o, 94l6es 4re disc4rded
l4stN4-e F %Si-pson%> e, , F l4stN4-e> print e, , 3!5*s S i
4in F 123:G cast int 3tr4ns,or-s one d4t4 type to 4nother> co-piler c4tches in94lid c4sts so 8etter ,or 94l6e types
4in2 F c4st(8yte, 2LL) 3co-piler c4tches in94lid c4sts
4in3 F %123% as (int) 3silently ret6rns n6ll i, tr4ns,or-4tion o, 4 re,erence type is in94lid (4s in this e+4-ple)
s F 2 K 3:L 3s is 4 do68le (the -ost cont4ining ,or-)
33in 34dds one to 4 n6-eric 94ri48le 8e,ore 6sing it in 4n e+pression, 4lso $$in
in33 4dds one to 4 n6-eric 94ri48le 4,ter 6sing it in 4n e+pression, 4lso in$$
in 31 L 3eA6i94lent to in F in K L, 4lso =orBs ,or the other -4th 4nd 8it shi,t oper4tors
t F %48c%> t KF %d% 3=orBs ,or strings 4s =ell
print 2n6-8er ;s in the -iddle is strin interpolation2 3!5*s n6-8er L:L in the -iddle is string interpol4tion
print 2n6-8er ;%s 3 <' in the -iddle2 3!5*s n6-8er H:L in the -iddle
3string interpol4tion in do68le or triple A6oted strings only, ?U to esc4pe
3strin formattin, see :N$T%s St4nd4rd N6-eric /or-4t Strings ,or -ore e+4-ples
n6- F 0123GLJHIM> print n6-:ToString(2(033) 333<33332) 3!5*s (012) 3GL<JHIM
s F 2Right no= it is O0P: S4y hi to O1P:2> print s V (d4te:No=, 2#4ry2)
print 2O0,<107dGP ispl4ys le,t<4ligned in 10 col6-ns 01232 V (123,)
print 2O07,2P displ4ys 2:G0, O17g2P displ4ys J2 V (2:G, J,)
print 2O07e2P displ4ys 2:G0eK0002 V (2:G,)> print 2O07cP displ4ys U2,M23:G02 V (2M23:G,)
%,oo% K %84r% FF %,oo84r%
%,oo%K3 FF %,oo3%
%,oo%;3 FF %,oo,oo,oo%
3Slicin e+tr4cts 4 r4nge o, ele-ents ,ro- string, list, 4nd 4rr4y cont4iners
res6lt F slicee[,irstInde+ 7 inde+Not14nted 7 step.
3 ,irstInde+ de,46lts to 0, inde+Not14nted de,46lts to the cont4iner length, step de,46lts to 1
3 neg4ti9e indices co6nt 84cB ,ro- the l4st entry (=hich is 4t inde+ <1)> i, inde+ is too neg4ti9e, 0 is 6sed
3 slicing not 4llo=ed on the le,t side o, 4n e+pression
cont4iner2 F cont4iner[7. to clone 4ny slice48le type
1 in (2, 3, 1)> 2,oo2 not in (284C2, 28oo-2) 3Tests the presence o, 4n ite- in 4 set
3( 4llo=s 4ccessing the ele-ents o, 4 hier4rchy 4s in -yCl4ss:its#ethod()
3)#ception !andlin
try7 i F 0> @ F 10 5 i 3do so-ething th4t -ight ,4il
e#cept e 4s i9ideByWero$+ception7 3c4tching 4 speci,ic e+ception type
print e
raise 3recre4te origin4l e+ception (r4ise c4n 4ppe4r o6tside 4n e+cept =ith 4rg6-ents)
e+cept so-eCondition4lSt4te-ent7 3i, 4n e+ception occ6rs, D the conditions 4re -et, e+ec6te the ,ollo=ing st4te-ent5code 8locB
e+cept e7 print(2ooops::: 1e%9e got 4n error7 2 K e) 3C4tch<4ll to h4ndle error types not c46ght 8y pre9io6s e+cepts
r4ise 2$+ception4l -ess4ge or 4 Syste-:$+ception2 3See the :N$T%s 2Syste-$+ception Cl4ss2 ,or e+ception4l det4ils
c!ecked7 3t6rns on Syste-:!9er,lo=$+ception checBing ,or 4 st4te-ent or code 8loc (the de,46lt)
try7
B F 10SSJ3> - 4s int F B 3C46ses !9er,lo= $+ception 4s the long%s 94l6e =on%t ,it in the 32 8it int
e#cept +7 print +:)etType():N4-e 3prints e+ception n4-e
ensure= print 2no= cle4n 6p2 3code 8locB e+ec6ted =hether or not 4n e+ception occ6rred
unc!ecked7 3t6rns o,, Syste-:!9er,lo=$+ception checBing ,or 4 st4te-ent or code 8loc
@ F int:#4+&4l6e> @KK
assert so-e0ogic4l$+pression 3i, so-e0ogic4l$+pression is ,4lse, 4n 'ssertion/4iled$+ception is thro=n
#reular e#pressions pro9ide p4ttern 84sed se4rch 4nd repl4ce oper4tions on te+t
i, s4-plestring 1> /,oo/7 3*erl%s -4tch oper4tor
,n4-e, ln4-e F 5(?=K)5:#4tches(2 $ric Idle 2)> print ,n4-e, ln4-e 3!5*s 2$ric2 4nd 2Idle2
,n4-e, ln4-e F X5 5:Split(2$ric Idle2)>print ,n4-e>print ln4-e 3!5*s 2$ric2 4nd 2Idle2 86t s6pports =hite sp4ce D t48s
oto l48el 32=label2 needed < =4y o6t o, ,4shion
goto l48el i, (@FF10)
Conditionals
if i FF 17 3Boole4n e+pression =hich, i, tr6e, c46ses 8locB to 8e e+ec6ted> C'R$/"0 N!T T! S'( i F 1 IN TH$ H$'$R
3indented 8locB o, st4te-ents (4 code 8locB) ended 8y the dedent
36se t48s ,or indents (NB d4ngero6s to -i+ t48s D sp4ces ,or le4ding indents)
pass 3the -ini-6- content o, 4n indented code 8locB
elif i FF 27 3option4l < 4nother test
p4ss 38locB to e+ec6te
else7 3option4l < p4th to t4Be =hen i,, D eli,s ,4il> else -6st ,ollo= 4ny eli,s
p4ss 34n 4ltern4te 8locB
i, i FF 17 @ F 2 3sets @ to 2 i, i eA64ls 1
i, not r7 @ F 2 3sets @ to 2 i, r is ,4lse
print 2Tr6e2 i, i FF 1 3' statement :it! modifier < e4sier to re4d ,or- i, only doing one thing
lt64e F (G2 i, tr6e else n6ll)
i, tr6e7 i F 1> @ F 2
unless i FF 17 @ F 2 3sets @ to 2 i, i not eA64l to 1 (e+ec6tes the st4te-ent or code 8locB i, the e+pression is ,4lse)
c, d F 3, G 6nless ,4lse 3sets c to 3, 4nd d to G
+ ?unction is 4 seA6ence o, st4te-ents th4t per,or-s 4 speci,ic t4sB, option4lly c4lled =ith 4rg6-ents, 4nd ret6rning 4 94l6e
def 4/6nction (p1 4s int, p2, [re@uired%p3 R G). p3 4s int, ref pG, [default(%)ood to goY%). pL, *pJ 4s (string)) 4s deci-4l7
3' ,6nction he4der is ,ollo=ed 8y 4n indented 8locB o, st4te-ents, ended 8y the dedent (pass is the -ini-6- 8locB)
3/6nctions c4n 8e de,ined =ithin 4nother ,6nction (see clos6re)
3' ,6nction c4n c4ll itsel, (c4re,6l to pro9ide 4n e+it ,ro- the rec6rsion
3Aarameters7 p2 de,46lts to type o8@ect (=hich is =hy its 4 good ide4 to speci,y 4 p4r4-eter%s type),
p3 c4n%t 8e n6ll 4nd -6st e+ceed G (else 4 Syste-:'rg6-ent$+ception =ill 8e r4ised)
pG is 4 94l6e p4r4-eter p4ssed 8y re,erence (so ,6nction c4n -odi,y c4ller%s copy),
pL h4s 4 de,46lt pro9ided in c4se its c4lled =ith n6ll,
;pJ (-6st 8e l4st) speci,ies 4n 4rr4y (o, type string (de,46lts to o8@ect)) =hich 4llo=s ,or 4 94ri48le n6-8er o, p4r4-eters
324s deci-4l2 speci,ies the type the ,6nction ret6rns (de,46lts to 9oid)> Boo =ill 4pply type in,erence to deter-ine this i, it c4n
return option4l&4l6e 3ret6rns control to the ,6nction%s c4ller =ith option4l 94l6e
3ropping o,, the 8otto- o, the code (or ret6rn =itho6t 4n 4rg6-ent) ret6rns the de,46lt 94l6e ,or the ,6nction%s ret6rn type
3' ,6nction c4n 2ret6rn +, y2 i, c4lled 4s in 24, 8 F 4/6nct()2, or ret6rn 4 gener4tor 4s in 2ret6rn [i;2 ,or i in r4nge(L).2,
or ret6rn -6ltiple 94l6es 8y 6sing re,erence p4r4-eters (6se sp4ringly), or 8y ret6rning 4 co-ple+ type (s6ch 4s 4n 4rr4y)
yield 94l6eTo(ield 34llo=s 4n en6-er48le ,6nction to ret6rn to yield 6p one 94l6e, D 8e ret6rned to so 4s to yield so-e -ore
8/6nction J 3!Q to drop the p4renthesis =hen c4lling 4 ,6nction, pro9ided yo6%re not 6sing 4 ret6rn 94l6e
ping(1)(2) 3'llo=s the ,6nction ret6rned 8y ping to 8e c4lled =ith the 4rg6-ent 2
3' ,6nction is re4lly 4 st4tic -ethod o, the 46to-4tic4lly gener4ted -od6le cl4ss: 's s6ch, ,6nctions c4n 8e o9erlo4ded:
3' ,6nction c4ll, or 4 n4-eless code 8locB (see clos6res), c4n 8e s49ed 4ny=here 4 94l6e c4n
3BeinBnvoke (S,6nction 4rgs, R c4ll84cB 4s 'syncC4ll84cB, 4syncSt4te) 4s I4syncRes6lt in9oBes the ,6nction async!ronously
4nd ret6rns 4 h4ndle th4t c4n 8e 6sed to checB the st4t6s o, the e+ec6tion 4s =ell 4s reco9ering the ret6rn 94l6e
#)ndBnvoke (4syncRes6lt 4s I'syncRes6lt) 4s S,6nction ret6rn typeR7 3,inishes 4n 4synch in9oc4tion ret6rning the ,in4l 94l6e
de, r6n()7
print(2e+ec6ting2)
res6lt F r6n:BeginIn9oBe(O print(2c4lled 84cB2) P) 3'ltern4tely7 res6lt F r6n:BeginIn9oBe(c4ll84cB, n6ll)
Syste-:Thre4ding:Thre4d:Sleep(L0-s) 3 =here de, c4ll84cB(res6lt 4s I'syncRes6lt)7
r6n:$ndIn9oBe(res6lt)
Bnterfaces pro9ide 4 speci,ic4tion o, ,ields, properties D -ethods th4t cl4sses th4t i-ple-ent it -6st ,ill in
inter,4ce#odi,iers interface I#o8ile (option4lInter,4ce)7 3n4-ed 8y con9ention 4s 4n I, ,ollo=ed 8y *4sc4lC4se
3inter,4ce#odi,iers7 partial (c4n 8e spre4d 4cross sep4r4te loc4tions or ,iles < 6se p4rti4l in 8oth pl4ces)
Speed*roperty 4s int7 3inter,4ce de,initions (properties D -ethods) 4re only te-pl4tes
get 3 D reA6ire the i-ple-enting cl4ss to ,ill the- o6t
de, ch4ngeSt4te#ethod(p4r4-etersI,'ny) 4s 8ool 39oid is the de,46lt ret6rn type, -ethods c4n%t h49e 4 8ody (p4ss is 4llo=ed)
+ Class is 4 te-pl4te th4t inst4nces its Bind o, o8@ect, D ret6rns 4 re,erence type to the inst4nti4tion =hen c4lled 6pon:
3 It c4n inherit ,ro- one re,erence type it is 4n e+4-ple o,, 4nd it c4n i-ple-ent -6ltiple inter,4ces (they -6st 8e listed l4st):
3 ' cl4ss -4y cont4in ,ields, properties, constr6ctor -ethods, -ethods, e-8edded cl4sses, 4nd 4 destr6ctor -ethod
cl4ss#odi,iers cl4ss *erson (#4--4lCl4ssIInherit, Inter,4cesI,'ny)7 3p4renthesis not needed i, no inherit4nces nor inter,4ces
3cl4ss#odi,iers7 partial (c4n 8e spre4d 4cross sep4r4te loc4tions or ,iles < 6se p4rti4l in 8oth p4rts),
protected (only 4ccessi8le =ithin cont4ining cl4ss), private (protected 86t descend4nt cl4sses c4n 4ccess), public (the de,46lt),
internal (only 4ccessi8le to its 4sse-8ly),
abstract (4 cl4ss th4t inherits ,ro- this -6st i-ple-ent 4ll 48str4ct properties D -ethods), final (c4n%t 8e inherited ,ro-),
static (cl4ss doesn%t need to 8e inst4nced ,or it to e+ist), transient (cl4ss not to 8e seri4liCed)
,ield#odi,iers E,ieldN4-eF%green% 3loc4l 94ri48le (2E2 option4l)>fields c4n 8e 94l6e or re,erence types (4 cl4ss c4n h49e cl4sses)
3/ields (4nd properties) 4re initi4liCed ,or e4ch inst4nti4tion o, 4 cl4ss, 4nd 4re 4 cl4ss% loc4l 94ri48les
3,ield#odi,iers7 protected (the de,46lt7 only 4ccessi8le =ithin cl4ss), private (protected 86t descend4nt cl4sses c4n 4ccess),
public (the =orld c4n ch4nge), transient (,ield not to 8e seri4liCed), static (cl4ss doesn%t need to 8e inst4nced ,or ,ield to e+ist),
final (c4n%t 8e ch4nged 4,ter set (=hen de,ined, or 8y the constr6ctor)), static final is 4 co-pile ti-e const4nt,
virtual (cl4ss th4t inherits ,ro- this -4y o9erride this ,ield), override (6se this ,ield inste4d o, 4 9irt64l ,ield in p4rent cl4ss)
property#odi,iers *ropN4-e 4s string7 3Aroperty is 4 port4l 2 4 loc4l ,ield =hose 4ccess is de,ined 8y the presence o, get D set
3property#odi,iers7 public (the de,46lt), abstract (4 cl4ss th4t inherits ,ro- this -6st i-ple-ent this property),
4nd -ost o, the ,ield -odi,iers de,ined 48o9e
*ropN4-e 4s string7
et7 ret6rn E,ieldN4-e 3property c4nZt 8e re4d o6tside cl4ss =itho6t get> ret6rn c4n h49e 4n e+pression, not @6st 94ri48le n4-e
set7 E,ieldN4-e F 94l6e:To"pper() 3property c4nZt 8e set ,ro- o6tside cl4ss =itho6t set> 94l6e c4n in9ol9e 4n e+pression
3' sett48le property (or p68lic ,ield) c4n 8e set =hen 4 cl4ss is inst4nced (eg: p F *erson(/irstN4-e7 %*eter%)
[property(#iddleN4-e). E-iddleN4-e F %T% 3cl4ss property #iddleN4-e is re4d5=rite, 4nd de,46lts to %T%
[property(NicBN4-e, 94l6e is not n6ll 4nd len(94l6e) R 0). EnicBN4-e F 2A6eN2
[property(/irstN4-e, +ttributes=CRe@uiredD'D E,irstN4-e 4s string 3cl4ss property /irstN4-e c4n%t 8e set to n6ll
[property(NoN4-e, *rotected7 tr6e). EnoN4-e 4s string 3cl4ss property NoN4-e only 9isi8le =ithin cl4ss D inheritors
e-o[s 4s string.7 3'n initi4l<48le, =4y to de,ine 4 re4d<only property th4t yo6 h49e to pro9ide the 94l6e to re4d
get7ret6rn s:To"pper() 3gi9en the cl4ss in9oc4tion p, 2print p:e-o[%s%.2 to get
Ite-[i, @.7 3' property de,ined th6sly, c4n 8e re,erenced in 4 get =ith 4rg6-ents> gi9en the cl4ss in9oc4tion t48le,
get7 ret6rn 2Ui, U@2 3 4s in 2print t48le:Ite-[1, 2.2
constr6ctor#odi,iers de, constructor(option4l*4r4-eters)7 3Is c4lled (=ith option4l p4r4-eters) to per,or- initi4liC4tion
=hen cl4ss is inst4nced: I, the p4rent cl4ss% constr6ctor t4Bes no 4rg6-ent, it is c4lled 8e,ore this constr6ctor
3constr6ctor#odi,iers= static -e4ns the constr6ctor -ethod is c4lled (=itho6t p4r4-eters) to initi4liCe st4tic ,ields ,or the cl4ss
the ,irst ti-e the cl4ss is inst4nced
3option4l*4r4-eters c4n h49e the s4-e p4r4-eter options 4s ,or ,6nction p4r4-eters pre9io6s de,ined
3C4n h49e -6ltiple constr6ctors =ith di,,erent p4r4-eters D they c4n c4ll e4ch other
-ethod#odi,iers def -ethodN4-e(option4l*4r4-eters) 4s int7 3' met!od is 4 ,6nction pro9ided 8y the cl4ss
3-ethod#odi,iers7 static ((cl4ss doesn%t need to 8e inst4nced ,or it to 8e c4lled),
final (the de,46lt7 c4n%t 8e o9erridden),
abstract (4 cl4ss th4t inherits ,ro- this -6st i-ple-ent this -ethod),
public (the de,46lt7 9isi8le o6tside its cl4ss),
virtual (4 cl4ss th4t inherits ,ro- this -4y o9erride this -ethod),
override (this -ethod to 8e 6sed inste4d o, p4rent cl4ss% 48str4ct or 9irt64l -ethod (o9erridden -ethod pro9ides ret6rn type),
callable (4llo=s 4 -ethod%s n4-e to 8e stored in 4 94ri48le o, type c4ll48le),
de, -ethodN4-e(option4l*4r4-eters) 4s string7 3c4n rede,ine -ethods =ith di,,erent p4r4-eters, or 4 di,,erent ret6rn 94l6e
3option4l*4r4-eters c4n h49e the s4-e options 4s ,or ,6nction p4r4-eters pre9io6s de,ined
3The de,46lt ret6rn type o, 4 -ethod =ill the -ost generic type 4-ong the types o, the e+pressions 6sed in ret6rn st4te-ents:
de, destructor()7 3the syste- c4lls this option4l -ethod =hen 4n o8@ect is 48o6t to 8e ,reed: Ne9er c4ll e+plicitly
de, EoStrin()7 3'llo=s 4n o8@ect to c6sto-iCe =h4t h4ppens =hen it is printed (de,46lts to the cl4ss n4-e)
de, )@uals( + 4s *erson )7 3'llo=s 4n o8@ect to de,ine eA64lity (4n 4ltern4ti9e to the oper4tor o9erlo4d opE$A64lity)
de, Fet.as!Code()7 3'llo=s 4n o8@ect to ret6rn so-ething th4t 6niA6ely Is it (de,46lts to o8@ect%s 4ddress)
[$+tension. 3'llo=s -ethods D properties to 8e 4dded to 86ilt<in cl4sses
def ToInt(s 4s string)7 3This e+4-ple e+tends the string type
ret6rn int:*4rse(s) 3 to p4rse 4n int o6t o, it
4 F %123%> i F 4:ToInt 3To 6se
30perator overloadin is 4cco-plished 8y de,ining -ethods n4-ed opE'ddition, opES68tr4ction, opE#6ltiply,
opEi9ision ,opE#od6l6s, opE$+ponenti4tion, opE$A64lity, opE0essTh4n, opE0essTh4n!r$A64l, opE)re4terTh4n,
opE)re4terTh4n!r$A64l, opE#4tch (2TF2), opENot#4tch (2YF2), opE#e-8er (2in2), opENot#e-8er (2not in2), opEBit=ise!r,
opEBit=ise'nd, opE"n4ryNeg4tion,
opEI-plicit (ret6rns the proper type (this -ethod%s type), =hen one o, 4 cl4ss% -ethods is c4lled =ith the =rong type
(=hich -4tches opEI-plicit%s p4r4-eter)
31hen 4 8in4ry 4rith-etic oper4tor s6ch 4s opE'ddition is o9erlo4ded, the corresponding 4ssign-ent oper4tor KF is 4s =ell
3The FF oper4tor c4n 8e o9erlo4ded ,or 4 cl4ss 8y pro9iding 4n $A64ls -ethod th4t is c4lled =ith 4nother e+4-ple o, the cl4ss
4s 4 p4r4-eter, 4nd ret6rns tr6e i, the t=o 4re eA64l (8y =h4te9er -e4s6re-ent 4pplies)
3!per4tor o9erlo4ding 4pplies to str6ct6res (see str6ct 8elo=) 4s =ell
cl4ss *oint7
+ 4s int> y 4s int
de, constr6ctor (ne=[ 4s int, ne=( 4s int)7
+ F ne=[> y F ne=(
de, opE'ddition (p1 4s *oint, p2 4s *oint)7
p1:+ KF p2:+> p1:y KF p2:y> ret6rn p1
o9erride de, ToString()7
ret6rn 2+ F U+, y F Uy2
4 F *oint(1,2)> print (4 KF *oint(3,G))
super: 36sed to re,er to ,ield or -ethod o, 4 cl4ss descended ,ro-: 1itho6t s6,,i+ (@6st 2s6per2) it c4lls the s4-e n4-ed -ethod
s6per() 3, or s6per:)etType()
self( 36sed to re,erence the inst4nce%s 9ersion o, 4 ,ield in c4se o, 4 n4-e con,lict, other=ise not necess4ry
3sel,(option4l'rg6-ents) ,ro- 4 constr6ctor, c4lls 4nother constr6ctor o, the cl4ss =hose p4r4-eters -4tch option4l'rg6-ents
*erson:st4tic#ethod() 3c4lling 4 cl4ss% st4tic -ethod (cl4ss doesn%t h49e to 8e inst4nced), =ith option4l property setting 4rgs
*erson():4ny#ethod() 3inst4ncing(=itho6t 4ssigning 4 cl4ss re,erence to 4 94ri48le) D c4lling 4 -ethod(constr6ctor is c4lled 1st)
p F *erson(/irstN4-e7%*eter%) 3inst4ncing 4 cl4ss D setting its p68lic ,ields5properties)
r9 F p:-ethodN4-e() 3c4lling 4n inst4nced cl4ss%s -ethod, =ith option4l ret6rn 94l6e, 4nd option4l 4rg6-ents
cl4ss /oo7
[property(/irst). E,irst F n6ll
[property(Second). Esecond F n6ll
de, constr6ctor(94l6e)7
/irst, Second F 94l6e
, F /oo([2,irst2, 2second2.) 3/irst FF 2,irst2, Second FF 2second2
cl4ss !6ter7 3Cl4sses c4n 8e cont4ined =ithin cl4sses (8y de,46lt they 4re 9isi8le ,ro- o6tside) 4nd c4n 8e cre4ted =itho6t
cl4ss Inner7 3 ,irst cre4ting the o6ter cl4ss (eg !6ter:Inner())
st4tic de, /oo()7
print(2UInner2)
!6ter:Inner:/oo() 3!5*s !6terKInner:/oo (/oo is st4tic so doesn%t need 4ny cl4ss cre4tion)
!6ter:Inner():/oo() 3cre4tes 4n Inner, then c4lls its /oo -ethod
8 4s ISo-eInter,4ce F So-eCl4ss() 38 is restricted to 4ccessing the properties 4nd -ethods o, ISo-eInter,4ce
c F c4st(So-eCl4ss, 8) 3e+tends 4ccess to 4ll the properties 4nd -ethods o, So-eCl4ss
d 4s *4rentCl4ss F 46ghterCl4ss() 3d is restricted to 4ccessing the properties 4nd -ethods o, *4rentCl4ss,
6nless 4 -ethod =4s decl4red 9irt64l in *4rentCl4ss, 4nd is decl4red o9erride in 46ghterCl4ss
e F c4st(46ghterCl4ss, c) 34llo=s 4ccess to the properties 4nd -ethods o, 8oth cl4sses
ICo-p4r48le 3I, 4 cl4ss 6ses this inter,4ce, it -6st i-ple-ent 4 2de, Co-p4reTo (other) 4s int72 -ethod =hich ret6rns 4 neg4ti9e
i, this o8@ect is less th4n the other, 0 i, eA64l, positi9e i, this is gre4ter: This 4llo=s 4 collection o, this type to 8e sorted
Fenerators and Loops
rane (end) 3is 4n enumerable (4 ,6nction th4t ret6rns 4 seA6ence o, 94l6es) th4t e,,iciently gener4tes integers ,ro- 0 to end < 1
r4nge (st4rt, end) 3gener4tes integers ,ro- st4rt to end \ 1: end -4y 8e S st4rt
r4nge (st4rt, end, step) 3incre-ent (-4y 8e decre-ent)
for ii in r4nge(J)7 3 or 2,or ii in [10, G, 12.72, or 2,or ii in (1, 2, 3)72, or 2,or 4, 8 in [(1, 0), (3, 0), (2, 0).72
3indented code 8locB (possi8ly 6sing 94ri48le ii) th4t =ill 8e repe4tedly e+ec6ted
print(@oin(i;2 ,or i in r4nge(10) i, 0 FF i V 2)) 3!5*s 0 G I 12 1J
ite-s F (+, y) ,or + in r4nge(1, 3) ,or y in r4nge(3, 0)
:!ile r7 3r is 4 8oole4n e+pression
3indented code 8locB to e+ec6te =hile r is tr6e
continue 3sBips to the ne+t iter4tion o, 4 ,or or =hile loop
contin6e i, i R L 34nd 2contin6e 6nless @ S202 4lso possi8le
break 3e+its 4 ,or or =hile loop
8re4B 6nless i S 10 4nd i R L
or7 34 st4te-ent or code 8locB to e+ec6te i, the ,or5=hile 8locB doesn%t e+ec6te (nothing s4tis,ies the conditions)
t!en7 34 st4te-ent or code 8locB to e+ec6te 4,ter the ,or5=hile 8locB (pro9ided the ,or5=hile doesn%t 8re4B)
r F tr6e> i F 0
=hile r7
8re4B 6nless i R L 4nd i S 10
or7 print 2idn%t loop2
then7 print 2idn%t 8re4B o6t2
#Fenerator e#pressions < 6se 4ny =4y 4 94ri48le c4n 8e 6sed to prod6ce 4 seA6ence o, 94l6es incl6ding 8eing stored in 4
94ri48le ,or l4ter (D repe4ted) e+ec6tion
en6-er F + ; 2 ,or + in r4nge(1,10) i, + YF L
list F [ite- ,or ite- in en6-er. 3The res6lting en6-er48le c4n 8e 6sed -4ny =4ys, incl6ding pop6l4ting 4 list
yield so-e&4l6e 3' 6ser de,ined en6-er48le ,6nction =ill yield so-e&4l6e, only to 8e ret6rned to, to gener4te so-e -ore
3)numerable types h49e 4 )et$n6-er4tor -ethod th4t ret6rns 4 $n6-er4tor cl4ss (c4n 8e intern4l) =hich i-ple-ents
the I$n6-er4tor inter,4ce, 4 #o9eNe+t -ethod to point to the ,irst5ne+t C6rrent (ret6rns tr6e i, p4st the end),
4 C6rrent property, 4nd 4 Reset -ethod to point 84cB to the 8eginning (4ll o, =hich 4re h4ndled 8y de,46lt 8eh49io6rs i,
4 ,6nction @6st =4nts to yield)
de, onet=othree()7
yield 1> yield 2> yield 3
e F onet=othree():)et$n6-er4tor()
=hile e:#o9eNe+t()7 print(e:C6rrent) 3!5*s 1 2 3
Fenerics 4llo= cl4sses, -ethods, D inter,4ces to 8e de,ined s6ch th4t they -4y 8e re6sed 4cross di,,erent types
cl4ss St4cB[of T.7
Eposition F 0
Ed4t4 F 4rr4y(T, 100)
de, p6sh(o8@ 4s T)7
Ed4t4[EpositionKK. F o8@
de, pop() 4s T7
ret6rn Ed4t4[<<Eposition.
4FSt4cB[o, int.()
8FSt4cB[o, string.()
de, ,6nction[o, T.(4rg 4s T)7
print T
,6nction[o, int.(3)
Structures 4re 6ser de,ined 94l6e types: The 4ssign-ent oper4tor copies the =hole thing
struct Testy7
Ei 4s int 38y de,46lt ,ields 4re p68lic
E@ 4s int 3' p68lic ,ield c4n 8e set =hen 4 str6ct is inst4nced, eg: 4 F Testy(3, E@7L)
de, constr6ctor(+ 4s int)7 3Cre4te 4nd 4ccess ,ields D -ethods 4s ,or 4 cl4ss
Ei F + 3oper4tor o9erlo4ding possi8le =ith str6cts (see the de,inition o, cl4ss)
o9erride de, EoStrin()7 3'llo=s 4 str6ct6re to c6sto-iCe =h4t h4ppens =hen it is printed (its str6ct6re type is the de,46lt)
ret6rn 2UEi2
c F Testy(L) 3str6cts 4re ,4ster to cre4te 4nd dispose o, th4n cl4sses
Closures are 8locBs o, code th4t c4n 8e p4ssed 4s 4n 4rg6-ent in 4 ,6nction c4ll, or s49ed in 4 94ri48le
c F do(option4l'rg)7 print option4l'rg 38locB 84sed e+4-ple (c4n 8e -6lti<line indented 8locB)
i-port Syste-:1indo=s:/or-s 38r4ces 84sed e+4-ple
86tton1 F B6tton(Te+t7 2#e tooY2)
86tton1:ClicB KF O print 2ClicB -e2>
print 2=hitesp4ce is ignored inside OP so yo6 need to 6se se-icolons to incl6de -6ltiple st4te-ents:::2>
P
clos6re 4s c4ll48le(int) 4s string F O i ] i:ToString(20002) P 3the 20002 4rg6-ent speci,ies ,or-4tting
print clos6re(H) 3!5*s 00H
)vents 4llo= 4n o8@ect%s cre4tor to pro9ide code to h4ndle 4n e9ent =hen it ,ires
cl4ss ClicBer7
e9ent#odi,iers e9ent ClicBed 4s )vent.andler
3e9ent#odi,iers7 transient (e9ent not to 8e seri4liCed)
de, R4iseClicB()7
ClicBed(sel,, n6ll)
p F ClicBer()
p:ClicBed KF def(sender, 4rgs)7 print 2T4h C0ICQ$Y2 3clos6re pro9ides 4nother e9ent h4ndler (c4n 6se 2do2 inste4d o, 2de,2)
p:R4iseClicB()
3"se 2<F2 to l4ter det4ch 4 clos6re ,ro- 4n e9ent
Built$in -acros and ?unctions
print(
222's<is,
4 -6lti<line print to St4nd4rd !6t
222)
print(string:?ormat(2O0P, O1P, O2P2, 212, 2, 3))
print BooVersion
print 3=itho6t 4rg6-ents, !5*s ne=line
print Goin(4rr4) 3@oins 4ll ele-ents in 4n en6-er48le, ret6rning 4 string 6sing 4 sp4ce deli-iter
print Goin(4rr4, ch4r(%K%)) 34s 48o9e 6sing %K% 4s deli-iter
print 94ri48leN4-e:FetEype() 3o6tp6ts the type o, 94ri48leN4-e
print (s F 0ist(%48cde,ghi%)) 3!5*s [4, 8, c, d, e, ,, g, h, i.
,or -e-8er in typeof(o8@ect):)et#e-8ers()7 print -e-8er:N4-e
,or i 4s int, o8@ in enumerate([242, 282, 2c2.)7 print i, 272, o8@ 3prod6ces 4 r6nning co6nt =hile looping thro6gh ite-s
reversed(4n$n6-er48le) 3ret6rns, 4s 4n I$n6-er48le, ite-s in 4n en6-er48le in re9erse order
4 F iterator ([1,2,3,G,L.)> ,or i in 47 print i 3ret6rns 4n en6-er4tor ,or the o8@ect p4ssed < else it 8lo=s: %,or% does it gr4ce,6lly
#reversed ret6rns 4n iter4tor ,or 4 seA6ence in re9erse order
ls F [1,2,3,G.> print([n ,or n in re9ersed(ls).) 3!5*s [G, 3, 2, 1.
map ([%el1%,%el2%., ,6nct()) 3ret6rns 4n I$n6-er48le o8@ect th4t res6lts ,ro- 4pplying ,6nc to e4ch ele-ent o, 4 en6-er48le
-4p([1,2,3,G,L,J.) de, (+ 4s int)7 ret6rn +;+;+ 3 -4p 6sing 4n anonymous closure
Hip((%4%,%8%,%c%), (%'%,%B%,%C%)) 3interle49es t=o en6-er48les, ret6rning 4n I$n6-er48le o8@ect, e4ch ele-ent o, =hich
is 4 2[1 4rr4y, =ith 4rr4y[0. ,ro- the ,irst ele-ent (4), 4nd 4rr4y[1. ,ro- the second (')
yield+ll r4nge(G) 3in 4 ,6nction, repe4tedly yields
cat([1,2,3.,[G,L,J,H.) 3conc4ten4tes t=o seA6ences
yo6rN4-e F ets() 3does 4 Console:Re4d0ine()
yo6rN4-e F prompt(%$nter yo6r n4-e %)
i-port Syste-:I!> e F StreamIriter(2test:d4t2)> e:IriteLine(2This is the ,irst line:2)> e:Close()
usin o8@ectsCre4tion7 36sing =ill ens6re the o8@ects (eg ,ile h4ndles) in the ,ollo=ing code 8locB 4re closed5disposed o,
s!ell(,ileN4-eStr, 4rg6-entStr) 3r6ns the 4pplic4tion ,ileN4-eStr, =ith 4rg6-ents 4rg6-entStr> o6tp6t is to console
s!ellm(,ileN4-eStr, 4rg6-entStr'rr) 4s 48o9e =ith 4rg6-entStr'rr 4s 4n 4rr4y o, 4rg6-ent strings> o6tp6t is ret6rned
s!ellp(,ileN4-eStr, 4rg6-entStr) st4rts 4 process 4nd ret6rns 4 process o8@ect
lock so-e!8@ect7 in 4 -6lti<thre4ded en9iron-ent, pre9ents si-6lt4neo6s 6se o, 4n o8@ect =ithin the locB code 8locB
assert Slogic4l$+pressionR 3eA6i94lent to76nless(Slogic4l$+pressionR)7
r4ise Boo:'ssertion/4iled$+ception(%(Slogic4l$+pressionR)%)
preservin 94r1, 94r27 3restores the 94l6es o, the 94ri48les listed, =hen the ,ollo=ing code 8locB e+its
macro de,46ltI-ports7 yield [] i-port Syste- ].> yield [] i-port Syste-:Collections:)eneric ]. 3de,ining 4 -4cro
de,46ltI-ports> Console:1rite0ine(typeo,(0ist[o,;.):N4-esp4ce) 3in9oBing this -4cro
Syste-:)nvironment 3is 4 st4tic cl4ss =ith 4 plethor4 o, properties D -ethods
(J)E Base Class Library&s rich set o, types, inter,4ces, cl4sses, properties, 4nd -ethods is 494il48le to Boo progr4-s
+ttributes 4dd -et4<in,or-4tion to the code
[e,46lt#e-8er(2Ite-2).
[collection(string). 3 in ,ront o, cl4ss StringCollection()
[!8solete.
['ttri86te"s4ge('ttri86teT4rgets:#ethod).
['ttri86te"s4ge('ttri86teT4rgets:'ll).
[Si-ple.
[9ol4tile.
[Syste-:/l4gs.
[Syste-:R6nti-e:Co-pilerSer9ices:Co-piler)lo84lScope.
[/l4gs.
[4sse-8ly7 'sse-8lyTitle(%,oo%).
[4sse-8ly7 'sse-8lyescription(%84r%).
[4sse-8ly7 Strict#ode.