Ad Hominem Argument: Also, "personal attack," "poisoning the well.

" The fallacy of attempting

to refute an argument by attacking the oppositions personal character or reputation, using a
corrupted negative argument from ethos. .g., "He!s so evil that you can!t believe anything he
says." "ee also #uilt by Association. Also applies to cases where potential opposing arguments
are brushed aside without comment or consideration, as simply not worth arguing about.
Appeal to $losure. The contemporary fallacy that an argument, standpoint, action or conclusion
must be accepted, no matter how %uestionable, or else the point will remain unsettled and those
affected will be denied "closure." This refuses to recogni&e the truth that some points will indeed
remain unsettled, perhaps forever. '.g., ""ociety would be protected, crime would be deterred
and (ustice served if we sentence you to life without parole, but we need to e)ecute you in order
to provide some sense of closure."* '"ee also "Argument from +gnorance," "Argument from
$onse%uences."*
Appeal to Heaven: 'also ,eus -ult, #ott mit .ns, /anifest ,estiny, the "pecial $ovenant*. An
e)tremely dangerous fallacy 'a deluded argument from ethos* of asserting that #od 'or a higher
power* has ordered, supports or approves one!s own standpoint or actions, so no further
(ustification is re%uired and no serious challenge is possible. '.g., "#od ordered me to kill my
children," or "0e need to take away your land, since #od 1or ,estiny, or 2ate, or Heaven3 has
given it to us."* A private individual who seriously asserts this fallacy risks ending up in a
psychiatric ward, but groups or nations who do it are far too often taken seriously. This vicious
fallacy has been the cause of endless bloodshed over history.
Appeal to 4ity: 'also "Argumentum ad /iserecordiam"*. The fallacy of urging an audience to
5root for the underdog6 regardless of the issues at hand 'e.g., 5Those poor, cute little s%ueaky
mice are being gobbled up by mean, nasty cats that are ten times their si&e76* A corrupt
argument from pathos. "ee also 4laying to motions.
Appeal to Tradition: 'also "+f it ain!t broke, don!t fi) it"*. The fallacy that a standpoint, situation or
action is right, proper and correct simply because it has "always" been that way, because
people have "always" thought that way, or because it continues to serve one particular group
very well.. A corrupted argument from ethos 'that of past generations*. '.g., "+n America,
women have always been paid less, so let!s not mess with long8standing tradition."*. The
reverse of this is yet another fallacy, the "Appeal to +nnovation," e.g., "+t!s 90, and 1therefore it
must be3 improved7"
Argument from $onse%uences: The ma(or fallacy of arguing that something cannot be true
because if it were the conse%uences would be unacceptable. '.g., "#lobal climate change
cannot be caused by human burning of fossil fuels, because if it were, switching to non8polluting
energy sources would bankrupt American industry."*
Argument from +gnorance: The fallacy that since we dont know 'or can never know, or cannot
prove* whether a claim is true or false, it must be false 'or that it must be true*. .g., 5"cientists
are never going to be able to positively prove their theory that humans evolved from other
creatures because we weren!t there to see it7 "o, that proves the #enesis si)8day creation
account is literally true76 "ometimes this also includes 5ither8:r ;easoning:6 .g., 5The vet
can!t find any reasonable e)planation for why my dog died. "ee7 "ee7 That proves that my
neighbour poisoned him7 Theres no other logical e)planation76 A corrupted argument from
logos. A fallacy commonly found in American (udicial and forensic reasoning.
"ee also "Argumentum e) "ilentio."
Argument from +nertia 'also 5"tay the $ourse6*. The fallacy that it is necessary to continue on a
mistaken course of action even after discovering it is mistaken, because changing course would
mean admitting one!s decision 'or one!s leader, or one!s faith* was wrong, and all one!s effort,
e)pense and sacrifice was for nothing, and that is unthinkable. A variety of the Argument from
$onse%uences.
Argument from /otives 'also <uestioning /otives*. The fallacy of declaring a standpoint or
argument invalid solely because of the evil, corrupt or %uestionable motives of the one making
the claim. .g., "=in >aden wanted us out of Afghanistan, so we have to keep up the fight7" ven
evil people with corrupt motives sometimes say the truth 'and even those who have the highest
motives are often wrong or mistaken*. A variety of the Ad Hominem argument.
The counterpart of this is the fallacy of falsely (ustifying or e)cusing evil or vicious actions
because of the perpetrator!s purity of motives or lack of malice. '.g., ""he!s a good $hristian
woman? how could you accuse her of doing something like that@"*
Argumentum ad =aculam 'also "Argument from the $lub"*. The fallacy of "persuasion" by force,
violence, or threats. .g., "#immee your money, or +!ll knock your head off7" or "0e have the
perfect right to take your land, since we have the guns and you don!t." Also applies to indirect
forms of threat. .g., "=elieve in our religion if you don!t want to burn in hell forever and ever7"
Argumentum e) "ilentio 'see also, Argument from +gnorance*. The fallacy that if sources remain
silent or say nothing about a given sub(ect or %uestion this in itself proves something about the
truth of the matter. .g., ""cience can tell us nothing about #od, which proves #od doesn!t
e)ist." :r ""cience can tell us nothing about #od, so you have no basis for denying that #od
e)ists7" :ften misused in the American (ustice system, where remaining silent or "taking the
2ifth" is often falsely portrayed as proof of guilt. .g., "/r. Hi)el has no alibi for the evening of
Aanuary BCth. This proves that he was in fact in room DDB at the "muggler!s 4ass +nn,
murdering his e)8wife7"
=andwagon 'also, Argument from $ommon "ense, Argumentum ad populum*: The fallacy of
arguing that because "everyone" supposedly thinks or does something, it must be right. .g.,
"veryone thinks undocumented aliens ought to be kicked out7" "ometimes also includes >ying
with "tatistics, e.g. 5"urveys show that over ECF of Americans believe "enator "nith is not
telling the truth. 2or anyone with half a brain, that conclusively proves hes a dirty liar76
=egging the <uestion 'also $ircular ;easoning*: 2alsely arguing that something is true by
repeating the same statement in different words. .g., 5The witchcraft problem is the most
urgent challenge in the world today. 0hy@ =ecause witches threaten our very souls.6 A corrupt
argument from logos. "ee also "=ig >ie techni%ue."
=ig >ie Techni%ue 'also ""taying on /essage"*: The contemporary fallacy of repeating a lie,
slogan or deceptive half8truth over and over 'particularly in the media* until people believe it
without further proof or evidence.. .g., "0hat about the Aewish <uestion@" 9ote that when this
particular phony debate was going on there was no "Aewish <uestion," only a "9a&i <uestion,"
but hardly anybody in power recogni&ed or wanted to talk about that.
=lind >oyalty 'also =lind :bedience, the "Team 4layer" appeal, or the 9uremberg ,efense*.
The dangerous fallacy that an argument or action is right simply and solely because a respected
leader or source 'an e)pert, parents, one!s own "side," team or country, ones boss or
commanding officers* say it is right. This is over8reliance on authority, a corrupted argument
from ethos that puts loyalty above truth or above one!s own reason and conscience. +n this
case, a person attempts to (ustify incorrect, stupid or criminal behavior by whining "That!s what +
was told to do," or 5+ was (ust following orders."
=lood is Thicker than 0ater 'also 2avoritism, $ompadrismo, "2or my friends, anything."*. The
reverse of the "Ad Hominem" fallacy, a corrupt argument from ethos where a statement,
argument or action is automatically regarded as true, correct and above challenge because one
is related to 'or knows and likes, or is on the same team as* the individual involved. '.g., "/y
brother8in8law says he saw you goofing off on the (ob. Gou!re a hard worker, but who am + going
to believe, you or him@ Gou!re fired7"*
=ribery 'also /aterial 4ersuasion, /aterial +ncentive, 2inancial +ncentive*. The fallacy of
"persuasion" by bribery, gifts or favors, the reverse of the Argumentum ad =aculam. As is well
known, someone who is persuaded by bribery rarely "stays persuaded" unless the bribes keep
on coming in, and usually increasing with time.
The $omple) <uestion: The fallacy of demanding a direct answer to a %uestion that cannot be
answered without first analy&ing or challenging the basis of the %uestion itself. .g., "Answer me
yes or no7 ,id you think you could get away with plagiarism and not suffer the conse%uences@"
:r, "0hy did you rob that bank@" Also applies to situations where one is forced to either accept
or re(ect comple) standpoints or propositions containing both acceptable and unacceptable
parts. A corruption of the argument from logos.
,iminished ;esponsibility: The common contemporary fallacy of falsely applying a speciali&ed
American (udicial concept 'that criminal punishment should be less if one!s (udgment was
impaired* to logic in general. .g., "Gou can!t count me absent on /onday88+ was hung over and
couldn!t come to class88it!s not my fault." :r, "Geah, + was speeding on the freeway and killed a
guy, but + was high and didn!t know what + was doing, so it didn!t matter that much." +n reality the
death does matter very much to the victim, to her family and friends and to society in general.
0hether the perpetrator was high or not does not matter at all, since the material results are the
same.
ither8:r ;easoning: 'also 2alse ,ilemma, =lack H 0hite 2allacy*. A fallacy that falsely offers
only two possible alternatives even though a broad range of possible alternatives are really
available. .g., "ither you are BIIF straight or you are %ueer88it!s as simple as that, and there!s
no middle ground7" :r, 5ither youre with me all the way, or youre my enemy and must be
destroyed7
6" for ffort. 'Also 9oble ffort* The contemporary fallacy that something must be right, true,
valuable, or worthy of credit simply because someone has put so much sincere good8faith effort
or even sacrifice and bloodshed into it. '"ee also Appeal to 4ity, Argument from +nertia, or "ob
"tory.*.
%uivocation: The fallacy of deliberately failing to define one!s terms, or deliberately using words
in a different sense than the one the audience will understand. '.g., =ill $linton stating that he
did not have se) with "that woman," meaning no se)ual penetration, knowing full well that the
audience will understand his statement as "+ had no se)ual contact of any sort with that
woman."* This is a corruption of the argument from logos, and a tactic often used in American
(urisprudence.
ssentiali&ing: A fallacy that proposes a person or thing 5is what it is and thats all that it is,6 and
at its core will always be what it is right now '.g., "All e)8cons are criminals, and will still be
criminals even if they live to be BII."*. Also refers to the fallacy of arguing that something is a
certain way "by nature," an empty claim that no amount of proof can refute. '.g., "Americans
are cold and greedy by nature," or "0omen are better cooks than men."
2alse Analogy: The fallacy of incorrectly comparing one thing to another in order to draw a false
conclusion. .g., "Aust like an alley cat needs to prowl, a normal human being cant be tied
down to one single lover."
2inish the Aob: The dangerous contemporary fallacy that an action or standpoint 'or the
continuation of the action or standpoint* may not be %uestioned or discussed because there is
"a (ob to be done," falsely assuming all "(obs" are meaningless but never to be %uestioned.
"ometimes those involved internali&e '"buy into"* the "(ob" and make the task a part of their own
ethos. '.g., ":urs is not to reason why H :urs is but to do or die."* ;elated to this is the "Aust a
Aob" fallacy. '.g., "How can torturers stand to look at themselves in the mirror@ =ut, + guess it!s
:J because for them it!s (ust a (ob like any other."* '"ee also "=lind >oyalty," "Argument from
+nertia."*
#uilt by Association: The fallacy of trying to refute or condemn someone!s standpoint,
arguments or actions by evoking the negative ethos of those with whom one associates or a
collective to which he or she belongs. A form of Ad Hominem Argument. '.g., ",on!t listen to
her. "he!s a ;epublican, so you can!t trust anything she says."*
"ee also "They!re 9ot >ike .s."
The Half Truth 'also $ard "tacking, +ncomplete +nformation*. A corrupt argument from logos, the
fallacy of telling the truth but deliberately omitting important key details in order to falsify the
larger picture and support a false conclusion 'e.g. 5The truth is that $iudad AuKre&, /e)ico is
one of the world!s fastest growing cities and can boast of a young, ambitious and hard8working
population, mild winters, a dry and sunny climate, low cost medical and dental care, a multitude
of churches and places of worship, delicious local cuisine and a swinging nightclub scene.
Taken together, all these facts clearly prove that Auare& is one of the worlds most desirable
places for young families to live, work and raise a family.6*
+ 0ish + Had a /agic 0and: The fallacy of regretfully 'and falsely* proclaiming oneself
powerless to change a bad or ob(ectionable situation, because there is no alternative. .g.,
"0hat can we do about high gas prices@ As "ecretary of nergy + wish + had a magic wand, but
+ don!t." 1shrug3
:r, "9o, you can!t %uit piano lessons. + wish + had a magic wand and could teach you piano
overnight, but + don!t, so like it or not, you have to keep on practicing." The parent, of course,
ignores the possibility that the child may not want or need to learn piano. "ee also, T+9A.
Aust in $ase: A fallacy by which ones argument is based on a far8fetched or imaginary worst8
case scenario rather than on reality. 4lays on pathos 'fear* rather than reason. .g., "0hat if
armed terrorists were to attack your own neighborhood day8care center tomorrow morning@ Are
you ready to fight back@ =etter stock up on assault rifles7"
>ying with "tatistics: .sing true figures and numbers to 5prove6 unrelated claims. 'e.g. "#as
prices have never been lower. 0hen taken as a percentage of the national debt, filling up at
your corner gas station is actually far cheaper today than it was in BLMC7"*. A corrupted
argument from logos. '"ee also Half8truth, 9on "e%uitur, ;ed Herring.*
/G:= '/ind Gour :wn =usiness? Gou!re 9ot the =oss of /e*, The contemporary fallacy of
arbitrarily prohibiting any discussion of one!s own standpoints or behavior, no matter how
absurd, dangerous, evil or offensive, by drawing a phony curtain of privacy around oneself and
one!s actions. A corrupted argument from ethos 'your own*. '.g., ""o + was doing eighty and
weaving between lanes on /ain "treet88what!s it to you@ Gou!re not a cop, so mind your own
business7"* '"ee also, "Taboo."* ;ational discussion is cut off because "it is none of your
business7" '"ee also, the "Appeal to 4rivacy."*
9ame8$alling: A variety of the "Ad Hominem" argument. The dangerous fallacy that, simply
because of who you are, any and all arguments, disagreements or ob(ections against your
standpoint or actions are automatically racist, se)ist, anti8"emitic, bigoted, discriminatory or
hateful. .g., "/y stand on abortion is the only correct one. To disagree with me, argue with me
or %uestion my (udgment in any way would only show what a pig you really are." Also applies to
refuting an argument by simply calling it a fallacy or declaring it invalid, without proving why it is
invalid. "ee also, ";eductionism."
9on "e%uitur: The fallacy of offering reasons or conclusions that have no logical connection to
the argument at hand 'e.g. 5The reason + flunked your course is because the government is now
putting out purple five8dollar bills76*. '"ee also ;ed Herring.*
:ccasionally involves the breathtaking arrogance of claiming to know why #od is doing certain
things. .g., ":bviously, #od sent the earth%uake to punish those people for their great
wickedness."
:vergenerali&ation 'also Hasty #enerali&ation*. The stupid but common fallacy of incorrectly
applying one or two e)amples to all cases 'e.g. 5"ome college student was tailgating me all the
way up 9orth /ain "treet last night. This proves that all college students are lousy drivers, and
we should pull their drivers licenses until they either grow up, learn to drive or graduate76*.
The 4aralysis of Analysis 'also, 4rocrastination*: A postmodern fallacy that, since all data is
never in, no legitimate decision can ever be made and any action should always be delayed
until forced by circumstances. A corruption of the argument from logos.
4laying on motions 'also, the "ob "tory*: The classic fallacy of pure argument from pathos,
ignoring facts and calling on emotion alone. .g., 5+f you dont agree witchcraft is a ma(or
problem, (ust stop for a moment and think of all those poor moms crying bitter tears for their
innocent tiny little children whose little beds and tricycles lie cold and abandoned, all because of
those wicked old witches7 >ets stringem all up76
4olitical $orrectness '"4$"*: A contemporary fallacy that the nature of a thing or situation can be
changed simply by changing its name. .g., "0e can strike a blow against cruelty to animals by
changing the name of Npets to Nanimal companions." or "0hat!s going on in AuKre& is not a
!war,! it is a fight between drug cartels. That means it!s not that bad."
4ost Hoc Argument: 'also, "post hoc propter hoc" argument, or the "too much of a coincidence"
argument*: The classic fallacy that because something comes at the same time or (ust after
something else, the first thing is caused by the second. .g., "A+," first emerged as a problem
during the e)act same time that ,isco music was becoming popular88that!s too much of a
coincidence: +t proves that ,isco causes A+,"7"
;ed Herring: An irrelevant distraction, attempting to mislead an audience by bringing up an
unrelated, but usually emotionally loaded issue. .g., "+n regard to my recent indictment for
corruption, lets talk about whats really important instead88terrorists are out there, and if we
don!t stop them we!re all gonna die7"
;eductionism: 'also, :versimplifying, "loganeering*: The fallacy of deceiving an audience by
giving simple answers or slogans in response to comple) %uestions, especially when appealing
to less educated or unsophisticated audiences. .g., "+f the glove doesnt fit, you must vote to
ac%uit." :ften involves appeals to emotion 'pathos*. .g., 5/oms7 +f you want to protect your
little kids from armed terrorists, vote for "nith76
;eifying: The fallacy of treating imaginary categories as actual, material "things." '.g., "The
biggest struggle in youth culture today is between #oths and mos."* "ometimes also referred
to as "ssentiali&ing" or 5Hypostati&ation.6
"ending the 0rong /essage: A dangerous fallacy that attacks a given statement or action, no
matter how true, correct or necessary, because it will "send the wrong message." +n effect,
those who uses this fallacy are publicly confessing to fraud and admitting that the truth will
destroy the fragile web of illusion that has been created by their lies. .g., "Actually, we!re losing
the war, but if we admit it we!ll be sending the wrong message to our enemies."
"hifting the =urden of 4roof. 'see also Argument from +gnorance* A fallacy that challenges
opponents to disprove a claim, rather than asking the person making the claim to defend hisHher
own argument. .g., ""pace8aliens are everywhere among us, even here on campus,
mas%uerading as true humans7 + dare you prove it isn!t so7 "ee@ Gou can!t7 That means you
have to accept that what + say is true."
"lippery "lope 'also, the ,omino Theory*: The common fallacy that "one thing inevitably leads
to another." .g., "+f you two go and drink coffee together, one thing will lead to another, and
soon enough you!ll be pregnant and end up spending your life on welfare living in the pro(ects,"
or "+f we cut and run in +ra% or Afghanistan, pretty soon all of southwest Asia will be run by Al8
<aeda."
"now Aob: The fallacy of 5proving6 a claim by overwhelming an audience with mountains of
irrelevant facts, numbers, documents, graphs and statistics that they cannot be e)pected to
understand. This is a corrupted argument from logos. "ee also, ">ying with "tatistics."
"traw /an 'also "The "traw 4erson"*: The fallacy of setting up a phony version of an
opponent!s argument, and then proceeding to knock it down with a wave of the hand. .g.,
"-egetarians say animals have feelings like you and me. ver seen a cow laugh at a
"hakespeare comedy@ -egetarianism is nonsense7"
Taboo: The fallacy of unilaterally declaring certain arguments, standpoints or actions to be
"sacrosanct" or not open to discussion or arbitrarily taking some standpoints or options "off the
table" beforehand. '.g., ",on!t bring my drinking into this," or "=efore we start, + won!t allow you
to put my arguments down by saying !That!s (ust what Hitler would say7!"*
Testimonial 'also <uestionable Authority, 2aulty .se of Authority*: A fallacy in which support for
a standpoint or product is provided by a well8known or respected figure 'e.g. a star athlete or
entertainer* who is not an e)pert and who was probably well paid for the endorsement 'e.g.,
5:lympic gold8medal pole8vaulter 2ulano de Tal uses <uick 2lush +nternet8shouldnt you@"*.
Also includes other false, meaningless or paid means of associating oneself or ones product
with the ethos of a famous person or event 'e.g. 5Try "alsa $abria, the official taco sauce of the
-ancouver 0inter :lympics76* This is a corrupted argument from ethos.
They!re 9ot >ike .s: A badly corrupted, bigoted argument from ethos where a fact, argument or
ob(ection is arbitrarily disregarded, ignored or put down without consideration because those
involved "are not like us," or "don!t think like us." .g., "+t!s :J for /e)icans to earn half a buck
an hour in the ma%uiladoras. +f it were here, +!d call it e)ploitation and daylight robbery, but
south of the border they!re not the same as we are." :r, ""ure, the nuclear bombing of
Hiroshima killed hundreds of thousands of innocent people, but over there they!re not like us
and don!t think the same way we do about life and death." A variety of the Ad Hominem
Argument, most often applied to non80hite populations.
T+9A 'There +s 9o Alternative. Also "#et :ver +t," the "fait accompli"*. A very common
contemporary e)tension of the eitherHor fallacy, %uashing critical thought by announcing that
there is no realistic alternative to a given standpoint, status or action, ruling any and all other
options irrelevant, or announcing that a decision has been made and any further discussion is
simply a waste of time 'or even insubordination or disloyalty* when there is a (ob to be done.
'"ee also, "Taboo."*
Transfer: A corrupt argument from ethos, falsely associating a famous person or thing with an
unrelated standpoint 'e.g. putting a picture of #eorge 0ashington on an advertisement for
mattresses or using #enghis Jhan 'a /ongol* as the name of a $hinese restaurant, or using
the Te)as flag to sell cars or pickups that were made in ,etroit, Jansas $ity or Jyoto*..
Tu <uo%ue 'also Two 0rongs /ake a ;ight*: The fallacy of defending a shaky or false
standpoint or e)cusing one!s own bad action by pointing out that one!s opponent!s acts or
personal character are also open to %uestion, or even worse. .g., ""ure, we may have tortured
prisoners of war, but we didn!t cut off heads off like they do7" A corrupt argument from ethos.
;elated to the ;ed Herring and to the Ad Hominem Argument.
0e Have to ,o "omething: The dangerous contemporary fallacy that in moments of crisis one
must do something, anything, at once, even if it is an overreaction, is totally ineffective or makes
the situation worse, rather than "(ust sitting there doing nothing." '.g., "=anning air passengers
from carrying nail clippers probably does nothing to deter potential hi(ackers, but we have to do
something to respond to this crisis7"* This is often a corrupted argument from pathos.
0here theres smoke, theres fire 'also Hasty $onclusion, Aumping to a $onclusion*. The
dangerous fallacy of %uickly drawing a conclusion andHor taking action without sufficient
evidence. .g., 5/y neighbor Aaminder "ingh wears a long beard and a turban and speaks a
funny language. 0here there!s smoke there!s fire. This is war, our country is in danger, and
thats all the evidence we need to string him up76 A variety of the 5Aust in $ase6 fallacy.