Transport o Oxygen from lungs to cells o Carbon dioxide back to lung o Carry nutrients to cells from gastrointestinal tract Nutrients diffuse from blood into interstitial fluid and into cells *Reverse this process for waste products o Remove heat o Remove waste products to lung, kidney, skin o Hormones o Drugs, vaccines o Interstitial fluid Bathes body cells Constantly renewed by blood Regulation o Maintain body homeostasis Carry substances that regulate temperature Variable flow in skin (vasodilation, vasoconstriction) Coolant properties of water pH by buffers Convert strong acid/base into weak ones Salinity, osmorality Dissolved ions Dissolved proteins o Transport hormones from endocrine glands and other body cells Control body function Negative feedback Relatively constant blood volume and osmotic pressure Protection o White blood cells (WBC) o Carry proteins Antibody molecules Immune system molecules o Platelets Cellular fragments Clotting system Seal circulation leaks with fibrinogen (interacting proteins) Prevent excessive loss from cardiovascular system
Understand and describe the physical characteristics of blood Blood o 8% of body o Denser and more viscous than water o Alkaline pH o Liquid connective tissue o ECM is blood plasma Understand and describe the components of blood Centrifuge o Red blood cells (RBC) sink (more dense) o Plasma forms layer at top o Bluffy coat between RBC and plasma WBC and platelets Haematocrit o Percentage of total blood volume occupied by RBC o Testosterone 1.Stimulate erythropoietin synthesis 2.Stimulate RBC production o Anaemia Lower than normal RBC number Low haematocrit o Polycythemia Abnormally high RBC percentage Body o *These are proportions o *Blood is about 8% body weight o 70Kg man has 5L o New born has 300mL o Circulation time is 1 minute
*Hematopoesis o Process by which formed elements of blood develop Occurs initially in yolk sac then liver, spleen, thymus, lymph node; finally red bone marrow *Most formed elements last for a short time o Replaced continuously o Negative feedback regulation *WBC number varies in response to pathogen/ foreign antigen *Red bone marrow o Highly vascularised connective tissue o Space between trabeculae of spongy bone tissue o Most in axial skeleton o Pluripotent stem cells (hemocytoblast) Red bone marrow cells that derive from mesenchyme *Formed element does not divide once they leave red bone marrow o Except lymphocytes Understand and describe the structure and function of erythrocytes and haemoglobin Biconcave discs (flattened spheres): good shape to squeeze through capillaries 8 micrometre diameter *10 angstrom= 1nm Lack nucleus, DNA, internal organelles o Not undergo cell division Originate from reticulocytes o Which derive from bone marrow Carries oxygen from lung to tissue Each cell contain 280 million haemoglobin molecules Haemoglobin o Each molecule binds to 4 O 2 molecules o Alpha-helical protein o 4 iron containing haem group Each bind to 1 O 2
Red colour due to iron o 2 alpha polypeptide (141 aa) o 2 beta polypeptide (146 aa) 150mg/ml *Adult haemoglobin is different from embryo
Describe the structure and function of the plasma proteins; serum albumin and immunoglobulin or antibody Serum albumin o 585 aa o Single chain o Main protein of blood plasma o 35mg/ml o Carrier for insoluble molecules Lipids Some hormones Synthetic drugs o Mostly alpha helices Immunoglobulin o 20mg/ml in blood serum o Heavy chain= 434 aa o Light chain= 214 aa o Only beta sheath o Recognises antigens (foreign molecules) Surfaces of bacteria or virus particle o IgG is the predominant class 12 immunoglobulin domains Binds and recognises specific antigens Mainly beta strands No alpha helices Differ only in binding site region B lymphocytes (B cells) make Ig with same antigen binding specificity Membrane bound Ig have same specificity o *Epitope of antigen bind to antibody
Understand and describe the structure and function of white blood cells
Contain DNA, nucleus, internal organelles Monocytes and macrophages o Monocytes Produced in red bone marrow Circulate blood for 6 days Migrates through capillary walls and come into tissue Develop into macrophages o Macrophages Recognise more obvious features of infections Ingest, destroy infecting material Report infection to centralised immune memory system Future reference To make molecular tags (antibodies) for more difficult to recognise infections B lymphocytes o Make antibody molecules T helper o Detective in immune system o Process, store information for infection o Respond rapidly to infection that has occurred before o Instruct others cells to take action Cytotoxic T lymphocytes o Kill target cells Infection permanently changes composition (B, T cell ) of lymph node Understand and describe the structure and function of the lymphatic system Lymphatic system consist of lymph node + spleen + lymphatic tubes Some components of blood leaves capillaries o 1.Enter tissue o 2.Transported back to blood stream via lymphatic system Most immune system associated with lymphatic system Lymph circulation allow immune system cells and molecules to circulate throughout the body o Circulate by muscles e.g. breathing o *Immobilised people have low circulation Lymph contains B cells, T cells, macrophages Plasma cells in lymph nodes Most T cells reside in the lymph node ad spleen *Lymph node is a mosaic of B,T lymphocyte clones Understand and describe how macrophages, B/T lymphocytes and immunoglobulins function to protect against infection First infection o Inflammatory response Localised swelling at infection Tissue damage Mast cells with histamine granules o Breakdown o Release histamine Attracts: neutrophils, RBC, macrophages *Phagocytosis I ineffective as bacteria are not tagged with antibodies and is not specific Local openings of capillary walls Antibody in lymph fluid accumulate at infection site Binds to bacteria More macrophages arrive at infection site Pathogen recognised by toll receptor (ineffective as it is not specific) Engulf and destroy bacteria Bacteria is recognised as they are tagged with antibody molecules Macrophages and B cells that digest bacteria Carry pieces of processed antigens on MHC-II on cell surface o Helper T cell activation Antigen presenting macrophages in lymph from infection site pass through lymph nodes Finds specific T cell T cell is stimulated Processed antigen is copied by T-cell receptor Clonal expansion Produces T cell clones with same specificity Assist B cells to produce more antibody molecules Stimulate formation of cells which destroy other cells Foreign cells Cells containing virus Now there is a much larger number of helper T cells specific to pathogen System develop memory Future infection stimulate response more rapidly o B cell activation B cells presenting antigen Finds specific helper T cell in lymph node T cell triggers B cell to differenciate into activated B cell clones which produce large amount of antibodies o B cell clonal expansion Delayed Much more effective 7-14 days after initial infection Swollen lymph nodes dues to B cell clones producing huge amounts of antibodies More T cell clones in lymph nodes to stimulate development of more B cells All bacteria is tagged with antibodies to be destroyed by macrophages and B cells Macrophage recognise constant region Bind to FC region No more infection! Antibody genesis is dangerous Correct antibodies must be made Or self destruction o Memory update Specific T cell, B cell clones remain Ready to respond to future infections Increased levels of specific antibodies in blood stream Second and later infections o Same pathogen reinfects body so immune response is more rapid and effective o There is already elevated levels of antibodies in blood Initial recognition is more likely Remove infection before it spreads o Clones of B cells, T cells Memory alert occur more rapidly Amplication happens much quicker Understand AIDS epidemic HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) causes AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) o Fatal o Incurable o No vaccine o Drugs Side effects Not eradicate virus HIV o Lentivirus (slow virus) o No symptoms until 5-10 years after infection o Transmitted via body fluids (blood semen, and milk) o It has many different strains (difficult to make vaccine) o GP120 is covered by carbohydrates that are very variable Limit spread o Education Promote safe sex (condom) Overcome political discrimination and social prejudice about sexual and drug issues o HIV testing o Distribute drugs to slow progression of disease HAART Treatment to reduce mother to child transmission AZT is first AIDS drug Binds into active site of reverse transcriptase Understand and describe the form and functions of HIV Retrovirus o RNA virus o RNA Converted to DNA Incorporated into genome of infected cell during viral replication cycle by integrase 100nm diameter Surrounded by lipid bilayer membrane containing surface proteins 2 copies of 9749 RNA genome 9 genes in open reading frame o encode 15 proteins; done by proteolysis Surface protein gp120, gp41 o Virus surface has closely packed glycoprotein molecules with 3 copies each of gp120 and gp41 o Made by proteolysis of env gene product o gp120 binds to CD4 o CD4-gp120 complex binds to other cell surface molecule o gp41 allows fuse membrane of virus with cell membrane Releases capsid Make cDNA Viral integrase integrates to chromosomal DNA (provirus) Not detected by immune system Reverse transcriptase o Make RNA DNA hybrid o RNA part is replaced with DNA to make cDNA o DNA is incorporated into host cell genome by integrase Proteinase o Small 99 amino acid proteins o Dimers o Cleaves polyproteins Combination of reverse transcriptase and proteinase inhibitors are current AIDS therapy Understand and describe how HIV causes AIDS by attacking the immune system Infection o Normal antiviral immune response o Antibodies against viral surface proteins o Tag virus particles for destruction by macrophages o Cell-mediated response removes hidden viruses by eliminating cell advertising pieces of virus proteins on MHC-II molecule surfaces o Some HIV DNA incorporated into host DNA which does not produce proteins to alert immune system Immune system cannot find DNA o Infected T helper cells activated, the incorporated HIV DNA is transcribed o HIV particles produced when immune response occurs o New T cells and macrophages are produced but infection eventually dominates o With not T helpers, body is not protected from infection HIV destroy CD4 immune system cells o T helper o Macrophages Stop immune response development