118

Chator 3
FourIor SorIos and IntograIs
Wc lavc slown ilc sci of fnnciions 1, sin

, cos

arc cigcnfnnciions
wlicl arc orilogonal on ilc inicrval (1, 1). A fnnciion )(a) is callco piccc-
wisc smooil on an inicrval if ilc inicrval can hc hrokcn np inio scciions sncl
ilai on cacl scciion ilc fnnciion is coniinnons ano iis ocrivaiivc )

(a) is also
coniinnons. Jlc ahovc sci of orilogonal fnnciions can hc nsco in a scrics io
rcprcscni picccwisc smooil fnnciions )(a) ovcr ilc inicrval (1, 1). Jlc scrics
las ilc form
)(a) = a

_
a

cos
na
1
/

sin
na
1
_
(8.1)
ano is callco a Ionricr irigonomciric scrics rcprcscniaiion of ilc fnnciion )(a)
on ilc inicrval (1, 1). Jlc consianis a

, a

, /

arc callco ilc Ionricr cocmcicnis

of ilc scrics. Using ilc orilogonaliiy propcriics of ilc cigcnfnnciions, cqnaiions
(2.29)(a) ano (2.29)(h), wc calcnlaic ilcsc Ionricr cocmcicnis as follows. In-
icgraic all icrms in cqnaiion (3.1) ovcr ilc inicrval (1, 1). Jlc orilogonaliiy
propcriics of ilc ahovc sci givcs ilc a

cocmcicni as an inncr proonci oivioco

hy a norm sqnarco
a

=
(), 1)
1

=
1
21
_

)(a) da. (8.2)

Jlc cocmcicni a

rcprcscnis ilc avcragc valnc of ilc fnnciion )(a) ovcr ilc in-
icrval (1, 1). Now mnliiply hoil siocs of cqnaiion (3.1) hy cos

ano inicgraic
ovcr ilc inicrval (1, 1). Wc nno ilc cocmcicnis a

arc givcn hy an inncr proonci

oivioco hy a norm sqnarco
a

=
(), cos

)
cos

=
1
1
_

)(a) cos nada n = 1, 2, 8, . . . (8.8)

Hcrc cacl a

rcprcscnis ilc avcragc of ilc fnnciion 2)(a) cos

ovcr ilc inicrval

(1, 1). Iinally, if wc mnliiply hoil siocs of cqnaiion (3.1) hy sin

ano inicgraic
ovcr ilc inicrval (1, 1). Wc nno ilc Ionricr cocmcicnis /

arc also givcn hy an

inncr proonci oivioco hy a norm sqnarco
/

=
(), sin

)
sin

=
1
1
_

)(a) sin
na
1
da n = 1, 2, 8, . . . (8.4)
Hcrc cacl /

rcprcscnis ilc avcragc of ilc fnnciion 2)(a) sin

ovcr ilc inicrval

(1, 1).
114
Iignrc 3-1. Ionricr irigonomciric rcprcscniaiion of ilc fnnciion c

,
nsing 3 icrms of scrics, iogcilcr wiil ilc fnnciion c

.
ExanpIe 3-1. (FourIer SerIes.)
Iino ilc Ionricr irigonomciric scrics rcprcscniaiion of ilc fnnciion )(a) = c

ovcr
ilc inicrval (1, 1).
SoIutIon: Jlc Ionricr cocmcicnis arc calcnlaico from ilc rclaiions
a

=
(c

, 1)
1

=
1
21
_

da =
1
1
sinl1
a

=
(c

, cos

)
cos

=
1
1
_

cos
na
1
da =
21(1)

sinl1
1

=
1
1
_

sin
na
1
da =
2n(1)

sinl1
1

wlicl givcs ilc Ionricr irigonomciric scrics rcprcscniaiion of c

as
c

=
sinl1
1

_
21(1)

sinl1
1

cos
na
1

2n(1)

sinl1
1

sin
na
1
_
(8.)
Jlc ngnrc 3-1 illnsiraics a graplical rcprcscniaiion of iwo cnrvcs. Jlc nrsi cnrvc
ploiico illnsiraics ilc givcn fnnciion )(a) = c

for all valncs of a wlilc ilc sccono

cnrvc ploiico illnsiraics ilc Ionricr irigonomciric scrics rcprcscniaiion of ilis
fnnciion ovcr ilc inicrval (1, 1) plns iis pcriooic cxicnsion. Noic ilai hccansc
ilc sci of fnnciions 1, sin

, cos

arc pcriooic of pcrioo 21 ilc Ionricr scrics

11
givcn hy cqnaiion (3.) only rcprcscnis c

on ilc inicrval (1, 1). Jlc Ionricr

scrics oocs noi rcprcscni c

for all valncs of a. Jlc inicrval (1, 1) is callco ilc

fnll Ionricr inicrval. Onisioc ilc fnll Ionricr inicrval ilc Ionricr scrics givcs ilc
pcriooic cxicnsion of ilc valncs of )(a) insioc ilc fnll Ionricr inicrval.
FropertIes oI tne FourIer trIgononetrIc serIes
1. Jlc Diricllci conoiiions for cxisicncc of a Ionricr scrics arc: (i) )(a) mnsi hc
singlc-valnco ano pcriooic wiil pcrioo 21. (ii) Jlc fnnciion )(a) is honnoco
wiil a nniic nnmhcr of maxima ano minima ano a nniic nnmhcr of oiscon-
iinniiics ovcr ilc inicrval (1, 1).
2. If a fnnciion )(a) is noi pcriooic, hni siill saiisncs ilc oilcr Diricllci conoi-
iions ovcr ilc inicrval (1, 1), ilcn ii siill can hc cxpanoco in a Ionricr scrics
ovcr ilc inicrval (1, 1). Jlc Ionricr scrics rcprcscnis )(a) on ilc inicrval
(1, 1) callco ilc fnll Ionricr inicrval.
3. Jlc cqnal sign in cqnaiion (3.1) is somciimcs mislcaoing hccansc ilc scrics
on ilc rigli-lano sioc oocs noi rcprcscni )(a) for all valncs of a. Ii only
rcprcscnis )(a) on ilc fnll Ionricr inicrval. Oncc )(a) is ocnnco on ilc fnll
Ionricr inicrval, ilcn onc-way io ocnnc )(a) for all valncs of a is io invokc ilc
rcqnircmcni ilai ilc fnnciion )(a) hc pcriooic wiil pcrioo 21. Onc noiaiion
for ooing ilis is io placc a iiloc symhol ovcr ilc fnnciion. Jlns,

)(a) is
ilc Ionricr scrics of )(a) ano las ilc propcriy

)(a 21) =

)(a) wlcrcas ilc
fnnciion )(a), for all a, ncco noi hc pcriooic (Scc cxamplc 3-1).
4. Jlc Ionricr scrics cvalnaico ai poinis a onisioc ilc fnll Ionricr inicrval givcs
ilc pcriooic cxicnsion of )(a) ocnnco ovcr ilc fnll Ionricr inicrval.
. In orocr for a fnnciion )(a) io lavc a Ionricr scrics rcprcscniaiion onc mnsi
hc ahlc io calcnlaic ilc Ionricr cocmcicnis a

, a

, /

givcn hy ilc cqnaiions

(3.2), (3.3), ano (3.4). Hcncc, all fnnciions will noi lavc a Ionricr scrics.
Ior cxamplc, ilc fnnciions

arc cxamplcs of fnnciions wlicl oo noi lavc

a Ionricr irigonomciric scrics rcprcscniaiion ovcr ilc inicrval (1, 1). Noic
ilai ilcsc fnnciions arc nnhonnoco ovcr ilc inicrval.
0. A fnnciion )(a) is saio io lavc a jnmp oisconiinniiy ai a poini a

if
)(a

) = lim

)(a

c) = )(a

) = lim

)(a

c).
Jlc siinaiion is illnsiraico in ilc ngnrc 3-2.
116
7. If ilc fnnciions )(a) ano )

(a) arc picccwisc coniinnons ovcr ilc inicrval

(1, 1) ilcn ilc Ionricr scrics rcprcscniaiion for )(a) : (a) Convcrgcs io )(a)
ai poinis wlcrc )(a) is coniinnons. (h) Convcrgcs io ilc pcriooic cxicnsion
of )(a) if a is onisioc ilc fnll Ionricr inicrval. (c) Ai poinis a

wlcrc ilcrc
is a nniic jnmp oisconiinniiy, ilc Ionricr irigonomciric scrics convcrgcs io

_
)(a

) )(a

wlicl rcprcscnis ilc avcragc of ilc lcfi ano rigli-lano limiis

associaico wiil ilc jnmp oisconiinniiy.
Iignrc 3-2. A jnmp oisconiinniiy.
8. Jlc fnnciion 3

(a) = a

_
a

cos

sin

_
is callco ilc Ail pariial
snm ano rcprcscnis a irnncaiion of ilc scrics aficr A icrms. Onc nsnally
plois ilc approximaiing fnnciion 3

(a) wlcn rcprcscniing ilc Ionricr scrics

graplically. Wlcncvcr ilc fnnciion )(a) hcing approximaico las a poini
wlcrc a jnmp oisconiinniiy occnrs, ilcn ilc approximaiing fnnciion 3

(a)
las oscillaiions in ilc nciglhorlooo of ilc jnmp oisconiinniiy as wcll as an
ovcrslooi' of ilc jnmp in ilc fnnciion. Jlcsc cnccis arc known as ilc
Gihh`s

plcnomcnon. Jlc Gihh`s plcnomcnon always occnrs wlcncvcr onc

aiicmpis io nsc a scrics of coniinnons fnnciions io rcprcscni a oisconiinnons
fnnciion. Jlc Gihh`s plcnomcnon can hc sccn in ilc ngnrcs 3-1, 3- ano
3-9. Jlcsc cnccis arc noi climinaico hy incrcasing ilc valnc of A in ilc
pariial snm. Scc for cxamplc ngnrc 3-.
9. A scrics of ilc form a

_
a

cos
na
1
/

sin
na
1
_
can also hc wriiicn in
ilc form a

sin
_

_
wlcrc C

=
_
a

arc callco ampliinocs

ano c

= aiclan(a

) arc callco plasc anglcs. Jlc il icrm C

sin
_
na
1
c

_
of ilc scrics is callco ilc il larmonic. Jlc nrsi larmonic is also rcfcrrco
io as ilc fnnoamcnial larmonic.

Soo Appondix C
117
Even and Odd IunctIons
A fnnciion )(a) is an cvcn fnnciion of a if )(a) = )(a) for all a. Sncl a fnnciion
is symmciric ahoni ilc -axis. A fnnciion )(a) is an ooo fnnciion of a, if for all
valncs of a, wc lavc )(a) = )(a). In ilis casc ilc fnnciion is symmciric ahoni
ilc origin. Jlrcc imporiani propcriics of cvcn ano ooo fnnciions will cnahlc ns
io simplify ilc Ionricr scrics rcprcscniaiion givcn ahovc.
1. If )(a) is an cvcn fnnciion of a, ilcn
_

)(a) da = 2
_

)(a) da.
2. If )(a) is an ooo fnnciion of a, ilcn
_

)(a) da = 0.
3. If )

(a), q

(a) arc cvcn fnnciions ano )

(a), q

(a) arc ooo fnnciions, ilcn an

cvcn fnnciion iimcs an cvcn fnnciion )

(a)q

(a) = /(a) is an cvcn fnnciion.

Jlc proonci of an cvcn fnnciion iimcs an ooo fnnciion )

(a)q

(a) = /(a) is an
ooo fnnciion. An ooo fnnciion iimcs an ooo fnnciion )

(a)q

(a) = /(a) is an
cvcn fnnciion.
ExanpIe 3-2. (Synnetry and IntegraI oI even IunctIon.)
Slow ilai if )(a) is cvcn, ilcn
_

)(a) da = 2
_

)(a) da.
SoIutIon: Ly lypoilcsis )(a) = )(a) ano so wc can wriic
_

)() d =
_

)() d
_

)() d.
In ilc inicgral from 1 io 0 wc makc ilc clangc of variahlc = a wiil d = da
io ohiain
_

)() d =
_

)(a) (da)
_

)() d
=
_

)(a) da
_

)(a) da = 2
_

)(a) da.
ExanpIe 3-3. (Froduct oI odd IunctIons.)
Slow ilai if )

(a), q

(a) arc ooo fnnciions, ilcn /(a) = )

(a)q

(a) is an cvcn fnnc-

iion.
SoIutIon: Ly lypoilcsis )

(a) = )

(a) ano q

(a) = q

(a) so ilai
/(a) = )

(a)q

(a) = ()

(a))(q

(a)) = )

(a)q

(a) = /(a)
so ilai hy ocnniiion /(a) is an cvcn fnnciion.
118
Jlc Ionricr irigonomciric scrics rcprcscniaiion of a picccwisc smooil fnnc-
iion )(a) is givcn hy
)(a) = a

_
a

cos
na
1
/

sin
na
1
_
(8.6)
wiil Ionricr cocmcicnis
a

=
(), 1)
1

=
1
21
_

)(a) da
a

=
(), cos

)
cos

=
1
1
_

)(a) cos
na
1
da n = 1, 2, 8, . . .
/

=
(), sin

)
sin

=
1
1
_

)(a) sin
na
1
da n = 1, 2, 8, . . .
(8.7)
In ilc spccial casc wlcrc )(a) is an ooo fnnciion ilc Ionricr scrics rcprcscnia-
iion givcn hy cqnaiions (3.0), (3.7) rconccs io a Ionricr sinc scrics rcprcscniaiion
)(a) =

sin
na
1
, 0 < a < 1
wiil /

=
2
1
_

)(a) sin
na
1
da n = 1, 2, 8, . . .
(8.8)
In ilc spccial casc wlcrc )(a) is an cvcn fnnciion ilc Ionricr scrics rcp-
rcscniaiion givcn hy cqnaiions (3.0), (3.7) rconccs io ilc Ionricr cosinc scrics
rcprcscniaiion
)(a) =a

cos
na
1
, 0 < a < 1
a

=
1
1
_

)(a) da
a

=
2
1
_

)(a) cos
na
1
da n = 1, 2, 8, . . .
(8.9)
ExanpIe 3-4. (FourIer serIes.)
Iino ilc Ionricr scrics for ilc fnnciion )(a) =
_
a, 0 < a < 1
a, 1 < a < 0
SoIutIon: Hcrc )(a) is an cvcn fnnciion of a ano so ilc Ionricr scrics is a cosinc
scrics
)(a) = a

cos
na
1
119
wiil cocmcicnis
a

=
1
1
_

ada =
1
2
a

=
2
1
_

acos
na
1
da =
21
n

[1 (1)

[.
Jlis givcs ilc Ionricr cosinc scrics rcprcscniaiion
a =
1
2

[1 (1)

[ cos
na
1
.
Snpposc wc arc only inicrcsico in a fnnciion )(a) wlicl is ocnnco on ilc
inicrval (0, 1). In ilis casc wc will noi hc conccrnco ahoni low ilc fnnciion
looks onisioc of ilc inicrval (0, 1). If ilc givcn fnnciion )(a) is noi ocnnco on
ilc fnll Ionricr inicrval (1, 1), ilcn wc can cxpano ilis fnnciion in a Ionricr
irigonomciric scrics in ilrcc possihlc ways. (i) Wc can cxicno )(a) as an ooo
fnnciion io gci a Ionricr sinc scrics. (ii) Wc can cxicno )(a) as an cvcn fnnciion
io gci a Ionricr cosinc scrics. (iii) Wc can cxicno )(a) somc oilcr way io gci
ilc fnll Ionricr irigonomciric scrics laving hoil sinc ano cosinc icrms. Jlc
siinaiion is illnsiraico in ilc ngnrc 3-3.
Iignrc 3-3. Jlc fnnciion )(a) cxicnoco io fnll Ionricr inicrval.
120
ExanpIe 3-5. (FourIer sIne serIes.)
Iino ilc Ionricr sinc scrics cxpansion for ilc fnnciion wlicl is givcn hy )(a) = a
ovcr ilc inicrval 0 < a < 1.
SoIutIon: Hcrc )(a) = a is only ocnnco on ilc inicrval 0 < a < 1 ano so if ii is
cxicnoco io ilc fnll Ionricr inicrval as an ooo fnnciion, wc ohiain ilc Ionricr
sinc scrics
)(a) =

sin
na
1
wiil /

=
2
1
_

asin
na
1
da =
2(1)

1
n
.
Jlis givcs ilc Ionricr sinc scrics cxpansion
a =
21

(1)

n
sin
na
1
If )(a) = a is cxicnoco as an cvcn fnnciion ovcr ilc fnll Ionricr inicrval, ilcn ii
is lcfi as an cxcrcisc io slow ilcrc rcsnlis ilc Ionricr cosinc scrics cxpansion
a =
1
2

2
1

_
1
n
_

[(1)

1[ cos
na
1
.
ExanpIe 3-6. (Square vave.)
Iino ilc Ionricr scrics cxpansion for ilc sqnarc wavc
)(a) =
_
1 0 < a < 1
1 1 < a < 0
)(a 21) = )(a)
illnsiraico in ilc ngnrc 3-4.
Iignrc 3-4. Sqnarc wavc
121
SoIutIon: Hcrc )(a) is an ooo fnnciion of a ano so can hc cxpanoco in a Ionricr
sinc scrics
)(a) =

sin
na
1
wiil /

= 2
_

(1) sin
na
1
da =
2
n
[1 cos n[ =
2
n
[1 (1)

[ . Jlc rcsnliing Ionricr

sinc scrics is
)(a) =

2
n
[1 (1)

[ sin
na
1
.
Anoilcr form for ilis Ionricr scrics is ohiainco hy clanging ilc snmmaiion
inocx. Noiicc ilc icrm 1 (1)

is zcro for all cvcn valncs of n so ilai only ooo

valncs of n givc a nonzcro rcsnli. If wc lci n = 2n1 for n = 0, 1, 2, 8, . . ., ilcn ilc
rcsnliing form for ilc Ionricr scrics is
)(a) =
4

1
2n 1
sin
(2n 1)a
1
.
In cxpanoco form ilis scrics can hc rcprcscnico
)(a) =
4

_
sin
a
1

1
8
sin
8a
1

1

sin
a
1

1
7
sin
7a
1

_
.
Iignrc 3-. Sclccico pariial snms for sqnarc wavc rcprcscniaiion.
122
Lci
3

(a) =
4

1
2n 1
sin
(2n 1)a
1
ocnoic ilc nil pariial snm of ilc scrics. Jlc ngnrc 3- illnsiraics somc grapls,
ploiico ovcr ilc inicrval (0, ), of somc sclccico pariial snms in ilc spccial casc
wlcrc 1 = . Jlc nnmhcr on cacl grapl rcprcscnis ilc lasi larmonic in ilc
scrics. In ilis ngnrc ohscrvc ilc nnocrslooi ano ovcrslooi occnrring ncar ilc
poinis of oisconiinniiy. Noic also ilai ilc valnc of ilc pariial snms ai a = 0
ano a = arc zcro as ilis rcprcscnis ilc avcragc valnc of ilc lcfi ano rigli-lano
valncs for ilc fnnciion ai ilcsc poinis.
Lvcry fnnciion )(a) can hc rcprcscnico as ilc snm of an cvcn fnnciion 1

(a)
ano an ooo fnnciion G

(a). Using ilc propcriics of cvcn ano ooo fnnciions wc

can wriic
)(a) =1

(a) G

(a)
)(a) =1

(a) G

(a)
)(a) =1

(a) G

(a)
Ly aooing ano ilcn snhiraciing ilc nrsi ano lasi of ilc ahovc cqnaiions wc nno
)(a) )(a) = 21

(a) ano )(a) )(a) = 2G

(a)
so ilai wc can wriic
1

(a) =
1
2
()(a) )(a)) ano G

(a) =
1
2
()(a) )(a)) .
Wc now illnsiraic low wc can nsc ilcsc rcsnlis io hrcak a Ionricr scrics np inio
iis componcni paris.
ExanpIe 3-7. (Conponent parts.)
Jlc iop grapl in ngnrc 3-0 illnsiraics ilc fnnciion
)(a) =
_
2 2 < a < 0
a 0 < a < 2
)(a 4) = )(a) for all a.
Jlis fnnciion las ilc Ionricr scrics rcprcscniaiion
)(a) = a

_
a

cos
na
2
/

sin
na
2
_